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Opportunities and
Challenges for
Multinational Enterprises
and Foreign Direct
Investment in the Belt and
Road Initiative
Isidora Beraha
Institute of Economic Sciences, Serbia
Copyright © 2022 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Bhuiyan, Miraj Ahmed, 1984-, editor. | Beraha, Isidora, 1980-
editor.
Title: Opportunities and challenges for multinational enterprises and
foreign direct investment in the belt and road initiative Miraj Ahmed Bhuiyan,
and Isadora Beraha, editors.
Description: Hershey, PA : Business Science Reference, [2022] | Includes
bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “This book is driven by
major developments in the world economy and fills the gap in the
literature by providing new insights into some of the main opportunities
and challenges faced by multinational enterprises seeking to pursue
their foreign investment activities and gain access to new markets.,
specifically focusing on cross-border investment and how multinational
enterprises are able to exploit new global business opportunities”--
Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021035391 (print) | LCCN 2021035392 (ebook) | ISBN
9781799880219 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781799880226 (paperback) | ISBN
9781799880233 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: International business enterprises. | Investments, Foreign.
| China--Foreign economic relations. | Trade routes--China--Strategic
aspects | International economic integration--Strategic aspects.
Classification: LCC HD62.4 .O734 2021 (print) | LCC HD62.4 (ebook) | DDC
338.8/8--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021035391
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021035392
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For a list of additional titles in this series, please visit: http://www.igi-global.com/book-series/advances-finance-account-
ing-economics/73685
Preface.................................................................................................................................................. xiv
Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................. xxi
Section 1
Chapter 1
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments.................................................... 1
Iulia Cristina Iuga, 1 Decembrie 1918 University, Romania
Chapter 2
An Empirical Study of Trade Status and Determinants Between China and “One Belt-One Road”
Countries: Based on the Trade Gravity Model...................................................................................... 26
Miraj Ahmed Bhuiyan, Guangdong University of Finance and Economics, China
Zhang Qian Nan, Guangdong University of Finance and Economics, China
Xiao Na He, Guangdong University of Finance and Economics, China
Chapter 3
Chinese Foreign Direct Investment in the Belt and Road Initiative....................................................... 49
Poshan Yu, Soochow University, China & Australian Studies Centre, Shanghai University,
China
Zhu Meng, Independent Researcher, China
Emanuela Hanes, Independent Researcher, Austria
Nyaribo Wycliffe Misuko, School of Graduate Studies, KCA University, Kenya
Section 2
Chapter 4
China-Pakistan Economic Corridor: A Challenging Initiative.............................................................. 81
Ijaz Khalid, Abdul Wali Khan University, Pakistan
Chapter 5
Do the Belt and Road Initiative and Chinese Investments Promote Moroccan FDI in African
Countries? An Empirical Investigation Using Panel Data................................................................... 102
Jihad Ait Soussane, Economics, Ibn Tofail University, Morocco
Zahra Mansouri, Economics, Ibn Tofail University, Morocco
Chapter 6
Impact of the Belt and Road Initiative on the Countries of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern
Europe.................................................................................................................................................. 122
Mirela Mitrašević, Faculty of Business Economics, University of East Sarajevo, Bijeljina,
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Miloš Radoslav Pjanić, Faculty of Economics, University of Novi Sad, Serbia
Chapter 7
The Impact of Investment on the Economic Activity of the Balkan Silk Road Countries.................. 144
Duško Bodroža, Institute of Economic Sciences, Serbia
Miloš Kolavčić, Faculty for Banking, Finance, and Insurance, Belgrade Banking Academy,
Serbia
Chapter 8
“Belt and Road” Initiative as a Development Chance for the Western Balkan Countries: The Case
of Serbia............................................................................................................................................... 172
Darko Marjanović, Institute of Economic Sciences, Serbia
Isidora Beraha, Institute of Economic Sciences, Serbia
Ivana Domazet, Institute of Economic Sciences, Serbia
Chapter 9
The Role and Significance of Chinese Investments in the Modernization of Railway Infrastructure
in Serbia............................................................................................................................................... 194
Danijela Stojanović, Institute of Economic Sciences, Serbia
Elena Jovičić, Institute of Economic Sciences, Serbia
Nenad Stanisavljević, Infrastructure of Serbian Railways, Serbia
Chapter 10
Montenegro and BRI Initiative: Between Economic Performance and Global Political Challenges.. 217
Nikola Martinović, Faculty of Economics, University of Montenegro, Montenegro
Nikola Milović, Faculty of Economics, University of Montenegro, Montenegro
Chapter 11
China’s Trade and Investment in the Western Balkans Under the Belt and Road Initiative: Focus
on North Macedonia............................................................................................................................ 234
Iskra Stancheva Gigov, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Macedonia & Institute
of Economics, Macedonia
Klimentina Poposka, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Macedonia & Institute of
Economics, Macedonia
Section 3
Chapter 12
Foreign Direct Investment During the COVID-19 Lockdown............................................................ 261
Karima Toumi Sayari, Al-Zahra College for Women, Oman
Index.................................................................................................................................................... 321
Detailed Table of Contents
Preface.................................................................................................................................................. xiv
Acknowledgment................................................................................................................................. xxi
Section 1
Chapter 1
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments.................................................... 1
Iulia Cristina Iuga, 1 Decembrie 1918 University, Romania
The chapter aims both to analyze and interpret the determinants of foreign direct investment by conducting
an analysis on the actual member countries of the European Union over the period 2005-2019. The
chapter consists of three parts: 1) the role and importance of FDI and theories related to FDI, 2) the
evolution of FDI in the member countries of the EU, and 3) the determinants of FDI: a case study on the
influence of determinant factors on foreign direct investment. Given that FDI is significant in terms of
economic growth and represents an important feature of the economy, the author has decided to analyze
the factors that could influence FDI. The selected factors are trade freedom index, economic freedom,
trade balance, exports and imports, governmental debt, fiscal freedom index, financial freedom index,
inflation, unemployment rate, and labor freedom index. The analysis will be performed on the member
countries of the European Union and the sample period is 2005-2019.
Chapter 2
An Empirical Study of Trade Status and Determinants Between China and “One Belt-One Road”
Countries: Based on the Trade Gravity Model...................................................................................... 26
Miraj Ahmed Bhuiyan, Guangdong University of Finance and Economics, China
Zhang Qian Nan, Guangdong University of Finance and Economics, China
Xiao Na He, Guangdong University of Finance and Economics, China
“One Road-One Belt” (Belt and Road Initiative, BRI), reminiscent of the Silk Road, is a massive
infrastructure and trade project initiated by China that would stretch from East Asia to Europe and be
recognized by the international community. Despite of criticism of this project, it is considered as an
effective tool for promoting regional and bilateral trade deals. In this chapter, the authors have pointed
out the problems that hindered the bilateral trade among countries along the route. Based on trade gravity
model, bilateral trade model between China and the countries along the “Belt and Road” was empirically
tested followed by some suggestions.
Chapter 3
Chinese Foreign Direct Investment in the Belt and Road Initiative....................................................... 49
Poshan Yu, Soochow University, China & Australian Studies Centre, Shanghai University,
China
Zhu Meng, Independent Researcher, China
Emanuela Hanes, Independent Researcher, Austria
Nyaribo Wycliffe Misuko, School of Graduate Studies, KCA University, Kenya
Motivated by the Chinese government’s foreign direct investment (FDI) promotion policies, this paper
is attempting to examine the implications of these policies to the Belt and Road (B&R) regions under
the unique institutional settings. By applying the software tool CiteSpace, which is developed for visual
analyze of science mapping (Chen, 2017), this paper aims to investigate the dynamics of Chinese cross-
border investment activities in B&R countries, taking the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor as an
example, and discuss the question whether & how these policies and activities could drive more Chinese
multinational enterprises (MNEs) to exploit these emerging business opportunities in B&R regions, as
well as investigate what is the trend of Chinese FDI in B&R.
Section 2
Chapter 4
China-Pakistan Economic Corridor: A Challenging Initiative.............................................................. 81
Ijaz Khalid, Abdul Wali Khan University, Pakistan
The chapter consists of highlighting how CPEC initiated and linked China to the Arabian Sea by the
shortest route through Pakistan. The chapter then elaborates Chinese and Pakistani relations in detail
started from the birth of the PRC to the current joint venture of CPEC. This part of the work also covers
Beijing’s short- and long-term interests for they invest billions of dollars in the war torn state of Pakistan.
Firstly, it defines CPEC in the contour of BRI that covers the regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe
including more than 64 countries of these regions with investment of trillions of dollars to maintain the
Chinese economic growth that has lasted for three decades. Secondly, with special reference to CPEC,
PRC expects the shortest route to connect Kashghar with the Indian Ocean and permanently put an end
to the Malacca dilemma. Thirdly, the study identifies Pakistan as a strong counter actor to India. Finally,
it explains their political, diplomatic, economic, and strategic interests associated to the flagship project.
Chapter 5
Do the Belt and Road Initiative and Chinese Investments Promote Moroccan FDI in African
Countries? An Empirical Investigation Using Panel Data................................................................... 102
Jihad Ait Soussane, Economics, Ibn Tofail University, Morocco
Zahra Mansouri, Economics, Ibn Tofail University, Morocco
This chapter analyzes the role played by Chinese investment within the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in
promoting outward FDI from Morocco to African countries. The authors used panel data of 29 African
countries from 2004 to 2021 and robust weighted least squares (RWLS) with m-estimation and Welsch
function. The empirical results confirmed that inflows of Chinese FDI attract Moroccan FDI outflows in
African countries because of the signal effect that these countries are “good locations” for investment.
Secondly, the authors found that joining the BRI affects Moroccan FDI positively in African countries
due to the commitment of these countries to improve their institutional quality related to the protection
of property rights and enforcement of contracts. Finally, the findings suggest that Chinese FDI inflows
and the BRI moderate positively the effect of infrastructure (transport, ITC, etc.) on the attraction of
Moroccan FDI in African countries.
Chapter 6
Impact of the Belt and Road Initiative on the Countries of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern
Europe.................................................................................................................................................. 122
Mirela Mitrašević, Faculty of Business Economics, University of East Sarajevo, Bijeljina,
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Miloš Radoslav Pjanić, Faculty of Economics, University of Novi Sad, Serbia
This research analyses the results of the Belt and Road Initiative in 17 Central, Eastern, and Southeastern
European countries that signed the China-Central and Eastern European Countries Initiative. The subject
of the research is the extent to which the initiative would provide benefits for the growth and development
of these countries. Special attention will be paid to the link between infrastructure development and FDI,
and whether environmental standards are taken into account in the projects belonging to the domain of
the Initiative. The authors analyse which areas of economy belong to Chinese investments in the selected
countries, and whether the countries have taken into account strategically important investments for the
society and the country’s economy. One of the goals of the research will be whether in the previous
period the countries regularly settled their debts to China and how the COVID-19 crisis has had an
impact on debt repayment.
Chapter 7
The Impact of Investment on the Economic Activity of the Balkan Silk Road Countries.................. 144
Duško Bodroža, Institute of Economic Sciences, Serbia
Miloš Kolavčić, Faculty for Banking, Finance, and Insurance, Belgrade Banking Academy,
Serbia
The aim of this chapter is to examine the impact of investment in research and development on economic
growth, as well as the nature of the impact of trade openness and foreign direct investment on extended
Balkan Silk Road economies. The authors used the general econometric specification of the regression
panel model and for the period from 2002 to 2018. The results showed that expenditures on research
and development and trade openness have a significant positive effect on the gross domestic product of
the countries with lower GDP per capita, while foreign direct investment in these countries has a neutral
and nonsignificant impact on gross domestic product. For the countries with higher GDP per capita,
expenditures on research and development have a marginally negative effect on the gross domestic
product. Trade openness is significantly positive, while foreign direct investments have a significant but
neutral effect on the gross domestic product. The main limitations of the research are the use of data on
total R&D investment and foreign trade relations instead of sectoral.
Chapter 8
“Belt and Road” Initiative as a Development Chance for the Western Balkan Countries: The Case
of Serbia............................................................................................................................................... 172
Darko Marjanović, Institute of Economic Sciences, Serbia
Isidora Beraha, Institute of Economic Sciences, Serbia
Ivana Domazet, Institute of Economic Sciences, Serbia
Foreign direct investment (FDI) is a very important element of economic integration because it creates an
opportunity for accelerated development, technological innovation, and corporate restructuring. Western
Balkan countries mainly focused their activities on attracting investments from EU countries. However,
as investments from these countries have been reduced recently, the countries of the Western Balkans
have opened their markets to incoming Chinese investments. Serbia is currently the first country in the
Western Balkans. Based on the inflow of Chinese investments, and in the coming period, we can expect
a trend of intensive growth of Chinese investments related to the “Belt and Road” Initiative, which will
lead to additional development of the Serbian economy. The main subject of this research focuses on the
distribution of Chinese investments on a global scale, as well as the importance of the “Belt and Road”
Initiative for both multinational companies and recipient countries of Western Balkans, with special
reference to Serbia.
Chapter 9
The Role and Significance of Chinese Investments in the Modernization of Railway Infrastructure
in Serbia............................................................................................................................................... 194
Danijela Stojanović, Institute of Economic Sciences, Serbia
Elena Jovičić, Institute of Economic Sciences, Serbia
Nenad Stanisavljević, Infrastructure of Serbian Railways, Serbia
The subject of the research is Chinese investments in the modernization and reconstruction of railway
infrastructure in Serbia, with a focus on the construction of the Belgrade-Budapest high-speed rail line
up to 200 km/h, on the sections Belgrade-Stara Pazova and Novi Sad-Subotica-Kelebija. The research
aims to analyze the impact of Chinese investment projects on the railway infrastructure in Serbia and
examine the effects of projects’ implementation at different levels, including the challenges they face. The
analysis covers the traffic, technical-technological and financial aspects of the project. The importance of
building a high-speed railway through Serbia, but also of the shortest railway connection from Western
and Central Europe in the countries of Southern Europe and the Middle and the Far East, is considered,
especially in the context of the cooperation within the BRI. The research results are the presentation of
the effects railway infrastructure projects have on the development of Serbian economy, as well as the
challenges that arise during the implementation process.
Chapter 10
Montenegro and BRI Initiative: Between Economic Performance and Global Political Challenges.. 217
Nikola Martinović, Faculty of Economics, University of Montenegro, Montenegro
Nikola Milović, Faculty of Economics, University of Montenegro, Montenegro
The focus of this chapter is the analysis of economic relations between Montenegro and China and the
implications that the intensified economic cooperation may have on the political, regional, and global
levels. Special attention is paid to the construction of the priority section of the Bar-Boljare highway
and the financial arrangement concluded on those grounds between Montenegro and the Chinese Exim
Bank. China’s presence in the Western Balkans has gained importance recently through the Belt and
Road Initiative project. Therefore, this chapter seeks to answer how Montenegro can use all the benefits
of this initiative to strengthen its national economy and increase its citizens’ living standards. That can
be crucial as Montenegro is facing economic consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic, and FDI inflows
are a precondition to reduce the infrastructure gap within the convergence criteria in the EU accession
process.
Chapter 11
China’s Trade and Investment in the Western Balkans Under the Belt and Road Initiative: Focus
on North Macedonia............................................................................................................................ 234
Iskra Stancheva Gigov, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Macedonia & Institute
of Economics, Macedonia
Klimentina Poposka, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Macedonia & Institute of
Economics, Macedonia
The China Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and the 17+1 cooperation platform, as an integral part of it,
is the key framework for China’s foreign policy towards most parts of the world, including the Western
Balkans (WB). Through its global initiative and cooperation platform, China creates a range of opportunities
for facilitating trade and increasing export, financial integration and greater Chinese investment, major
infrastructure projects, as well as their funding. This chapter analyzes the real situation regarding these
aspects in the WB countries, especially focused on North Macedonia. The analysis indicates that there
has been some progress in co-operation, but the WB countries (excluding Serbia) have failed to maximize
their interests either in bilateral co-operation or in the framework of the BRI initiative and the 17+1
platform. Conclusively, despite all the great expectations, the trade exchange, Chinese investments, and
the realized infrastructure projects do not reach a significant level.
Section 3
Chapter 12
Foreign Direct Investment During the COVID-19 Lockdown............................................................ 261
Karima Toumi Sayari, Al-Zahra College for Women, Oman
Foreign direct investment has been proven to be an essential element in stimulating economic growth
in developing countries. Foreign direct investment has several benefits: the transfer of technology and
knowledge, improving management capacity, increasing employment, improving competitiveness, and
achieving a favorable balance of payments. Because of these advantages, countries are keen to attract
more FDI. In this sense, the authors assess the extent to which the lockdown during the COVID-19
era may have affected FDI inflows. In addition, they explore the new role played by foreign investment
promotion agencies in terms of updating FDI policies and implementing new ones—digital policies—to
boost FDI entry.
Index.................................................................................................................................................... 321
xiv
Preface
INTRODUCTION
In a comprehensive and multidisciplinary manner, the book Opportunities and Challenges for Multinational
Enterprises and Foreign Direct Investment in the Belt and Road Initiative brings together the findings
of research on the role of multinational companies on foreign direct investment flows and their effects
on international trade and economic growth in selected countries. The findings from authors worldwide
contribute significantly to answering many of the issues that surround the project as the world’s largest
global infrastructure development strategy, with implications for politics, economics, and society.
China initiated a global development strategy named Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2013. Multiple
infrastructure projects to connect Eurasian markets with China by train and sea are part of the plan,
which would connect at least 71 nations and involve investments worth more than USD 1 trillion by 2027
(Li, Liu & Qian, Li, Liu, et al., 2019; Macaes, 2018). Participation in the Initiative by host nations has
demonstrable economic benefits. Many BRI nations, especially the tiny, landlocked, and unstable ones,
have significant infrastructure shortfalls, resulting in inadequate integration into regional and global
markets (Ruta et al., 2019).
The BRI establishes significant connectivity networks, including a complex network of aviation
e-services and trade network systems. It has promoted economic and financial development in regions
covered by the BRI in infrastructure construction and interconnection and attracted significant foreign
direct investment flows. At the bottom of the escalation of the China-US trade dispute is a more fun-
damental shift where China has become the US’s strategic competitor, and political-economic tensions
have continued to climb.
The book Opportunities and Challenges for Multinational Enterprises and Foreign Direct Investment
in the Belt and Road Initiative analyzes the opportunities and challenges of multinational enterprises
(MNEs) and cross-border foreign investment transactions. BRI will assist the Chinese economy by utilizing
the benefits of liberalized trade in products, services, capital, and public procurement. Simultaneously,
it will bring about significant changes in international business, such as by encouraging business-to-
business (B2B) and peer-to-peer (P2P) collaboration (Visvizi et al.,2019). It will also impact outbound
foreign direct investment trends (OFDI). In the BRI, geography plays a role, as does geopolitics. Given
the far-reaching consequences that BRI is anticipated to have in business, economics, society, and politics,
it is critical to define and simplify the debate to identify the essential processes and causal links. From
these various perspectives, it is necessary to examine the FDI status of the multinational companies
(MNCs) in BRI regions.
Preface
The following chapters and valuable references adopt an economic and international business per-
spective to address these issues and present novel and state-of-the-art research insights into the role of
MNEs and their influence on the Silk Road Economic Belt. This book covers economic determinants,
foreign direct investment promotion policies, and the trade gravity model. These premier reference
sources are excellent resources for business leaders and CEOs, policymakers, geopolitical experts, poli-
ticians, government officials, sociologists, libraries, students, higher education educators, researchers,
and academicians interested in the BRI and its implications for economic development.
This book included the following topics:
The book is organized into 12 chapters. A brief description of each of the chapters follows:
The first chapter aims to analyze and interpret the determinants of foreign direct investment by analyz-
ing the actual member countries of the European Union over the period 2005-to 2019. The chapter will
consist of three parts:1. The role and importance of FDI & theories related to FDI. 2. The evolution of
FDI in the member countries of the EU. 3. The Determinants of FDI & Case study on the influence of
determinant factors on foreign direct investment. Given that FDI is significant in economic growth and
represents an essential feature of the economy, this chapter analyzes the factors that could influence the
FDI. The selected elements are Trade Freedom Index, Economic Freedom, Trade Balance, Exports and
Imports, Governmental Debt, Fiscal Freedom Index, Financial Freedom Index, Inflation, Unemployment
rate, and Labor Freedom Index. The analysis was performed on the European Union member countries,
and the sample period is 2005-2019.
“One Road-One Belt” (Belt and Road Initiative, BRI), reminiscent of the Silk Road, is a massive in-
frastructure and trade project initiated by China. The initiative would stretch from East Asia to Europe,
somehow recognized by the international community. Despite criticism of this project, it is considered
an effective tool for promoting regional and bilateral trade deals. This chapter has pointed out the prob-
lems that hindered the bilateral trade among countries along the route. Based on Trade gravity Model,
xv
Preface
the bilateral trade model between China and the countries along the “Belt and Road” was empirically
tested in this chapter, followed by some suggestions.
Chapter 3: Chinese Foreign Direct Investment in the Belt and Road Initiative
The Chinese government has made the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) a national paramount strategy,
and it shows up the commitment of the Chinese government to a more open economy. It is a significant
attempt made by China to explore new forms of international economic cooperation with new partners,
thus sustaining its economic growth. This chapter investigates the dynamics of foreign direct invest-
ment in the BRI regions. The roles of Chinese Investment in BRI will be critically examined, and how
this role will strengthen the region’s green economy is discussed here. This chapter, in turn, provides
recommendations about BRI development.
This chapter highlights how CPEC initiated and linked China to the Arabian Sea by the shortest route
through Pakistan. In addition, it elaborates on China and Pakistan relations in detail, starting from the
PRC’s birth to the current joint venture of CPEC. This part of the work also covers Beijing’s short and
long-term interests that they invest billions of dollars in the War-torn state of Pakistan. Firstly, it defines
CPEC in the contour of BRI that covers the regions of Asia, Africa, and Europe, including more than
sixty-four countries of these regions with an investment of trillions of dollars to maintain the Chinese
economic growth that lasted for three decades. Secondly, with special reference to CPEC, PRC expects
the shortest route to connect Kashghar with the Indian Ocean and permanently end the Malacca Dilemma.
Thirdly, this chapter also examines its time-tested ally, Pakistan as a strong counter actor to India. Finally,
it explains the flagship project’s political, diplomatic, economic, and strategic interests.
This chapter analyzes the role played by Chinese investment within the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in
promoting outward FDI from Morocco to African countries. The authors used panel data of 29 African
countries from 2004 to 2021 and Robust Weighted Least Squares (RWLS) with M-estimation and Welsch
function. The empirical results confirmed that inflows of Chinese FDI attract Moroccan FDI outflows in
African countries because of the signal effect that these countries are “good locations” for investment.
Secondly, the authors found that joining the BRI affects Moroccan FDI positively in African countries
due to the commitment of these countries to improve their institutional quality related to the protection
of property rights and enforcement of contracts. Finally, the findings suggest that Chinese FDI inflows
and the BRI moderate the effect of infrastructure (Transport, ITC, etc.) on the attraction of Moroccan
FDI in African countries positively.
xvi
Preface
This chapter analyses the Belt and Road Initiative results in 17 Central, Eastern, and Southeastern
European countries that signed the China-Central and Eastern European Countries Initiative. Special
attention was paid in the chapter to checking the link between FDI and environmental standards in the
projects belonging to the initiative. It also analyzed which areas of the economy belong to Chinese
investments in the selected countries and whether the countries have taken into account strategically
important investments for the society and its economy. One of the goals of this chapter is whether the
countries regularly settled their debts to China in the previous period and how the COVID-19 crisis has
impacted debt repayment.
This chapter examines the impact of investment in research and development on economic growth and
the effects of trade openness and foreign direct investment on extended Balkan Silk Road economies.
The authors used the general econometric specification of the regression panel model for the period from
2002 to 2018. The results showed that expenditures on research and development and trade openness
have a significant positive effect on the gross domestic product of the countries with lower GDP per
capita. In contrast, foreign direct investment in these countries has a neutral and nonsignificant impact
on gross domestic product. For the countries with higher GDP per capita, expenditures on research and
development have a marginally negative effect on the gross domestic product. Trade openness is sig-
nificantly positive, while foreign direct investments have a significant but neutral impact on the gross
domestic product. The main limitations of the research are the use of data on total R&D investment and
foreign trade relations instead of sectoral.
Foreign direct investment (FDI) is an essential element of economic integration because it creates an
opportunity for accelerated development, technological innovation, and corporate restructuring. Western
Balkan countries mainly focused their activities on attracting investments from EU countries. However,
as investments from these countries have been reduced recently, the countries of the Western Balkans
have opened their markets to incoming Chinese investments. Serbia is currently the first country in the
Western Balkans, based on the inflow of Chinese investments, and in the coming period, we can expect
a trend of intensive growth of Chinese investments related to the “Belt and Road” Initiative, which will
lead to additional development of the Serbian economy. The main subject of this chapter focuses on the
distribution of Chinese investments on a global scale and the importance of the “Belt and Road” Initia-
tive for both multinational companies and recipient countries of the Western Balkans, with particular
reference to Serbia.
xvii
Preface
Chapter nine discusses Chinese investments in the modernization and reconstruction of railway infra-
structure in Serbia, focusing on constructing the Belgrade - Budapest high-speed rail line up to 200
km/h on the sections Belgrade - Stara Pazova and Novi Sad - Subotica - Kelebija. This chapter aims
to analyze the impact of Chinese investment projects on the railway infrastructure in Serbia and exam-
ine the effects of projects’ implementation at different levels, including the challenges they face. The
analysis covers the traffic, technical-technological and financial aspects of the project. The importance
of building a high-speed railway through Serbia and the shortest railway connection from Western and
Central Europe to the countries of Southern Europe and the Middle and the Far East is considered, es-
pecially in the context of the cooperation within the BRI. The research results show the effects railway
infrastructure projects have on the development of the Serbian economy and the challenges that arise
during the implementation process.
The focus of this chapter is the analysis of economic relations between Montenegro and China and the
implications that the intensified economic cooperation may have on the political, regional, and global
levels. Special attention is paid in this chapter to the construction of the priority section of the Bar-Boljare
highway, and the financial arrangement concluded on those grounds between Montenegro and the Chi-
nese Exim Bank. China’s presence in the Western Balkans has gained importance recently through the
Belt and Road Initiative project. Therefore, this chapter seeks to answer how Montenegro can use all the
benefits of this initiative to strengthen its national economy and increase its citizens’ living standards.
That can be crucial as Montenegro faces economic consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic, and FDI
inflows are a precondition to reducing the infrastructure gap within the convergence criteria in the EU
accession process.
As an integral part of the China Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and the 17+1 cooperation platform are
the fundamental framework for China’s foreign policy towards most parts of the world, including the
Western Balkan (WB). Through its global initiative and cooperation platform, China creates opportu-
nities for facilitating trade and increasing export, financial integration, and more significant Chinese
investment, major infrastructure projects, and their funding. This chapter analyzes the actual situation
regarding these aspects in the WB countries, primarily focusing on North Macedonia. The analysis
indicates that there has been some progress in cooperation. But the WB countries (excluding Serbia)
have failed to maximize their interests either in bilateral collaboration or in the framework of the BRI
initiative. Conclusively, despite all the great expectations, the trade exchange, Chinese investments, and
the realized infrastructure projects do not reach a significant level.
xviii
Preface
Foreign Direct Investment has been proved essential in stimulating economic growth in developing coun-
tries. Foreign Direct Investment has several benefits: transferring technology and knowledge, improving
management capacity, increasing employment, improving competitiveness, and achieving a favorable
balance of payments. Because of these advantages, countries are keen to attract more FDI. In this sense,
this chapter analyzes to what extent lockdown during COVID 19 era may have affected FDI inñows. In
addition, it explored the new role of Foreign Investment Promotion agencies in updating FDI policies
and implementing new ones- Digital policies- to boost FDI entry.
CONCLUSION
The Belt and Road Initiative provides prospects for cooperation and development for all countries. Today,
it is the largest platform for foreign direct investment, creating political, economic, and social develop-
ment potentials. MNCs are eager to cooperate with Chinese companies to expand further in the Belt
and Road markets, bringing their technology and global reach to the table. MNCs participate in the BRI
by forming partnerships with Chinese businesses. As a result of this collaboration, MNCs and Chinese
companies will be able to fully exploit their respective advantages, resulting in a superior outcome.
Research on potential opportunities and challenges faced by MNCs, the status of their investments and
effects on international trade and economic growth in host countries is becoming increasingly valuable
for forming future investment promotion policies, given the increasing importance of the role they play
in the development of the global trade network.
This book adds to our understanding of the nature of BRI and its ties to the foreign direct investment
of multinational companies. Because many of the countries along the BRI are developing, the book
focuses on the potential for international companies to contribute to their infrastructure development,
trade expansion, and economic growth through foreign direct investment. A unique and comprehensive
approach and valuable guidelines for further research and policymaking in investment promotion and
economic development are provided by a multidisciplinary perspective on this current topic and insight
into the findings of research in different countries.
Isidora Beraha
Institute of Economic Sciences, Serbia
xix
Preface
REFERENCES
Li, J., Liu, B., & Qian, G. (2019). The Belt and Road Initiative, cultural friction and ethnicity: Their
effects on the export performance of SMEs in China. Journal of World Business, 54(4), 350–359.
doi:10.1016/j.jwb.2019.04.004
Macaes, B. (2018). Belt and road: A Chinese world order. C Hurst US & Co.
Ruta, M., Dappe, M. H., Lall, S., Zhang, C., Constantinescu, C., Lebrand, M., Mulabdic, A., & Churchill,
E. (2019). Belt and Road Economics: Opportunities and risks of transport corridors. World Bank Pub-
lications.
Visvizi, A., Lytras, M. D., & Jin, P. (2019). Belt and Road Initiative (BRI): New forms of international
and cross-industry collaboration for sustainable growth and development. Sustainability, 12(1), 193.
doi:10.3390u12010193
xx
xxi
Acknowledgment
We would like to thank IGI global Publishing for giving us this opportunity to handle this project. We thank
Katie McLoughlin (Assistant Development Editor-Book, Development, IGI Global) for her continuous
support. We also thank the whole IGI Global Publishing team members involved in the entire process.
We want to acknowledge the help of all the authors who have contributed and shared their knowledge
with us. In addition, our gratitude and warm regards go to all of the reviewers that took part in the review
process. Without their support, this book would not have become a reality.
We wish to acknowledge the valuable contributions of the reviewers regarding the improvement of
quality, coherence, and content presentation of chapters. The authors also served as referees; we highly
appreciate their double task.
Section 1
1
Chapter 1
The Influence of Determinant
Factors on Foreign
Direct Investments
Iulia Cristina Iuga
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2831-3055
1 Decembrie 1918 University, Romania
ABSTRACT
The chapter aims both to analyze and interpret the determinants of foreign direct investment by conduct-
ing an analysis on the actual member countries of the European Union over the period 2005-2019. The
chapter consists of three parts: 1) the role and importance of FDI and theories related to FDI, 2) the
evolution of FDI in the member countries of the EU, and 3) the determinants of FDI: a case study on the
influence of determinant factors on foreign direct investment. Given that FDI is significant in terms of
economic growth and represents an important feature of the economy, the author has decided to analyze
the factors that could influence FDI. The selected factors are trade freedom index, economic freedom,
trade balance, exports and imports, governmental debt, fiscal freedom index, financial freedom index,
inflation, unemployment rate, and labor freedom index. The analysis will be performed on the member
countries of the European Union and the sample period is 2005-2019.
INTRODUCTION
The financial markets have evolved into a more integrated framework, globally, because of increasing
liberalization of exchange controls and market access. This integration, enhanced by increased competi-
tion among market players, has led to the introduction of new financial instruments with wide market
access and lower transaction costs, therefore attracting investors of numerous nationalities and countries
(economies).
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is a key element in this rapidly evolving international economic
integration, also referred to as globalization. FDI provides a means for creating stable linkages that serve
as bridges across economies. In addition, under the appropriate circumstances, FDI may represent the
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-8021-9.ch001
Copyright © 2022, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
impetus for the host economy to extensively promote its products to international markets. Therefore,
besides the positive effects on the development of international trade, FDI is an important source of
capital for several economies. The FDI contains many management dimensions, such as bonds, portfolio
investment in foreign stocks (Xinxin et al., 2021).
Today, the world is struggling through major challenges and a new reality, which we must face; to
this end, the present study could provide a distinct standpoint by means which to consider from a dif-
ferent perspective the dependence of macroeconomic indicators against FDI and the facets that could
add a beneficial impact on both the economic and social life. Firstly, foreign direct investments have a
vast history, being regarded as essential to economic development. Secondly, they represent a distinctive
method for connection to the economic system, including periods during which the economy comes up
against difficulties.
The paper aims both to analyze and interpret the determinants of foreign direct investment, by con-
ducting an analysis on the actual member countries of the European Union over the period 2005-2019.
As regards the objectives of this paper, they are: to acquire more in-depth theoretical concepts re-
lated to FDI; to establish the determinants of FDI; to conduct the proper analysis of the determinants;
to determine the impact produced; to carry out the linear regression model in order to determine the
relevance of the analysis and the determinants; to determine the most pertinent determinants and their
correlation with FDI.
The topicality of the subject is denoted by the fact that FDI was and remains to be an important as-
pect of both social and economic life. The concept of FDI has gradually replaced the traditional forms
of capital investment, and today, the concept refers to the contribution brought about by the association
of foreign part with a state would bring to the economy. In addition, FDI has adapted at the same time
both to detrimental contexts and to financing needs. Furthermore, FDI plays the role of accelerators for
other traditional manufacturing indicators, i.e., both for human and natural resources, including science,
technology, or even knowledge itself. FDI has a huge potential given that it can channel and enhance the
local environment, at the level of all economies, regardless of whether they are less developed economies,
in transition, or even developed economies.
This study intends to answer the question, “What are the determinants that attract FDI to european
countries?”
The paper will consist of three parts:
1. The role and importance of FDI. Theories related to FDI. In this part, the theoretical aspects of
paramount importance will be provided through scholarly literature, complemented by the role and
importance of FDI in the world economy.
2. The evolution of FDI in the member countries of the EU. This part will cover the evolution of FDI
in each EU member state.
3. The Determinants of FDI. Case study on the influence of determinant factors on foreign direct
investment. Given that FDI is significant in terms of economic growth and represents an important
feature of the economy, the authors have decided to analyze, through this paper, the factors that
could influence FDI. The selected factors are Trade Freedom Index, Economic Freedom, Trade
Balance, Exports and Imports, Governmental Debt, Fiscal Freedom Index, Financial Freedom
Index, Inflation, Unemployment rate, and Labor Freedom Index. The analysis will be performed
on the member countries of the European Union and the sample period is 2005-2019.
2
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
For the purpose of conducting the proposed analysis was used the Eviews Program, the data were
obtained from the www.globaleconomy.com website, the World Bank database, and where it was imposed
due to the limitations encountered (data confidentiality and lack of access to some reference sources)
the data were obtained from the economic reports of the countries. Data retrieval was performed for
14 indicators (dependent variable FDI and 13 independent variables: Trade Freedom Index, Economic
Freedom, Trade Balance, Exports and Imports, Governmental Debt, Fiscal Freedom Index, Financial
Freedom Index, Inflation, Unemployment rate, and Labor Freedom Index) in all 27 Member states of
the EU over the period 2005-2019, therefore were obtained models with 405 observations. A collective
analysis of the determinants of FDI has been performed and further a detailed analysis of the impact
generated by each group on FDI has been carried out.
Regression analysis helps us to understand how the dependent variable evolves when one of the
independent variables varies, as a result allowing the mathematical determination of the variables that
have a greater impact on the dependent variable. The model is estimated with the help of the Ordinary
Least Square (OLS) method by using panel data.
LITERATURE REVIEW
FDI is an important source of economic growth, even during the most delicate moments, such as those
times when economic growth is under pressure. This is due to the fact that FDI “is complementary to
public sources of funding and provide the capital required for developing an economy, besides creating
new employment opportunities in the company which they invest, they further encourage the development
of other companies upstream and downstream; they are not only a flow of capital, but also of technology,
knowledge and organizational practices, which stimulate and generate economic growth. Foreign investors
impose their working methodology on the company they develop and bring new technologies to, which
increase both employees’ efficiency and the company’s competitiveness. These beneficial outcomes are
spreading throughout the chain of enterprises involved in the production of a certain product or service,
whereas enterprises that adapt to survive on the market are characterized by long-term stability. What
defines FDI is precisely the sustainable interest of the investors in the company in which they invest.
On that account, an investor who lied down the foundation of a new company will not easily relinquish
their investments even during turbulent economic times. (Horobeț and Popovici, 2017)
The role of investments in an economy is a major one. They belong to the category of factors of
paramount importance that significantly contribute to economic growth. Numerous studies argue and
demonstrate that they generate positive effects on the entire socio-economic sphere.(Chowdhury &
Mavrotas, 2006; Hansen & Rand, 2006; Blonigen, 2005; Crescenzi et al., 2021; Munir & Ameer, 2020).
The FDI concept has replaced gradually the traditional forms of capital investment. Today, the notion
of foreign investment commonly refers to the contribution brought about by the alliance of a foreign
party, commonly a transnational company, with a state that will bring to the economy of that particular
state. (Rusu, 2000)
In the broadest sense, adopted by the international community, as well as for the purpose of this
study, the concept of foreign investment contract refers to the legal relations between a state and a foreign
company, intending to carry out an investment project. As a rule, these contracts are concluded between
a country with a developing or transition economy and a foreign investor, are of a long-term nature and
3
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
commonly their object is the exploitation of natural resources, furthermore, referred in the legal literature
to as transnational investment contracts or economic development contracts (Pogany, 1992).
The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) designed a document that
defines FDI, entitled The Benchmark Definition of Foreign Direct Investment (OECD, 2008). Through
the instrumentality of the document are addressed such issues as the recognition of statistical reporting
deficiencies, the potential of considering the expansion of multinational enterprises’ business at a global
scale, and the improvement of their funding. In addition, the document also provides a set of standards
recommended to public authorities aimed at a more appropriate and statistically accurate measurement
of FDI.
Another influential aspect is that the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has adopted the recommen-
dations designed by OECD, covered in the document entitled Balance of Payments and International
Investment Position Manual (IMF, 2009) and currently, official FDI statistics comply with the OECD
framework.
In addition, after an extensive research in the specialized literature (Nepal et al., 2021; Raza et al.,
2019; Sokhanvar, 2019; Bermejo et al., 2018), we can assert that FDI represents both financial and
resources flows, which cross both the legal and economic states’ borders. They are the long-term rela-
tionship between a resident and non-resident entity and commonly involve a considerable managerial
influence from the investor’s side.
Alshamsi et al. (2015) examined the impact of inflation rate and GDP per capita on inward foreign
direct investment inflows in United Emirates over the time of 1980 to 2013. They found that GDP per
capita had a positive and statistically significant impact on FDI inflows, while inflation rate did not have
the expected sign and it was not statistically significant
Using multiple regression, Kaur and Sharma (2013) explored the determinants influencing FDI in
India. According to their findings, the key determinants of FDI inflows are trade openness, inflation,
and currency reserves. Inflation and the exchange rate both have a negative impact on FDI and GDP.
Demirhan and Masca (2008) used panel data analysis to evaluate the drivers of foreign direct invest-
ment (FDI) inflows in 38 developing countries from 2000 to 2004. The inflation rate and the tax rate
have a negative and statistically significant link with FDI net inflows.
Singhania and Gupta (2011) employed a dummy variable to account for changes in FDI policy, as
well as to trace the influence of macroeconomic variables such as GDP, inflation rate, international trade,
money supply growth, and patents on FDI inflows in India. According to the study, only GDP, inflation
rate, and scientific research had an influence on FDI inflows.
A relation of FDI can coexist between several inter-related enterprises, i.e., the relation may be
extended to subsidiaries, affiliated subsidiaries, and associated enterprises. Subsequently the establish-
ment of FDI, all financial flows (future) of the inter-related bodies, “are recorded as direct investment
transactions/ positions. (Voiculescu, 2015)
In the matter of Romania, FDI is defined by the National Bank of Romania, the National Office of the
Trade Register, and the legislation in force. According to the National Bank of Romania, FDI represents
the long-term relationship investment between a resident entity and a non-resident entity; it commonly
involves a considerable managerial influence exerted by the investor on the enterprise he had invested
in (BNR, 2014).
Reenu and Sharma (2015) used yearly data from 1991 to 2010 to perform a study on the drivers of
FDI inflows in the post-liberalization period in India, applying an ordinary least square (OLS) regres-
4
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
sion analysis. According to their findings, market size, trade openness, interest rate, and inflation are
the most important predictors of FDI inflows.
Sayari, Sari, and Hammoudeh (2018) explore the impact of FDI and the value-added components of
GDP on EF in 30 European nations throughout Western Europe, Central and Eastern Europe, and the
Middle East. The findings indicate a long-run positive relationship between EF and FDI in Western,
Central, and Eastern European nations.
Mehmet Nasih Tag, Suleyman Degirmen (2022) using the GMM-system estimation approach and a
large sample of panel data covering 19 years of observations from 127 countries, find evidence suggest-
ing that foreign direct investment is increasing in countries with institutions that ensure the rule of law,
expanding trade freedoms and reducing regulatory barriers to investment and doing business.
After examining 38 African nations, Kandiero and Chitiga (2014) discovered a negative link between
FDI inflows and real exchange rate appreciation.
Dkhili and Dhiab (2018) present the importance of EF to attract the FDI inflow and thusly achieving
economic growth.
Imtiaz and Bashir (2017) use panel regression to study macroeconomic factors to determine the
determinants of attracting FDI inflows in South Asian nations Pakistan, Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, and
Bangladesh from 1995 to 2014. They demonstrated that trade freedom, infrastructure quality, market
size, human capital, and economic freedom all have a positive and statistically significant impact on FDI.
FDI’s role is paramount due to several reasons. They are more than capital flows, representing also flows
of technology, managerial practices, organizational practices, knowledge, creators of new employment
opportunities, provides the capital required for the economies’ development, and implicitly generates
economic growth. Also, they are characterized by long-term stability and the source which economic
growth can rely on even during delicate periods when economic growth is under pressure.
The positive macroeconomic implications primarily relate to such issues as the stimulation of domestic
investments, support of both economic development and growth of capital investments, assistance to
privatization and reorganization, generation of beneficial effects on the trade balance, and contribution
to the increase of state budget revenues and further implications.
Regarding the stimulation of domestic investments, we can argue that domestic enterprises that could
gain access to the foreign investors’ distribution channels ultimately would develop an interest in increas-
ing the manufacturing capacity and improving the quality of goods produced and sold. In addition, they
can convert to suppliers for foreign investors.
The support of economic growth can be achieved through the generation of a new manufacturing
capacity, creation of additional employment opportunities, and other analogs aspects, as well by the
emergence of a new type of consumer and taxpayer.
The support of capital investments’ growth is attributable primarily to the access of foreign investors
to external sources of capital. Since they represent a direct source of foreign capital, FDI can cover the
deficit that occurred as a result of potential shortages of financial resources on the local markets.
5
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
This engenders positive outcomes on the balance of external payments. In such a manner, positive
effects are triggered on the trade balance on the condition that production is intended with priority for
exports, through the direct investors, or if it is the case, imports are substituted by production intended
for the domestic market.
In addition, as far as goes the positive effects caused by FDI on the trade balance, these emerge when
the domestic production substitutes the imports and when the foreign investors directly and with priority
intends production for exports.
As regards the increase of state budget revenues, FDI assists this aspect through the new taxpayers
who start being part of the host country’s economy.
It is also important to consider that the impact of FDI on the host country’s economy varies from one
country to another, as they can also bring about adverse effects. Considering this, studies reveal that the
lack or deficiencies in employment, competition, or bankruptcy policies play a crucial role, hence the
authorities in most Central and Eastern countries have appealed to obtain further commitments from
foreign investors on both the future of their investment and the number of employees. (Hunya, 2000).
Although the practice proved that not all commitments made have been honored, there are situations
when foreign investors have not complied with contracts they entered with national/ regional authorities,
which led to negative social and economic effects.
Consequently, we conclude that integrity, healthy and well-established principles are vital in any field
of activity, particularly when the economy and social environment are at stake.
The effects of investments can be classified into five key categories:
1. Economic effect. In an economic system, the investment activity plays a triple role:
a. in the first place, economic agents, triggers of investment actions, who implement various
investment projects, enhance their supply of goods and/or services by increasing their produc-
tive capacity and achieving additional revenues (stimulating the increase of efficiency in all
areas).
b. secondly, any investment project will cause additional needs or demands in related sectors,
upstream (suppliers of raw materials, materials, and utilities, etc.) or downstream (distributors
or consumers of goods and services provided). A chain increase in revenues will implicitly
occur for all involved economic agents, conducive to the movement of capital. Investments
are carried out in a cascading manner, involving new and new added value at all levels and
for all contributors to economic life.
c. investments ensure the improvement of the competitive position in relation to other economic
agents.
2. Social effect. From a social perspective, investments play a requisite role in employment, in improv-
ing the quality of life, in raising the living standards, health protection, environmental protection,
and in increasing the quality of the workforce.
3. International effect through increasing the level of a country’s participation in the international
economic circuit.
4. Technological effect through the acceleration of promoting technological progress and the develop-
ment of research.
5. Marketing and image effect through increasing company’s image and increasing consumer confidence
in the company’s products. It will inherently lead to increased sales and eventually to increased
market share.
6
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
A particular importance is attached to FDI since they are an important external financing source of
capital formation and, they facilitate the transfer of resources, human capital, and technological progress
across countries. In this light, they are a vital means through which the transition economies can promote
both economic growth and the development of the entire socio-economic environment.
Theories of FDI
Although foreign direct investment cannot be regarded as a recent economic phenomenon, as they are
also associated with the Industrial Revolution, they have been ignored by economic theory until the late
1950s. The volume of foreign direct investment has considerably increased globally at an accelerated
rate, “from $ 13.3 billion in 1970 to $ 51.1 in 1980, $ 208 billion ten years later and $ 1414 billion in
2020 (Jones, 1996). In this sense, the literature has initiated the persistent and sustained development
of this aspect of the economy.
With respect to the classical theories on international trade and the report of the specialized litera-
ture, we can argue that they have been developed, relating more to FDI and the international movement
of factors of productions. In this regard, the development of international trade has been attached to
the factor endowment theory (Helpman 1984) and the specific factor models (Markusen and Venables
1998). Given that these theories delineate the idea of imperfect competition and product differentiation,
they also apply to FDI.
In the same manner, classical location theory (Weber 1909) may be attributed to FDI given that the
optimal location for a company is to establish the production process in the area that accounts for the
lowest cost. As maintained by Hanink (1997), and according to classical location theory, FDI indicates
potential, when the low-cost factor of production is located in another country.
The international investment development model carried out by Dunning (1993) is incorporated into
the theories related to FDI, it establishes bridges between the outflows and inputs of investments relating
to the stage of development of a certain country’s economy. Conform to this model, the economy grows as
the flow of outputs exceeds that of inputs. The positive and negative flow is strongly influenced by both
the politico-economic system and the level of the global economic integration of that country’s economy.
Given the model developed by Dunning, the evolution of FDI in Romania indicates that until the years
1998-1999, Romania has attracted modest flows of foreign investments, compared to its economic po-
tential, approximately $ 1 billion, whereas Romania’s investments abroad were insignificant ($11 million
in 2020). This aspect as was about to change over the period 2004-2008, Romania scored a remarkable
evolution attracting annual direct investment flows of over €5 billion (in 2006 and 2006 even over € 9
billion), whereas Romanian investment abroad remained extremely low (Voiculescu, 2015). Although,
starting with the year 2009, given the global financial crisis and its inherently effects, the FDI attracted
in Romania have considerably decreased.
The study conducted by Hymer (1976) predicts that the increasing risk and the added costs involved
in managing a business from distance, the affiliated companies (transnational companies) must earn
higher profits than those made in the country of origin. In such a manner, the competitive advantage
of a transnational company is transferred abroad, a position that is incredibly difficult to be obtained
by domestic companies. Although the economics of industrial organization reinforces that the specific
advantages of a company and its adopted strategies may lead to the preservation and increase of market
share, those industries employ a certain proportion of factors of production which are most appropriate
to the country that provides that combination. However, the economics of industrial organization fo-
7
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
cuses primarily on strategic aspects and company-specific advantages and less on country-level factors
(Voiculescu, 2015). Other theories assist the ideas found in Hymers’s study, namely the transition cost
theory, the product life cycle theory, and the eclectic theory.
The transition cost theory developed by Williamson (1975) has its origins in Coase’s theory (1937),
it indicates the importance of trade for enterprises, which is a beneficial element as through it they can
avoid the costs related to the non-recognition of markets. As such, FDI constitutes more than a plain
form of capital induction, by expanding on a large scale, internationally, the management of control over
affiliated structures abroad.
Vernon (1966), since the mid-60s developed the product lifecycle theory, improving it afterward. The
theory explains the geographical process of locating production units. Comprises four stages of devel-
opment. In the first stage of the life cycle, new products are introduced by the company that holds the
technological supremacy in a location where it can gain advantages from the agglomeration of economies.
The foreign demand for that product is met through export. In the second stage, the company begins
to establish production units abroad as it identifies the opportunity of cost reduction through foreign
direct investments or if its position on the market starts to be threatened. As a rule, the first production
unit abroad is planned to be established in a country with a high level of income. In the third stage, the
newly established production unit sells the products on the host country’s markets and exports them to
the home country market. The production unit in the country of origin produces and sells the products
for exports to third countries. In the fourth stage, the production unit in the host country expands its
exports to third countries. When the technological advance is lost and the product peaks the maturity
stage, the production units would be relocated to a location with low production costs, from where the
products will be exported to the country of origin as well. (Voiculescu, 2015).
Dunning (1993) has attempted to combine various theories on foreign direct investment, as a re-
sult, has emerged the eclectic theory, which is based on the idea that foreign companies do not hold
information as useful as possessed by domestic companies. As such, FDI will be channeled towards the
implementation of production units. This is feasible only if they have certain advantages (for instance,
ownership, locational, internalization advantages).
In addition, in the scholarly literature, we find microeconomic theories related to FDI.
The theory of the internationalization of the firm developed by Luostarinen (1979) explains the
internationalization process of the firm through the following fourth stages: beginning, development,
growth, and maturity. FDI can also be regarded from the point of view of being the result of a company’s
growth. Therefore, the theory of internationalization formulated by Luostarinen is similar to the theory
developed by Hakanson (1979) that explains the way a company is developing, raising from a single
production unit to a transnational company.
In the scholarly literature, we also find the classical theories of industrial location, which is explained
the regional distribution of FDI. Into account are taken the wages, infrastructure, and transport costs,
whereas recent theories have strengthened the supply-demand role (Krugman, 1991). In addition, FDI
can be regarded as a catalyst for local development in the same manner that transnational companies
participate and contribute to enhancing the economic growth in host countries (Hayter, 1997). Therefore,
governments call for their involvement and interference in the decision-making process regarding the
location of the production units of transnational companies.
Hence, both the role of domestic advantages and the role of the host government which aims to
balance the differences between the real local attractiveness of the country and the conditions that a
8
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
location must meet for the multinational company to be considered attractive are considered important
(Voiculescu, 2015).
According to Figure 1, we can mention that most member countries of the European Union have experi-
enced decreases in FDI given the world economic crisis that originated in December 2007 in the USA.
A series of causes have contributed to the emergence of the crisis, yet the main cause is associated with
the collapse of the USA real estate market in December 2007. It has worsened in 2008 and this is also
denoted in the present analysis. Also, Figure 1 shows that the impact of the crisis has been immediate,
with a dramatic decrease over the years 2008-2011 in most Member Countries of the European Union:
Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechia, Croatia, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Latvia,
Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, and Spain, whereas the
effect of the crisis was delayed with a dramatic decrease later, over the period 2013-2015 in Cyprus,
Ukraine and Slovakia and even around 2006, as is the case for Finland, Sweden, and Ireland.
9
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
10
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
In addition, identical trends are noticed in the case of certain countries from geographical areas. The
crisis first was felt in the developed countries of Western Europe, its onset taking place with a delay
of 6-8 months, following after in Eastern Europe. Poland, however, is the only country from Eastern
Europe that has not experienced the effects of the crisis, moreover, recording economic growth even
during the recession in the rest of Europe. Given the “low private debt, exchange rate flexibility and the
robust domestic demand” Poland could avoid the economic downturn.
Since FDI is of paramount importance in terms of economic growth and inherently represents an impor-
tant aspect of the economy, we will analyze the factors that could influence FDI. The selected factors are
Trade Freedom Index, Economic Freedom, Trade Balance, Exports and Imports, Governmental Debt,
Fiscal Freedom Index, Business Freedom Index, Investment Freedom Index, Financial Freedom Index,
Inflation, Unemployment rate, and Labor Freedom Index.
The countries of the study comprise the actual member countries of the European Union; Austria,
Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechia, Cyprus, Croatia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithonia, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slo-
vakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and Hungary and the period analysis is 2005-2019.
The data were obtained from the Global Economy’s website, the World Bank’s database, and where
it was imposed due to the limitations encountered (data confidentiality and lack of access to some ref-
erence sources) the data were obtained from the economic reports of the countries. Data retrieval was
performed for 14 indicators (1 dependent variable FDI and 13 independent variables: Trade Freedom
Index, Economic Freedom, Trade Balance, Exports and Imports, Governmental Debt, Fiscal Freedom
Index, Business Freedom Index, Investment Freedom Index, Financial Freedom Index, Inflation, Unem-
ployment rate, and Labor Freedom Index) in all 27 Member states of the EU over the period 2005-2019,
therefore were obtained models with 405 observations.
Foreign direct investment (FDI) is determined based on the methodology provided by the Balance of
Payments Manual and The International Investment Position Manual published by the International
Monetary Fund, 6th edition (BPM6). The inflow of FDI in direct investment enterprises is the sum of
the flow of equity (equity investments and reinvested earnings) which is the direct investors’ share of
earnings in the reference period, and the value of net debts that the direct investment enterprise has ac-
cumulated in relation with the foreign direct investor/ sister companies in the same period, thus:
Fi = AC +/- Pr + D – Ca
Where:
11
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
Model
Regression analysis helps us to understand how the dependent variable evolves when one of the inde-
pendent variables varies, as a result allowing the mathematical determination of the variables that have
a greater impact on the dependent variable. The model is estimated with the help of the Ordinary Least
Square (OLS) method by using panel data.
The Ordinary Least Squares Method is the most common method of approximating a dependency
y=y(x), through an analytical function. Through this method can be obtained efficient results with re-
spect to the linear regression equation.
The empirical function is posed as follows (equation 1):
FDI = f(TF, EF, TB, Exp, Imp, GD, FFI, BFI, IFI, FinFI, Infl, UR, LFI) (1)
Where:
Analysing Table 1. with the estimation of the parameters of the linear regression model, we can see
a probability of less than 1% for Exp, Imp, FFI, IFI.
12
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
Variable Coefficient
C 35255.84
TF 615.3073**
EF -909.5066**
TB 321.6909**
Exp 119.0091***
Imp 202.1279***
GD -97.23415
FFI -342.8776***
BFI 36.87714
IFI -4.658883***
FinFI -284.1757*
Infl -252.7045
UR -600.7253**
LFI 3.058198
R-squared 0.547382
Adjusted R-squared 0.532295
Prob(F-statistic) 0.000000
(405 observations)
significance levels: *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
Source: author’s processing
However, the Ordinary Least Squares Method or “Panel Least Squares” are not always considered
efficiently (“is not efficient as a general rule” - Wooldridge, 2009) in the scholarly literature, thus we
will deepen the proposed analysis by performing Fixed Effects Method or “Fixed effects” followed by
the Random Effects Method or “ Random Effects” (Table 2.), and for assessing which one of the models
(Fixed Effects or Random Effects) is suitable to be accepted we will use the Hausman Test.
13
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
Coefficient
Variable
Fixed Effects Random Effects
C 55538.11 43622.73
TF 319.8498 -427.8664
EF -524.1746 571.7015
TB 449.5665 344.5495
Exp 188.9670 -136.1895
Imp 182.4708 217.5388
GD -142.6903 -150.5314
FFI -272.1567 -418.4290
BFI 118.7257 94.83987
IFI -132.2613 -44.88774
FinFI -191.5211 -302.2302
Infl -206.3927 -84.76413
UR -279.4688 459.4846
LFI 285.0518 69.87992
R-squared 0.631306 R-squared 0.320978
Adjusted R-squared 0.591803 Adjusted R-squared 0.298344
significance levels: *p < .05 **p < .01 ***p < .001.
Source: author’s processing
To determine which of these two models (Fixed effects or Random effects) is more suitable to be
accepted, we will perform the Hausman test. Therefore, we formulate the following two hypotheses:
Following the Hausman test (Table 3.), we can notice that after we compared the Fixed Effects Method
and the Random Effects Method, we obtained a value lower than the significance level (5%) for p-value.
On that account, we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis, namely the Fixed
Effects Method. Therefore, we will focus on the linear regression model with fixed effects.
14
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
Furthermore, through the Fixed Effects method (Table 2) we will analyze the systemic importance
indicators obtained:
The indicator Coefficient designates the estimations of the independent variables in addition to the
constant-coefficient C. The coefficient of the independent variables indicates the extent to which the
dependent variable varies, in our case, FDI. The positive or negative sign of the coefficient indicates
the direction of the relation between the variables. Therefore, the Trade Freedom Index has a positive
coefficient of 319.8498, Economic Freedom has a negative coefficient of -524.1746, Trade Balance has
a positive coefficient of 449.5665, Exports account for a positive coefficient of 188.9670, Imports have
a positive coefficient of 182, 4708, Government debt has a negative coefficient -142.6903, Fiscal Free-
dom Index has a negative coefficient -272.1567, Business Freedom Index have a positive coefficient of
118.7257, Investment Freedom Index have a negative coefficient -132.2613, Financial Freedom Index has
a negative coefficient -191.5211, Inflation also has a negative coefficient of -206.3927, the Unemploy-
ment Rate’s coefficient is -279.4688, and the Freedom of Labor Index has a positive coefficient 285.0518.
Therefore, the independent variables whose coefficient is positive are Trade Freedom Index, Trade
Balance, Exports, Imports, Business Freedom Trade, Labor Freedom Index, and the independent vari-
ables whose coefficient is negative are: Economic Freedom, Government Debt, Fiscal Freedom Index,
Investment Freedom Index, Financial Freedom Index, Inflation and Unemployment rate.
R-squared indicates the proportion of the variance with the help of cumulated independent variables.
This is one of the indicators that reveal whether the regression model is well selected. It also indicates
what percentage of the total variance for a dependent variable is caused by the independent variables.
Hence, we can notice that the value of the adjusted coefficient of multiple determination coefficient
15
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
(R-squared = 0,631306) reveals that 63.13%o of FDI is influenced by independent variables. R-squared
values range from 0 and 1, the closer its value is to 1, the better the regression is specified.
Another important aspect to be taken into account is that each time a new independent variable is intro-
duced in the regression that is somewhat correlated with the dependent variable, the R-squared increases,
but in the same manner, a degree of freedom is lost. As a result, we will also take into consideration
Adjusted r-squared which in the scholarly literature is considered an improved measure of R-squared.
Adjusted r-squared takes into consideration the number of independent variables. This aspect explains
why when we introduce a new independent variable R-squared can increase and Adjusted R-squared can
decrease, in this manner, penalizing the introduction of independent variables which do not have a major
influence on the dependent variable. In the case of the present model, the Adjusted R-squared is 0,591803,
the variation of the independent variables is 59,18%, and the difference is 40,82% being considered the
influence of other independent external variables on FDI. Since the indicators R-squared and Adjusted
R-squared have values close to 1, we can assume that the linear regression model is well-chosen.
In this light, we can formulate the linear regression equation. Through it, we can determine the impact
of the independent variables on FDI.
Linear regression equation (equation 2):
where:
FDI = 55538,11 + 319,8498 TF (Trade Freedom Index) - 524,1746 EF (Economic Freedom) + 449,5665
TB (Trade Balance) +188,9670 Exp (Exports) + 182,4708 Imp (Imports) – 142,0903 GD (Government
Debt) – 272,1567 FFI (Fiscal Freedom Index) + 118,7257 BFI (Business Freedom Index) – 132,2613
IFI (Investment Freedom Index) -191,5211 FinFI (Financial Freedom Index) – 206,3927 Infl (Inflation)
– 279,4688 UR (Unemployment rate) + 285,0218 LFI (Labor freedom index). (3)
Through this equation (equation 3), we can argue that in the case of independent variables with a
negative coefficient, when they increase the dependent variable will decrease, and in the case of variables
with a positive coefficient, the dependent variable will also increase. Therefore, when Economic Freedom
will increase by one unit, FDI will decrease by €524.1746 million, at the increase of the index Govern-
ment debt with one unit FDI will decrease by €142.0903 million, at the increase of the Fiscal Freedom
Index by one unit FDI will decrease by €272.1677 million, at the increase of Investment Freedom Index
with one unit FDI will decrease by €132.2613 million, at the increase of the Financial Freedom Index
with one unit the FDI will decrease by €191.5211 million, at the increase of the Inflation with one unit
the FDI will decrease by €206.3927 million, and in case of increasing the Unemployment Rate by one
unit, the FDI will decrease by €279.4688 million.
16
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
In the case of variables with a positive coefficient, when they increase by one unit, FDI will also
increase. Thus, at the increase by one unit of Trade Freedom Index, FDI will increase by $€319,8498
million, in the case of Trade Balance, FDI will increase by €449,5665 million, at the increase of Exports,
FDI will increase by €188,9670 million, in the case of Imports, FDI will increase by €182,4708 million,
at the increase of Business Freedom Index, FDI will increase by €118, 7257 million, and in the case of
Labor Freedom Index, FDI will increase by €285,0218 million.
Taking into account that has been selected thirteen independent variables, they will be grouped into
three large groups (Table 4.) aiming at performing a more accurate analysis of their influence on the
dependent variable, namely FDI.
As we can notice from Table 5., the R-squared value is 0,620903, which reflects the fact that 62,09%
of the total variance in FDI is due to the independent variables selected in this group. In the model
obtained from International Trade Group, Adjusted R-squared illustrates more accurately the variance
of the independent variables, it has a value of 59, 93%, and the difference of 41,07% is accounted for
the influence of other external factors (unanalyzed factors in this case study) on the dependent variable.
Following the analysis of these systemic importance indicators for the obtained model, we can
outline that the linear regression equation formulated through the Fixed Effects Method relating to the
International Trade Group, is successful, focusing on the significant indicators: R-squared has a value
17
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
of 62,09%, Adjusted R-squared has a value of 58,93% and Fisher’s Exact Probability Test has the value
0, whereas Durbin -Watson stat has 1,670232.
Table 5. Estimation of parameters for the linear fixed effects regression model.
Variable Coefficient
C 45997.81
TF 15.12790**
EF -342.2200**
TB 310.4497**
Exp 231.7319***
Imp 227.6110***
R-squared 0.620903
Adjusted R-squared 0.589396
Prob(F-statistic) 0.000000
Durbin Watson stat 1,670232
(405 observations)
significance levels: *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
Source: Author’s processing
In the case of the model obtained for the Business Group (Table 6.), R-squared has a value of 0,618661,
which conveys the idea that 61,86% of FDI total variance is caused by the selected independent variables
from this group. Adjusted R-squared shows a value of 58,695 and the difference of 41,31% represents
the influence of other external factors on the dependent variable. Fisher’s Probability Test has the value
of 0, whereas the Durbin-Watson stat’s value is 1,634546. Therefore, following the analysis of these
systemic importance factors related to the model obtained, we can epitomize that the linear regression
equation performed through the Fixed Effects Method in the case of Business Group, is accepted.
18
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
Table 6. Estimation of parameters for the linear fixed effects regression model.
Variable Coefficient
C 67295.07
GD -176.7671
FFI -295.7411***
BFI 182.1038
IFI -131.7531***
FinFI -342.0111*
R-squared 0.618661
Adjusted R-squared 0.586968
Prob(F-statistic) 0.000000
Durbin Watson stat 1.634546
(405 observations)
significance levels: *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
Source: author’s processing
In the matter of the model obtained for Macroeconomic Indicators Group (Table 7.), R-squared has a
value of 0,609011, which denotes that 60,90% of FDI total variance is attributable to the independent
variables included in this group. Fisher’s Probability Test has a value of 0, whereas the Durbin-Watson
stat has 1,604089. As R-squared reveals, combined, these three variables (Inflation, UR, LFI) have an
influence of 60,90%. In addition, Adjusted R-squared, which distinguishes a more precise dimension of
the variance of the independent variable shows a value of 57,86%, and the difference of 42,12% repre-
sents the influence of other external factors on the dependent variable.
Table 7. Estimation of parameters for the linear fixed effects regression model.
Variable Coefficient
C 10246.70
Infl -14.35475
UR -499.2693**
LFI 194.5271
R-squared 0.609011
Adjusted R-squared 0.578694
Prob(F-statistic) 0.000000
Durbin Watson stat 1.604089
(405 observations)
significance levels: *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.
Source: author’s processing
Therefore, as a result of the in-depth analysis, performed individually on each group, we can con-
clude that all three models obtained are accepted, thus the independent variables of all three groups are
statistically significant, cumulatively influencing FDI. In addition, we can notice that, from these three
19
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
groups, the International Trade Group is the most relevant in terms of systemic importance, revealing
that 62,09% (R--squared) of the total variance of the dependent variable is attributable to the independent
variables of this group. Business Group designates an influence of 61,86% on FDI, whereas Macroeco-
nomics Group indicates a value of 60,90%
CONCLUSION
Flows of Foreign Direct Investments have revealed specular developments in the last decade, having a
considerable impact on most aspects of the economic activity. It explains their inclusion as a particular
form of the factors of production, regarded as “classical”, the capital.
In the same manner, FDI act as a catalyst on other classical factors of production, more precisely,
on natural and human resources. Moreover, they also prove to affect the newly added factors of produc-
tion by the economic theory, namely, science, knowledge, and technology. Also, they engender other
complementary effects regarding the domestic capital, in all economies, regardless of whether they are
economies in transition, developed, or developing.
A particular importance is given to Foreign Direct Investment since they are an important source of
external financing in capital formation and facilitates the transfer of resources, human capital, and tech-
nological progress across countries. In such a manner, they constitute a vital means through which the
economies of transition can promote economic growth and the development of the entire socio-economic
environment. FDI remains, indeed, one of the key factors of economic growth. Empirical theories and
studies argue that the wider FDI is approached (comprising natural, human, and technological resources),
the higher sustainable economic growth the countries that invest will achieve, thus ensuring a healthy
environment for future generations.
The Eviews program was used for performing the analysis of the indicators and for determining their
influence on FDI. The models obtained allow to formulate own conclusion concerning the interdepen-
dence of factors of the economic system and to obtain significant observations for the comparison of this
model across the member countries of the European Union. The Linear Regression Model was studied
with several factors presented in this paper, removing those that were not relevant to our case study. The
selection of the determinant factors was performed after going through several specialized studies and
articles that approached, to some extent, the matter of this paper.
It has been noted that the participation analysis of a national economy to the global economy can
be achieved through economic indicators. This subject is extensive, and the methods of analysis are
numerous. Since FDI is an aspect of great importance, we decided to examine a series of determinants
that may significantly influence FDI, using the Eviews Programme. The selected determinants (Trade
Freedom Index, Economic Freedom, Trade Balance, Exports and Imports, Governmental Debt, Fiscal
Freedom Index, Business Freedom Index, Investment Freedom Index, Financial Freedom Index, Inflation,
Unemployment rate, and Labor Freedom Index) have been grouped into three categories (International
Trade Group, Business Group, Macroeconomic Group). A collective analysis of the determinants on
FDI has been performed, further has been strengthening through the in-depth analysis of the impact
produced by each group on FDI.
On this basis, we conclude that all three models obtained are accepted, thus the independent variables
of all three groups are statistically significant, cumulatively influencing FDI. In addition, we can notice
that, from these three groups, the International Trade Group is the most relevant in terms of systemic
20
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
importance, revealing that 62,09% (R--squared) of the total variance of the dependent variable is attrib-
utable to the independent variables of this group. Business Group designates an influence of 61,86%
on FDI, whereas Macroeconomics Group indicates a value of 60,90%
In the period after the onset of the global economic crisis (2008-2016), FDI record predominant up-
ward trends in the case of CEE countries (Central and Eastern European), which denotes that the taxes
imposed on foreign investors an appropriate character, and the exports can be considered the main cause
of attracting FDI to these countries.
Numerous studies argue and demonstrate that FDI produces positive effects on the entire socio-
economic sphere. First, economic agents, triggers of investment actions, who implement various invest-
ment projects, enhance their supply of goods and/or services by increasing their productive capacity and
achieving further revenues (stimulating the increase of efficiency in all areas). Secondly, any investment
project will cause additional needs or demands in related sectors, upstream (suppliers of raw materials,
materials, and utilities, etc.) or downstream (distributors or consumers of goods and services provided.
A chain increase in revenues will implicitly occur for all involved economic agents, conducive to the
movement of capital. Investments are performed in a cascading manner, involving new and new added
value at all levels and for all contributors to economic life.
From an economic perspective, investments ensure the improvement of the competitive position in
relation to other economic agents. If we consider through the lens of the social effect, investments play
a requisite role in employment, in improving the quality of life, in raising the living standards, health
protection, environment protection, and in increasing the quality of the workforce. Internationally, FDI
outlines the increase of the level of a country’s participation in the international economic circuit. From
the technological effect perspective, FDI encourages the acceleration of promoting the technological
progress and the development of research and from the perspective of the marketing and image effect,
they increase both company’s image and consumer confidence in the company’s products. It will inher-
ently lead to increased sales and eventually to increased market share.
Moreover, the author considers that is imperative to reassess the entire socio-economic perspective
since we are currently facing a new challenge of adaptation and rehabilitation, which is not occurring
accidentally in the lives of the whole world. The author considers that ethics is vital in each branch of
the economy and not only. Through education population could, indeed, evolve for the better, thus lay-
ing the foundation of a healthy framework in terms of non-formal education. If the population had deep
roots in principles, the things would truly gain honor and integrity.
On the other side, through economic „education” could be obtained further, appropriate, real and
complete professional training. In this manner, each individual would make a major contribution to the
growth and development of the entire economy, starting to be noticed in the little things and after in
greater things. Both the human and the material factor contributes to the attraction of FDI in a country,
but let us imagine what impact would have on the entire global economy, especially during delicate pe-
riods such as the one we are facing at the moment, in addition, it would have as support the culture and
more particularly the bases of moral values. In this manner, greater transparency, progress in preventing
and combating the fiscal evasions, and, at the same time, encouraging a fair and ethical approach to the
whole economic and social life would be achieved, with positive effects for both the present and future
generations.
As the study case designates that there is a variation of other independent factors external to the present
paper, the scholarly literature itself reveals the complexity of the economic growth, this phenomenon is
influenced by a multitude of factors, whose analysis and quantification of influence on economic growth
21
The Influence of Determinant Factors on Foreign Direct Investments
requires long and detailed studies. The author considers that this paper lays the foundation for potential
future research directions related to the issue approached. In this chapter, the author has managed to
cover only a small part of everything that represents FDI and its determinants.
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-
for-profit sectors.
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Chapter 2
An Empirical Study of Trade
Status and Determinants
Between China and “One
Belt-One Road” Countries:
Based on the Trade Gravity Model
Xiao Na He
Guangdong University of Finance and Economics, China
ABSTRACT
“One Road-One Belt” (Belt and Road Initiative, BRI), reminiscent of the Silk Road, is a massive in-
frastructure and trade project initiated by China that would stretch from East Asia to Europe and be
recognized by the international community. Despite of criticism of this project, it is considered as an
effective tool for promoting regional and bilateral trade deals. In this chapter, the authors have pointed
out the problems that hindered the bilateral trade among countries along the route. Based on trade
gravity model, bilateral trade model between China and the countries along the “Belt and Road” was
empirically tested followed by some suggestions.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-8021-9.ch002
Copyright © 2022, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
An Empirical Study of Trade Status and Determinants
INTRODUCTION
Today’s world is experiencing unprecedented changes. On the one hand, some developing countries
represented by China have achieved remarkable development, promoting globalization and continuous
reform of the current economic governance system. On the other hand, some powerful countries like the
United States tried to deviate from the trend of economic globalization and advocated trade protectionism,
which may hinder or even destroy the stability of the current international order. “One Belt- One Road”
initiative, in September 2013, conveyed the strong desire and determination of China to build a better
world with all other countries. “One Belt- One Road” is recognized by the international community.
Over the years, the initiative has been implemented in action. More and more countries are willing to
actively implement the “one belt and one road” initiative in all aspects of cooperation.
“One belt- One road” is an effective way to promote bilateral trade. This initiative has achieved
good results in various fields over the past six years. In terms of trade connectivity, first, the level of
trade and investment facilitation has been further improved. China has set up 12 pilot free trade zones
open to the world, and the average tariff has been dramatically reduced. Second, trade between China
and other countries along the border has increased in size. China has established bilateral e-cooperation
mechanisms with many countries along the belt and road. “One Belt- One Road” initiative will improve
the economic and trade contacts between participating countries by 4.1%, so “The belt and road” coop-
eration is a booster for expanding bilateral trade flows and achieving trade linkage. It is also a powerful
platform for countries to deepen exchanges and cooperation and participate in and actively promote
economic globalization.
China’s “One Belt- One Road” initiative is closely related to trading. Studying the trade status and its
influencing factors between China and the participating countries is significant. Since the trade situation
of China along the belt and road has been analyzed, the factors affecting bilateral trade can be broad-
ened. China’s “One Belt- One Road” trade scale, trade liberalization, better implementation of China’s
opening-up strategy, and China’s opening-up policy will also be of some reference value.
Main Contents
27
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kunnes se äkisti loistaa meidän päällämme valmistaen meille pyhän
näyn, aivan kuin silmä kärsivällisesti odottaa auringon nousua."
EMERSON.
NOVALIS.
"Ihmiset vaeltavat eri teitä; ken niitä seuraa ja niitä vertailee, hän
näkee ihmeellisiä ilmiöitä syntyvän" — niin sanoo kirjailijamme. Minä
olen valinnut kolme sellaista ihmistä, joiden tiet johtavat kolmelle eri
huipulle. Ruysbroeckin teosten piirissä olen nähnyt sielun
siintävimmät huiput, Emersonilla taas säännöttömästi kaartoilivat
ihmissydämen vaatimattomammat kukkulat. Tässä teoksessa
joudumme ymmärryksen teräville häkilänpiikeille, jotka usein ovat
pelottaviakin. Mutta piikkien välissä on viheriöitseviä painanteita ja
niissä suloisen varjokkaita kätköjä, joiden ilma alati on kirkasta kuin
kristalli.
Mutta jos hän muita todistuksia tahtoisi, niin veisi sielu hänet
niiden pariin, joiden teot liikkuvat melkein hiljaisuuden rajoilla. Se
avaisi ovet sinne, missä jotkut rakastaisivat sitä sen itsensä vuoksi
pitämättä lukua ruumiin pikku eleistä. He nousisivat yhdessä niille
yksinäisille ylängöille, missä tietoisuus kohoo askelta korkeammalle
ja missä kaikki ne, jotka ovat levottomia itsensä tähden, tarkastellen
kiertelevät sitä suunnatonta rataa, joka yhdistää näkyväisen
maailman meidän korkeampiin maailmoihimme. He menisivät
ihmisolemuksen äärille; sillä missä inhimillinen näyttäisi loppuvan,
siinä se todennäköisesti vasta alkaa; ja sen varsinaiset ja
ehtymättömät ainekset löytyvät vain näkymättömistä, missä alati on
oltava varuillaan. Vain niiltä ylängöiltä löytyy ajatuksia, joita sielu voi
hyväksyä, ja aatteita, jotka muistuttavat sitä itseään ja ovat yhtä
järkkymättömiä kuin se itse. Siellä ihmisyys on saanut hetkisen
hallita ja nuo heikosti valaistut huiput ovat ehkä ainoat merkit, jotka
maasta pilkottavat hengen avaruuteen. Niiden heijastukset ovat
todellakin saman värisiä kuin meidän sielumme. Me tunnemme
itsessämme, että kaikki älyn ja sydämen intohimot vieraan olennon
silmissä olisivat joittenkin kyläriitojen veroisia; mutta ne miehet,
joista minä puhun, ovat teoissaan edenneet intohimojen pienistä
oloista ja sanoneet asioita, jotka jaksavat kiinnittää muittenkin mieltä
kuin maallisen seurakunnan jäsenten. Meidän ihmisyytemme ei saa
myyräyhteiskunnan tavoin liikkua yksin omissa syvyyksissään. Sen
on tärkeätä elää niinkuin sen joskus pitäisi tehdä elämästään tiliä
vanhemmille veljille. Omaan itseensä kiintynyt henki on vain
paikallinen kuuluisuus, joka saa matkustajan hymyilemään. On
olemassa muutakin kuin henkeä, eikä henki ole se, mikä meitä
yhdistää maailman kaikkeuteen. On jo aika oppia tekemään ero
hengen ja sielun välillä. Ei ole kysymys siitä mitä tapahtuu meidän
keskuudessamme, vaan siitä mitä tapahtuu meissä, intohimojen ja
järjen yläpuolella. Jollei minulla tuolle toisen maailman olennolle ole
muuta antamista kuin La Rochefoucauld, Lichtenberg, Meredith tai
Stendhal, niin hän katselisi minua samaan tapaan kuin minä katselen
jotain hengettömän kaupungin epätoivoista porvaria, joka minulle
haastelee kaduistaan, avioelämästään tai teollisuudestaan. Mikäpä
enkeli kyselisi Titukselta, miksei tämä nainut Bereniceä tai miksi
Andromake lupautui Pyrrhukselle? Mitä edustaa Berenice, jos vertaan
häntä siihen näkymättömään mikä piilee tuossa kerjäläisnaisessa, tai
ilotyttöön, joka tuossa tekee minulle merkkejään? Joku salaperäinen
sana voi joskus, yksin ja semmoisenaan, edustaa inhimillistä olentoa;
mutta meidän sielumme ei noilla toisilla alueilla ole ilman varjoja ja
kuiluja; ja sinä itse — pysähdytkö siihen vakavina hetkinä, kun
elämän paino makaa raskaana hartioillasi? Ihminen ei ole noissa
seikoissa ja kumminkin nuo seikat ovat täysiä ja valmiita. Mutta
niistä saa puhua vain itsekseen ja pitää heti vaieta, jos joku vieras
illalla kolkuttaa ovelle. Mutta jos sama vieras yllättää minut juuri kun
sieluni etsii läheisimpien aartehistojensa avainta Pascalilta,
Emersonilta tai Hellolta tai niiltä joiden huolen esineenä on hyvin
puhdas kauneus, niin silloin en sulje kirjaa enkä punastu; ja ehkäpä
hän itse siinä saisi tuntemuksen jostakin hiljaisuuteen tuomitusta
lähimäisestä, tai ainakin tulisi tietämään, ettemme kaikki ole pelkkiä
tyytyväisiä maan asuvaisia.
JOKAPÄIVÄISYYDEN TRAGIIKKA.
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