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 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is a panel?
2. State three sections or areas at which a panel may be enriched. Give
reasons for selecting a given area.
3. Explain relation of point of concentration to each section.
4. In marginal enrichment, is it preferable to locate the point of
concentration in the center or corner of the margin? Why?
5. What is the value of an inceptive axis with relation to the unity of a
design? What is its relation to the structure?
6. Give the characteristics and use of free enrichment.
7. State the use of full panel enrichment.
8. Where may the point of concentration be located in full square panel
enrichment?
9. Name six steps essential to the designing of a square panel.
10. For what specific purpose is a vertical rectangular panel adapted?
11. Where should the point of concentration be located in a vertical
rectangular panel?
12. Draw a flower form and adapt it to a carved enrichment in wood.
13. To what uses are panels of varied shapes adapted?
14. How may artificial objects be adapted to surface enrichment?
15. Explain the term "free balance."
 Chapter XI

SURFACE ENRICHMENT WITH MINOR

SUBDIVISIONS OF LARGE PRIMARY MASSES

IN WOOD

This article is, in part, a brief summary and reviewMinor

of Rules 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b, 3c (vertical and horizontalSubdivisions
major divisions) with application to minor subdivisions. By minor
spacings or subdivisions in wood work we refer to the areas
occupied by drawers, doors, shelves, and other small parts
subordinated in size to the large or major divisions such as large
front or side panels, etc. These smaller or minor subdivisions in
wood work are bounded by runners, rails, guides, and stiles
depending upon the form of construction and character of the minor
subdivision. Major divisions are often bounded by legs, table tops,
and principal rails.
It is an interesting and useful fact that rules governing major
divisions generally apply equally well to minor ones. There are a few
exceptions and additions to be noted in their appropriate places.
When minor subdivisions are well planned they supply one of the
most interesting forms of surface enrichment or treatment, for if we
consider paneling an appropriate form of decoration, we are equally
privileged to feel that each small drawer or door adds its quota of
interest to the sum total of the entire mass. We are equally justified
in accenting these drawers or doors with panel decoration or other
forms of surface enrichment provided that harmony is maintained.
 These minor subdivisions, properly enriched, may become
equalizers, or elements which adjust the design to the character of
the surroundings destined to receive the project of which they are a
part.
With reference to the illustrations, Figure 247, PlateVertical
41, shows a simple minor panel treatment fallingSections and
Their
under Rule 3a. Single or preferably double band inlayDivisions
might have been suitably substituted for the sunken
panels. As many craftsmen are not properly equipped to produce
inlays, it is practicable to use stock inlays, thus simplifying the
process.
 Plate 41

In a three-part design it is the designer's desire toMinor

gain the effect of lightness and height by the use ofSubdivisions
of Three
Rule 3b. As a simple treatment of a three-part design,Vertical
Figure 248 needs little comment. Figures 249 and 250Major Parts
or Divisions
are examples of dividing, by means of minor divisions, the outer
sections of a three-part design.
The small drawers in the right and left sections of Figure 250
might have been improved in proportion by again applying Rule 2a
to their design, thereby varying the measure of their heights. The
enclosed panel enrichment affords pleasing variety to the otherwise
unvaried front panels. Rule 7g.
Figures 251 and 252 show unbroken drawer runnersUnbroken
continuing through all three vertical sections, thusVertical
Divisions
definitely binding these sections together. It is seen
that this device is conducive to unity, whenever two or three vertical
divisions have been used.
Figure 252 is a repetition of Figure 251, but shows the echo or
continuation of the three divisions of the primary mass into the
appendage. The use of the single or double band enrichment still
further binds the minor subdivisions of the primary mass into ideal
unity with the appendage.

Sequential Progression of Minor Horizontal Space

Divisions
Rule 2c. A primary mass may be divided into three or more
smaller horizontal masses or sections by placing the larger mass or
masses at the bottom and by sequentially reducing the height
measure of each mass toward the smaller division or divisions to be
located at the top of the mass.
Rule 2c. Let us now imagine the center section of aSequential
three-part design to be removed and extendedArrangement
of Minor
upward. Its transformation by this process into aHorizontal
cabinet or chiffonier similar to Figure 253, Plate 42,Divisions
introduces the new principle of sequential progression.
Instead of adhering to the limitation of Rules 2a and 2b, this
arrangement shows that the horizontal divisions may be gradually
decreased in height from the bottom toward the top of the primary
mass. By this rhythmic decrease in the measure of the height, the
eye is led through an orderly gradation through lesser areas to the
top, thus giving a pleasing sensation of lightness and variety to the
structure. By this method, also, the large areas are retained at the
bottom to give stability and solidity to the structure. A quick test of
these conditions may be made by reversing Figure 254, thus
producing a more decidedly pleasing effect.
 Plate 42

This orderly gradation or sequence of heights need not be carried

out with absolute mathematical precision such as 7-6-5-4-3-2-1.
Arrangements similar to the following progression make for equally
pleasing and more varied effect: 9¼-8-6¾-6-5-4¾. Many designers
repeat similar heights for two neighboring horizontal spaces as, 6-5-
5-4¾, but the upward gradation should be apparent. Figure 255, an
Austrian motive, shows a strongly marked sequence with the top
division broken by Rule 3b. It is better practice to keep such
attempts confined to the bottom or top members of the sequence or
loss of unity may be the final result.
By applying this principle to the center section of a three-part
design, we now have illustrated in Figure 256 the new sequence in
its application, and Figures 257 and 258 are variations of the same
idea.
We now come to the transitional type of designTwo
where three vertical sections begin to lose theirHorizontal
and Three
dominance as major divisions, but still retain theirVertical
places in the design as minor sections. Replacing theseDivisions
in prominence is the horizontal major section or
division. The first immediate result of this change as shown in Plate
43 is to produce a more compact surface with a greater impression
of length because of the presence of strongly accented horizontal
lines which are always associated with horizontal divisions. This
transitional style with its minor but dominant horizontal divisions
would harmonize with the long horizontal lines of a room or similar
lines in the furniture. The full expression of this style or type will be
readily seen by comparing Plates 43 and Figures 251 and 252, Plate
41. Several styles of period furniture have been introduced in Plate
43 to prove the universality of these principles of space divisions.
 Plate 43

Figures 259, 260, and 262, Plate 43, are divided byDominance of
three minor vertical sections cut by two minorLower or
Upper
horizontal divisions with the dominance in the lowerSections
section. Rule 2a. The arrangement of the small central
drawers could have been more varied by the application of the
principle of sequential progression. Figures 261 and 263 show similar
vertical spacings with a difference in the arrangements of the
horizontal divisions. In these figures the dominance has been placed
in the upper section of the primary mass by the division created by
the runner above the lower drawer. It is likewise seen that Figure
263 needs a top appendage to bind the top into closer unity with
minor spacings.
In carrying the transitional type to which we haveTransitional
referred in the previous paragraphs from the verticalTypes
space influence toward the horizontal, we are gradually approaching
three minor horizontal divisions, still maintaining three minor vertical
divisions in a modified and less prominent form. Figure 264 is an
approach toward three horizontal divisions. As only one clear-cut
horizontal space division is visible, this figure is not a pure example.
The upper horizontal space division is broken up into a three-part
design by the drawer guides. It is not until we reach Figure 266 that
three horizontal divisions are clearly evident.

Horizontal Divisions
The horizontal minor divisions in furniture areThree Minor
generally drawer runners and the vertical minorHorizontal
Divisions Cut
divisions are often drawer guides. The horizontalby Varying
divisions may be arranged in either one of two ways:Numbers of
first, by the application of Rule 2b; or second, byVertical
applying Rule 2c, the rule of sequential progression.Divisions
Figures 266, 267, and 268, Plate 44, are representative of the former
while Figures 269 and 270 are typical of the latter. The result in
either case is a compactly designed and solid mass of simple
structural lines. On some occasions we find the three-part rule used
for minor divisions within the horizontal sections, while again the
two-part rule is used. The method depends upon the desired use
and appearance. In either case the long areas and large masses are
to be retained as far as possible near the bottom of each primary
mass, as this custom tends to give a sense of solidity to the design.
 Plate 44

Figure 271 is a rare reversion to more than threeFour Vertical

vertical divisions. In this case, Rule 3c has beenDivisions
observed and we find all of the panels are of equal size. Variety has
been secured by means of the horizontal spacings.
 Free Balance
This form of design is inherent in the JapaneseFree Minor
system. It consists in the planning and balancing ofSpace
Treatment
unequal areas over a geometric center. It is not
subject to definite rules as is the more formalFree Balance
balancing. The reader is referred to Mr. Arthur Dow's
excellent book on Composition for further discussion of the subject.
Figure 272, Plate 45, is an example of partly formal and partly free
balance and its method of treatment.
Figures 273 and 274 are pierced designs, thoroughlyCarving and
related to the structure and in no way weakening it.Piercing as
Applied to
Figure 273 is representative of a type which, if carriedLarge Masses
to extremes, will cause the structure to become too
weak for service; it is, therefore, necessary to guard and restrict this
form of enrichment. The carving of Figure 275, combined with the
contour enrichment, forms a pleasing variation to this common type
of furniture design.
Small minor details in furniture construction should be designed
with as much care as the larger major or minor parts. The larger
areas or spaces in small details similar to stationery shelves and
pigeon holes must harmonize in proportion with the space in which
they are placed and of which they are a part.
The three-part or three-vertical division system,Small Minor
Rule 3b, is generally used to design the small details inDetails of
Large
furniture as may be seen in Figures 276, 277, 278, andPrimary
279; while the rule of sequence, Rule 2c, may beMasses
employed again to subdivide these small details in a
horizontal direction with as much variety as is consistent with unity.
Figure 280 is a leaded glass surface enrichment for doors. Note the
leading lines of the enrichment as they parallel the dominant
proportions of the panel opening.
 INSTRUCTION SHEET

Plate 46 is a typical high school sheet of design problems, with the

masses accentuated by pen shading. See Plate 15.

SUMMARY OF DESIGN STEPS

(a) to (e). See similar steps in Chapter IV.

 Plate 45

SUGGESTED PROBLEM

Design a sideboard 3 feet 3 inches high with plate rack. The primary
mass should have three minor horizontal divisions and three minor
vertical divisions, with the horizontal divisions accented.

SUMMARY OF RULES

Sequential Progression of Minor Horizontal Space Divisions

Rule 2c. A primary mass may be divided into three or more smaller
horizontal masses or sections by placing the larger mass or masses at the
bottom and by sequentially reducing the height measure of each mass
toward the smaller division or divisions to be located at the top of the
mass.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are minor subdivisions in wood construction?

2. What is the effect of a design with dominant vertical major divisions?
State its use.
3. Show some customary methods of dividing three vertical major
divisions into minor subdivisions.
4. State the rule of sequential progression. Give illustrations from the
industrial arts.
5. Describe the transitional stage between the point where the
dominance of the vertical motive ceases and the horizontal influence
begins.
6. What is the effect of a design with dominant horizontal major
divisions? State its use.
7. Show some customary methods of subdividing horizontal major
divisions into minor subdivisions.
8. What should be the relation in a design between the details of a
project and the divisions of the primary mass?
Plate 46
 Chapter XII

SURFACE ENRICHMENT OF CLAY

In some respects the surface enrichment of clay isLimitations

similar to that of wood as, for example, the similarityfor Surface
Enrichment
produced by inlays in clay and in wood. On the other
hand the enrichment of clay is unhampered by the restricting effects
of unequal resistance of the material, such as the grain of wood.
Again it is limited to those effects or forms of enrichment that are
capable of withstanding the intense heat to which ceramic
decoration is subjected. See Frontispiece.

Courtesy of the Rookwood Potteries

Figure 281.—Filling the Saggars before Firing
 Before proceeding with a design it is well for one toDecorative
understand clearly the possibilities of clay enrichment.Processes of
Surface
He must know what kind of designs are best suited toEnrichment
clay as a medium, to the intended service, and to the
ultimate application of the heat of the pottery kiln.Forms of
Without entering into technicalities let us brieflyManipulation
discuss the following processes. The first three deal with finger and
tool manipulation of the clay body and are consequently the simpler
of the processes. The last five are concerned chiefly with the
addition of coloring pigments either to the clay or to the glaze and
are, therefore, more complex in character.
 Courtesy of The Rookwood Potteries
Figure 282.—Stacking the Kiln

Processes
Rule 9a. Surface enrichment of clay must be so designed as to be
able to withstand the action of heat to which all ware must be
submitted.
 Rule 9b. Incised, pierced, and modeled decoration in clay should
be simple and bold and thus adapted to the character of the
material.
1. This is the simplest form of enrichment, a processIncising
familiar to the earliest primitive potters and appropriate now for
beginners. It consists of the process of lowering lines or planes into
the clay body to the depth of from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an
inch. These lines or planes should be bold and broad. They may be
made with a blunt pencil or a flat pointed stick. A square,
rectangular, or round stick may be used as a stamp with which to
form a pattern for incising. Illustrations of simple incising may be
found in Figures 283, 284, 295, 319, 330. The tiles shown are about
six inches square.
2. This process is less common and, as its namePiercing
implies, is carried out by cutting through the clay. It may be done
with a fine wire. Either the background or the design itself may be
thus removed. The effect produced is that of lightening an object
such as the top of a hanging flower holder, a window flower box, or
a lantern shade.
3. By adding clay to the main body, and by workingModeling
this clay into low relief flower or geometric forms, one has the basic
process of modeling. The slightly raised areas of clay form a pleasing
play of light and shade that varies the otherwise plain surface of the
ware. The process should be used with caution, for over-modeling,
Figure 325, will obstruct the structural outlines and, because of its
over prominence as decoration, will cease to be surface enrichment.
In the technical language of the designer over-modeling is an
enrichment which is not subordinated to the surface. In articles
intended for service this high relief modeling is unsanitary and
unsatisfactory.
Figures 286 and 287 show incising with slight modeling, while
324, 328, and 329 are examples of more complex enrichment.
 Plate 47

With the introduction of the second group comes anIntroduction

added interest and difficulty, that of the introduction ofof Coloring
Pigments
color. Pigments that will withstand the application of
heat are suggested at different points.
 4. This process consists of removing certain areasInlay
from the clay body to the depth of one-eighth inch and filling in the
depression with tinted clay. Tints formed by the addition of ten per
cent or less of burnt umber or yellow ochre to the modeling clay will
give interesting effects. Figures 284, 285, 320, and 321 show forms
which may be developed by this process.
Sgraffito, an Italian process, is more difficult than inlaying, but the
effect is similar. A thin layer of colored clay is placed over the natural
clay body, and the design is developed by cutting away this colored
coating in places, thus exposing the natural clay body. Figure 306.
There are variations of this plan that may be attempted by the
advanced designer.
5. Slip is clay mixed with water to the consistency ofSlip Painting
cream. For slip painting this mixture is thoroughly mixed with not
more than ten per cent of coloring pigment as represented by the
underglaze colors of the ceramist. This thick, creamy, colored slip is
then painted on the surface of the clay body while damp, much as
the artist would apply oil colors. The ware, when thoroughly dried, is
glazed and fired, which produces the effect shown in Figures 290,
291, and 327. The color range is large; almost any color may be
used with the exception of reds and strong yellows. A colorless
transparent glaze should be used over beginner's slip painting.
6. This process refers to the direct introduction ofColored
the colored pigment into the glaze. By varying theGlazes
glaze formula we may have a clear, transparent, or glossy glaze
similar to Figure 317, a dull surfaced opaque effect, termed a matt
glaze, Figure 332; or a glossy but opaque faience glaze similar to the
blue and white Dutch tiles. There are other forms such as the
crystalline and "reduced" glazes, but these as a rule are far beyond
the ability of the beginning craftsman in ceramics.
 Plate 48

It is possible to use these three types of glazedCombinations

surface in various ways. For example, a vase form with an
interesting contour may be left without further surface enrichment
except that supplied by clear glaze or by a colored matt similar to
certain types of Teco Ware.
 It is likewise possible to apply transparent glazes over incised
designs, inlay or slip painting, increasing their beauty and the
serviceability of the ware. A semi-transparent glaze is sometimes
placed over slip painting giving the charm inherent to the Vellum
Ware of the Rookwood Potteries. Figure 332. Greens, blues, yellows,
and browns, with their admixtures, are the safest combinations for
the craftsman who desires to mix his own glazes.
7. This process may be seen in the examples ofUnderglaze
Newcomb Pottery illustrated particularly in Figure 314Painting
or 326. The underglaze pigment is thinly painted upon the fired
"biscuit," or unglazed ware. A thin, transparent glaze is then placed
over the color, and in the final firing the underneath color shows
through this transparent coating, thus illustrating the origin of the
name underglaze or under-the-glaze painting. Sage-green and
cobalt-blue underglaze colors are frequently used in Newcomb
designs with harmonious results. The outline of the design is often
incised and the underglaze color, settling into these channels, helps
to accentuate the design. Figure 314.
8. This is popularly known as china painting andPorcelain or
consists of painting directly upon the glazed surface ofOverglaze
Painting
the ware and placing it in a china kiln where a
temperature between 600 degrees and 900 degrees C. is developed.
At this point the coloring pigment melts or is fused into the porcelain
glaze, thus insuring its reasonable permanence. Figure 302.
The eight processes briefly described may be readily identified on
the plates by referring to the figures corresponding to those which
number the processes and are added to each figure number. Two
processes are sometimes suggested as possible for one problem.
Different clay forms require different modes ofClassification
treatment. To simplify these treatments will now beof Structural
Clay Forms
our problem. It has been found convenient to form
four divisions based upon the general geometric shape of the ware.
The first, Plate 47, includes rectangular and square areas; the
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