Network Layer

Thursday, 15 May 2025 12:46 PM

• IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6)

IPv6 is the next-generation Internet Protocol designed to address the limitations of IPv4, most notably the IPv4 address exhaustion.
• Addressing: IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, providing a vastly larger address space compared to IPv4's 32 bits. IPv6 addresses are typically represented in hexadecimal colon-separated notation (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
○ Address Structure: While there isn't a strict classful system like in early IPv4, IPv6 addresses have a structure that includes a network prefix and an interface identifier.
○ Address Types:
§ Unicast: Identifies a single interface.
§ Multicast: Identifies a group of interfaces.
§ Anycast: Identifies a set of interfaces, but a packet is delivered to only one of them (the nearest).
○ Simplified Header: The IPv6 header is streamlined compared to IPv4, with a fixed base header size of 40 bytes. Many of the optional fields in IPv4 have become extension headers that are only present when needed.
○ Stateless Autoconfiguration: IPv6 supports a mechanism where hosts can automatically configure their IPv6 addresses without the need for a DHCP server (although DHCPv6 also exists). This often involves using Router Advertisement messages from IPv6
routers.
• Transition from IPv4: Several mechanisms are used to facilitate the transition from IPv4 to IPv6:
○ Dual Stack: Hosts and routers run both IPv4 and IPv6 protocol stacks, allowing them to communicate with both IPv4 and IPv6 nodes.
○ Tunneling: IPv6 packets are encapsulated within IPv4 packets to traverse IPv4 networks. Various tunneling techniques exist (e.g., 6to4, Teredo).
○ Translation: Network Address Translation - Protocol Translation (NAT-PT) allows communication between IPv6-only and IPv4-only networks by translating the protocol headers and addresses. However, NAT-PT has limitations and is less favored than dual
stack or tunneling.
• Routing Algorithms
Routing algorithms determine the best paths for packets to travel from a source to a destination network.
• Dijkstra's Algorithm: A link-state routing algorithm used to find the shortest paths from a single source node to all other nodes in a network.
○ Each router maintains a complete map of the network topology and link costs.
○ The algorithm iteratively selects the unvisited node with the smallest shortest-path estimate from the source.
○ It updates the shortest-path estimates of its neighbors.
○ Results in a shortest-path tree from the source router.
○ Used in protocols like OSPF (Open Shortest Path First).
• Bellman-Ford Algorithm: A distance-vector routing algorithm that calculates the shortest paths from a single source node to all other nodes in a network. It can handle negative link costs (though typically not in standard internet routing).
○ Each router maintains a distance vector containing its current shortest distance to all other routers in the network.
○ Routers exchange their distance vectors with their neighbors.
○ Each router updates its distance vector based on the information received from its neighbors, taking the minimum of the current distance and the neighbor's distance plus the cost to reach the neighbor.
○ The algorithm iterates until the distance vectors converge.
○ Used in protocols like RIP (Routing Information Protocol).
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

DHCP is a network protocol used to automatically assign IP addresses and other network configuration parameters (e.g., subnet mask, default gateway, DNS server addresses) to devices on a network.
• DHCP Client-Server Interaction:
1. DHCP Discover: The client broadcasts a DHCP Discover message to find available DHCP servers.
2. DHCP Offer: DHCP servers that receive the Discover message respond with a DHCP Offer message, proposing an IP address and other configuration information.
3. DHCP Request: The client selects one of the offers and broadcasts a DHCP Request message to accept the offered configuration (and inform other servers that their offers are declined).
4. DHCP ACK (Acknowledgment): The DHCP server that was chosen by the client sends a DHCP ACK message to confirm the assignment of the IP address and configuration parameters.
○ DHCP Lease: IP addresses are typically leased to clients for a certain period. Clients need to renew their leases periodically to continue using the same IP address.
• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
ICMP is a network layer protocol used by network devices (like routers and hosts) to send error messages and operational information indicating success or failure when communicating with another IP address.
• ICMP Message Types: There are various types of ICMP messages, including:
○ Echo Request and Echo Reply (used by ping): Used to test the reachability of a host.
○ Destination Unreachable: Sent by a router or host when a destination is unreachable (e.g., network unreachable, host unreachable, port unreachable).
○ Time Exceeded: Sent by a router when a datagram's TTL reaches zero.
○ Redirect (obsolete in many modern networks): Sent by a router to inform a host that a better next-hop router exists for a particular destination.
○ Source Quench (used for congestion control, largely obsolete): Sent by a congested router to tell the source to slow down its transmission rate.
○ Traceroute uses ICMP Time Exceeded messages to map the path taken by packets.

NOTE : ALGORITHMS YOU HAVE TO LEARN BY

YOURSELF , DIAGRAMS AS WELL
Link Layer
Thursday, 15 May 2025 12:51 PM

Link Layer
The link layer takes the datagrams from the network layer and encapsulates them into frames for transmission over a physical link. It also handles error detection and correction and manages access to the shared medium in some network types.
• Error Detection and Correction: These mechanisms ensure reliable communication over a potentially noisy physical link.
○ Parity Checks: A simple error detection technique where an extra bit (the parity bit) is added to a data unit to make the total number of 1s (or 0s) either even or odd. Single-bit errors can be detected.
§ Single Parity: Detects odd numbers of bit errors.
§ Two-Dimensional Parity: Can detect some multi-bit errors and even correct single-bit errors.
○ Checksum: A more robust error detection method. The sender calculates a checksum value based on the data and includes it in the frame. The receiver performs the same calculation and compares the result with the received checksum. A mismatch indicates an error. Examples include the Internet Checksum used in IP and UDP.
○ Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): A powerful error detection technique widely used in data link layer protocols like Ethernet and Wi-Fi.
§ A generator polynomial (G) is chosen.
§ The sender treats the data bits (D) as the coefficients of a polynomial.
§ The sender performs polynomial division of D by G (using modulo-2 arithmetic).
§ The remainder (R) is appended to the data as the CRC checksum (frame check sequence - FCS).
§ The receiver performs the same division on the received frame (D+R) by G. If the remainder is zero, it's assumed no errors occurred. CRC can detect a wide range of error patterns, including burst errors.
• Multiple Access Protocols: These protocols are needed when multiple devices share a single communication medium (e.g., in a shared Ethernet segment or a wireless network) to coordinate access and avoid collisions.
○ CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection): Used in traditional wired Ethernet.
§ Carrier Sense: A device listens to the channel before transmitting.
§ Multiple Access: Multiple devices can try to transmit.
§ Collision Detection: If two or more devices start transmitting at the same time, they can detect the collision by sensing an increased signal energy.
§ Collision Handling: Upon detecting a collision, all involved devices stop transmitting, send a jam signal to ensure all other devices are aware of the collision, and then back off for a random amount of time before trying to retransmit.
○ CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance): Used in wireless networks (like Wi-Fi). Collision detection is difficult in wireless due to the "hidden terminal" problem and the fact that a device's own transmission can overpower weak incoming signals.
§ Carrier Sense: Devices listen to the channel.
§ Collision Avoidance: Mechanisms are used to reduce the probability of collisions:
□ Inter-Frame Spacing (IFS): Devices wait for different periods before transmitting, depending on the type of frame.
□ Contention Window: Devices choose a random backoff time within a contention window. The window size increases after each collision.
□ RTS/CTS (Request to Send/Clear to Send): An optional mechanism where a sender sends an RTS frame, and the receiver responds with a CTS frame if the channel is clear. This helps to reserve the channel and inform nearby stations.
• Ethernet: The dominant wired LAN technology.
○ Frame Structure: An Ethernet frame typically consists of the following fields:
§ Preamble (7 bytes) and Start Frame Delimiter (SFD) (1 byte): Used for synchronization between the sender and receiver.
§ Destination MAC Address (6 bytes): The physical address of the intended recipient.
§ Source MAC Address (6 bytes): The physical address of the sender.
§ Type/Length (2 bytes): Indicates either the length of the data field (older Ethernet) or the protocol carried in the data field (newer Ethernet, e.g., 0x0800 for IP).
§ Data (payload) (46-1500 bytes): The encapsulated data (e.g., an IP datagram). The minimum size ensures proper collision detection in older Ethernet versions.
§ Frame Check Sequence (FCS) (4 bytes): The CRC checksum used for error detection.
• ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Used to find the MAC address associated with a given IPv4 address within the same local network segment.
○ When a host wants to send an IP packet to another host on the same LAN, it knows the destination's IP address but needs its MAC address to encapsulate the IP packet in an Ethernet frame.
○ ARP Request: The sending host broadcasts an ARP request frame containing the target IP address. The destination MAC address in the Ethernet frame is the broadcast MAC address.
○ ARP Reply: The host with the matching IP address responds with an ARP reply frame containing its MAC address. The destination MAC address in this frame is the MAC address of the original sender.
○ ARP Cache: Hosts maintain an ARP cache to store recently resolved IP-to-MAC address mappings to avoid sending ARP requests for the same IP address repeatedly.
• Switches vs. Routers: These are key networking devices that operate at different layers.
○ Switches (Layer 2 - Data Link Layer):
§ Operate based on MAC addresses.
§ Forward frames within the same LAN segment.
§ Maintain a MAC address table that maps MAC addresses to the switch ports where they were learned.
§ Perform switching based on the destination MAC address in the Ethernet frame.
§ Typically have multiple ports and create separate collision domains on each port (in full-duplex mode, no collisions).
§ Do not forward broadcast traffic beyond the local LAN (unless configured to do so via VLANs).
○ Routers (Layer 3 - Network Layer):
§ Operate based on IP addresses.
§ Forward packets between different networks.
§ Maintain routing tables that contain information about network prefixes and the next-hop router to reach those networks.
§ Perform routing based on the destination IP address in the IP packet.
§ Connect different IP subnets and can forward broadcast traffic selectively.
§ Typically have interfaces connected to different networks.
 Physical Layer
Thursday, 15 May 2025 12:54 PM

Physical Layer

The physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional specifications for activating, maintaining,1 and deactivating the physical link between 2 communicating nodes. It deals with transmitting and receiving unstructured raw
bit streams over a physical medium.
• Transmission Media: These are the physical pathways that carry the data signals. They can be broadly categorized into guided media and unguided media.
• Guided Media: Signals propagate along a solid medium.
○ Twisted Pair Cable: Consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce noise and interference.
§ Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Commonly used for Ethernet LANs. Different categories (Cat 5e, Cat 6, etc.) offer varying bandwidth capabilities.
§ Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Has a metallic shield around the wires to provide better protection against electromagnetic interference (EMI).
○ Coaxial Cable: Has a central copper conductor surrounded by an insulating layer, a conductive shield (braid or foil), and an outer jacket. Offers better shielding and higher bandwidth than UTP. Historically used for cable TV and older Ethernet
networks.
○ Fiber Optic Cable: Transmits data as light pulses through thin strands of glass or plastic. Offers very high bandwidth, low attenuation, and immunity to EMI. Used for high-speed networks and long-distance communication.
§ Single-Mode Fiber (SMF): Thinner core, used for long distances and higher bandwidth.
§ Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF): Thicker core, used for shorter distances within buildings.
• Unguided Media (Wireless): Signals propagate freely through space.
○ Radio Waves: Used for various wireless communication, including Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular networks, and radio broadcasting. Different frequency bands have different characteristics (range, penetration, bandwidth).
○ Microwaves: Higher frequency radio waves used for satellite communication, point-to-point terrestrial links, and some wireless LANs.
○ Infrared (IR): Uses infrared light for short-range communication (e.g., remote controls). Limited range and susceptible to obstruction.
• Wireless LANs (802.11)
The IEEE 802.11 family of standards defines the protocols for wireless local area networks (WLANs), commonly known as Wi-Fi.
• Basic Architecture: A basic 802.11 WLAN consists of one or more stations (devices with wireless network interface cards - NICs) and an optional Access Point (AP).
○ Infrastructure Mode: Stations communicate through an AP, which acts as a bridge to other networks (e.g., the internet). The AP is part of a Basic Service Set (BSS). Multiple BSSs can be connected through a Distribution System (DS).
○ Ad Hoc Mode (IBSS - Independent Basic Service Set): Stations communicate directly with each other without an AP. Less common for typical internet access.
• Key Standards and Characteristics: The 802.11 family has evolved through various standards, each offering different data rates, operating frequencies, and features:
○ 802.11a: Operates in the 5 GHz band, offering higher data rates but shorter range compared to 802.11b.
○ 802.11b: Operates in the 2.4 GHz band, longer range but lower data rates. Suffers from interference from other 2.4 GHz devices (e.g., Bluetooth, microwaves).
○ 802.11g: Operates in the 2.4 GHz band, offering higher data rates than 802.11b while maintaining similar range.
○ 802.11n (Wi-Fi 4): Can operate in both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands, using MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output) to increase data rates and range.
○ 802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5): Primarily operates in the 5 GHz band, offers very high data rates using wider channels and more spatial streams.
○ 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6): Operates in both bands, focuses on improved efficiency and performance in dense environments using OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access) and MU-MIMO (Multi-User MIMO).
○ 802.11be (Wi-Fi 7): The latest standard, promising even higher data rates, lower latency, and improved reliability.
• Medium Access Control: 802.11 uses CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) as its medium access control protocol, often with RTS/CTS (Request to Send/Clear to Send) to further reduce collisions, especially in
scenarios with hidden terminals.
• Security: 802.11 standards have incorporated various security protocols over time, including WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy - now considered weak), WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access), WPA2, and the current WPA3, which offers stronger encryption
and authentication.