HIT L1
Basic concepts of heat flow, thermophysical
properties, and measurement of temperature and
heat transfer
0. Introduction
Heat:
Heat is simply the transfer of energy from a higher temperature object to a lower
temperature object.
Example:
if you touch someone’s hand and it’s cold, you are transferring some of your heat from
your hand to theirs. We produce heat (body heat) from calories.
Flux:
In this context flux is the process of traveling or passing through a surface or substance.
Heat Flux:
Heat flux or thermal flux, also known as heat flow density, is the rate at which heat is
transferred per unit area, per unit time, through an object or substance, usually from a
hotter to a colder area as described in these figures. It is typically measured in watts per
square meter (W/m²) and is a measure of the energy flow through a material or system.
Understanding heat flux is important in a wide range of applications, including thermal
management, energy efficiency, and heat transfer.
Heat flux: Is the transmission of energy through a surface area
1. BASIC CONCEPTS
1.1 Convection Heat Transfer
Convection is the transfer of heat through a fluid, such as a liquid or gas. Heat is transferred
through the fluid by the movement of the fluid itself.
Examine thermal interaction between a surface and an adjacent moving fluid.
1.2 Important Factors in Convection Heat Transfer
Three factors play major roles in convection heat transfer:
(1) Fluid motion
(2) Fluid nature
(3) Surface geometry.
1.3 Focal Point in Convection Heat Transfer
Determination of temperature distribution in a moving fluid can be expressed as:
1.4 The Continuum and Thermodynamic Equilibrium Concepts
Continuum model:
(1) Material is composed of continuous matter.
(2) Behavior of individual molecules is ignored.
(3) Valid when molecular man-free path λ is small relative to the characteristic dimension
of the system (small Knudsen number, Kn < 10-1).
(4) Knudson number can be defined as:
Thermodynamic equilibrium:
(1) Depends on molecular interaction with an adjacent surface.
(2) At thermodynamic equilibrium:
(i) Fluid and adjacent surfaces have the same velocity (no velocity slip).
(ii) Fluid and adjacent surfaces have the same temperature (no temperature jump).
(1) Valid for
1.5 Fourier’s Law of Conduction
Gives a relationship between heat transfer rate or heat flux and temperature:
Used in the formulation of the governing equation for temperature distribution.
Conduction is the transfer of heat through a material by the collision of atoms and
molecules. The atoms and molecules in a material can absorb and transfer heat energy
through collisions with neighboring atoms and molecules.
1.6 Newton's Law of Cooling
This law defines the heat transfer coefficient h in terms of heat flux and surface
temperature.
Used in the formulation of boundary conditions.
Used to determine the rate of transfer or heat flux when temperature distribution is difficult
to obtain analytically.
1.7 Heat Transfer Coefficient h
h is defined in the equation described by Newton's Law of Cooling.
h is not a property. It depends on: h = f (geometry, fluid motion, fluid properties, ΔT)
It is determined analytically using the equations described by the Fourier’s Law of
Conduction and Newton's Law of Cooling. This requires the determination of temperature
distribution.
It is determined experimentally using the equation described by Newton’s law of cooling.
1.8 Radiation: Stefan-Boltzmann Law
Radiation is the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves. This is the mechanism by
which heat is transferred through space, such as from the sun to the Earth.
Emissivity ε : radiation surface property.
Absorptivity α : surface property defined as the fraction of radiation energy incident on a
surface which is absorbed by the surface.
q12 is the net heat exchanged by radiation between two bodies.
Special case: a small surface which is completely enclosed by a much larger surface, q12
is given by Stefan-Boltzmann radiation law defined by the following equation.
The subscript 1 in the equation given by Stefan-Boltzmann radiation law refers to the small
surface. Temperature is in absolute degrees.
1.9 Differential Formulation of Basic Laws
Various formulation procedures:
(1) Differential
(2) Integral
(3) Variational
(4) Finite difference
Differential formulation:
(1) Based on the assumption of continuum.
(2) The basic laws are applied to an infinitesimal element.
(3) The result is a partial differential equation which is valid at every point.
1.10 Combination of heat transfer mechanism
Three different ways for heat transmission
1.11 Mathematical Background
(a) Velocity Vector
(b) Velocity Derivative
(c) Operator
(1) Cartesian:
(2) Cylindrical:
(3) Spherical:
(d) Divergence of a Vector
or
(f) Gradient of Scalar.
The gradient of a scalar, such as temperature T, is a vector given by:
(g) Total Differential and Total Derivative
(1) Consider the variable f:
(2) Total differential of f: This is the total change in f resulting from the changes in x,
y, z and t:
(3) Total derivative
where:
(4) Example: f = u in total derivative equation gives:
(5) Cylindrical coordinates:
(6) Example: f = T
1.12 Units
Table 1 Conversion factors and units
Conversion Factors Units
Length (L): meter (m) m
Basic SI units Time (t): second (s) s
Mass (m): kilogram (kg) kg
Temperature (T): kelvin (K) K
Force (Newton) N N = kg-m /s2
Energy (joules) J J=Nxm=
kg-m2 /s2
Power (watts) W W = J/s = N x
m/s = kg-m2 /s3
Density (rho) U U = m/V =
kg/m3
Pressure (Pascal) Pa Pa = N/m2
specific heat capacity at constant pressure (Cp) Cp = Jڄkg-1ڄK-1
Specific Energy (e) e = E/m = J/g
Specific Energy per Degree J/(g·K)
Derived units Thermal Conductivity (k) k = W/(m·K)
Dynamic Viscosity (μ) μ = N.s/m2
Kinematic Viscosity (ν) ν = m2/s
Diffusion coefficient (Dij) Dij = m2/s
thermal diffusivity (α) α = m2/s
coefficient of volumetric thermal expansion (β) β = K-1
surface tension (σ) σ: N/m
gravitational acceleration (g) g = m/s2
molecular weight (M) M = kg/mole
Prandtl number (μCp/k), dimensionless
specific volume (v) v = m3/kg
compressibility factor, Pv/RT, dimensionless
gas constant (R): kJ/(kg.K), R = kJ/(kg·K)
1.13 Problem Solving Format
Convection problems lend themselves to a systematic solution procedure. Use the
following format when solving problems. Read details of each step and take advantage of
illustrative examples and posted solutions to homework problems to develop skills in using
this problem-solving methodology. The following is an outline of this method:
(1) Observations
(2) Problem Definition
(3) Solution Plan
(4) Plan Execution
(i) Assumptions
(ii) Analysis
(iii)Computations
(iv) Checking
(v) Comments
2. THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES
The following Tables treat the specific heats, dynamic viscosities, and thermal
conductivities as functions of temperature only. To obtain the density of a gas, the perfect
gas law may be used, i.e., P = URT
From the specific heat and density and using other given properties, the thermal diffusivity
and Prandtl number could be calculated.
For each gas, skeleton tables of the properties are given at several temperatures so that
computer program checks can be made.
Table 2 Example of the thermophysical properties of selected gases using computer
equations
Table 3 Example of the thermophysical properties of selected liquids at temperatures below
their boiling points
Table 4 Example of the thermophysical properties of Air using computer equations
Table 5 Fickian Diffusion Coefficients [(m2/s) × 10-4] at Atmospheric Pressure
Table 4 Example of the thermophysical properties of liquid metals using computer
equations
3. MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE AND
HEAT TRANSFER
3.1 Temperature measurement in fluids.
The definitions of temperature and temperature scale come from thermodynamic
considerations; the meaning of temperature is strictly valid only for a state of
thermodynamic equilibrium. In most real situations, nonuniformities are present. We
generally assume the fluid is in local thermodynamic equilibrium and the properties of the
fluid are interrelated through the material's equilibrium equation of state. The local
temperature can be determined from a probe that is small compared to the region over
which the temperature varies by any significant amount. Problems arise in special cases
such as rarefied gases as well as regions with very large gradients, as in shock waves.
A temperature-sensing element measures its own temperature. Ideally, it is in thermal
equilibrium with the surrounding region and does not affect the local temperature because
of its presence. Often this ideal situation is not met, and factors that must be considered
include heat transfer to or from the sensor by radiation and conduction, conversion of
kinetic energy into internal energy in a flow surrounding the probe, and convective heat
transfer from the surrounding medium, including that due to a temperature variation in
temperature.
An energy balance can be made on the temperature sensor to take into account the
energy that flows to and from it. This could indicate that its temperature is the same as that
of the surrounding medium or that corrections should be made. For example, the principal
heat transfer mechanisms might be convection from the adjacent fluid, conduction along
the leads, and thermal radiation transport. If the conduction and radiation heat flows are
small and/or the sensor is in good thermal contact (high heat transfer coefficient) with the
immediately surrounding fluid, the sensor's temperature can closely approximate that of
the adjacent fluid.
Radiation shields can be used to isolate a probe from a distant medium so that there
will be relatively little radiation heat transfer to it; at the same time, they do not interfere
with good thermal contact between the probe and the surrounding fluid. Designs of
thermometer probes for gas temperature measurement. Analyses to account for some
uncertainties in probe measurement.
When a probe is immersed in a flowing fluid, the flow comes to rest near the probe. In
this deceleration, kinetic energy is converted into internal energy, which can significantly
increase the fluid temperature. Although this temperature change is generally small in
liquid flows, it can be significant in gas flows. The total and static temperatures of a gas
with velocity V and (constant) specific heat Cp are related by the following equation.
The static temperature Tst, would be observed by a thermometer moving along with
the flow, while the total temperature Tt, would be attained by the fluid following adiabatic
conversion of the kinetic energy into internal energy. As a flow is brought to rest at a real
probe, the temperature generally is not equal to the total temperature other than in an
idealized case or in specially designed probes. Often, as a result of dissipative processes
(conduction, viscosity), the temperature is some value less than Tt. The temperature at an
adiabatic surface is called the recovery temperature Tr, which is defined as follows.
where r is the recovery factor, and Td is the dynamic temperature Tt - Tst. With a laminar
boundary layer flowing along a flat surface parallel to the flow, the recovery factor is equal
to the square root of the Prandtl number. In general, the recovery factor around a
temperature probe is not uniform and often must be measured if accurate results are
required.
There are 4 ways to insert a thermowell into a flowing fluid:
(i) Perpendicular to flow;
(ii) Diagonal to flow;
(iii)In elbow facing downstream;
(iv) In elbow facing upstream;
Fig. 1 Thermocouple probes for measuring temperatures of flowing fluids.
3.2 Transient Temperature Measurements.
The response of a thermometer to a change in the temperature of its environment
depends on the physical properties of the sensor and the dynamic properties of the
surrounding environment. A standard approach is to determine a time constant for the
probe, assuming the probe is small enough or its conductivity is high enough that, as a first
approximation, the temperature within the probe is uniform. Neglecting radiation and lead-
wire conduction, the increase in energy stored within the probe would be equal to the net
heat transfer convected into it, which can be defined as follows.
where m, Cp, and A are the mass, specific heat, and surface area of the sensor, respectively;
T and Tf are the temperatures of the sensor and the surrounding material (often a fluid),
respectively; and h is the heat transfer coefficient between the sensor and its surroundings.
A time constant θc can be defined in the form.
3.3 Error Analysis and Measurement Assurance.
Sources of error in a calibration include:
(1) difficulty in maintaining the fixed points,
(2) accuracy of the standard thermometer,
(3) uniformity of the constant temperature medium,
(4) accuracy in the signal-reading instrument used,
(5) stability of each of the components,
(6) hysteresis effects,
(7) interpolation uncertainty,
(8) operator error.
3.4 Heat Flux Measurement.
3.4.1 Basic Principles
The first law of thermodynamics provides the definition of heat flow, and it, along with
Fourier's law, provides the basis for most instrumentation used to measure heat transfer
or heat flux. For a one-dimensional system, and based on Fourier's law, heat flux can be
defined as follows.
3.4.2 Heat Flux Measuring Methods
(1) Thermal resistance type
Measurement of temperature drop gives an indication of the heat flux from Fourier's law
(e.g., the sandwich-type or circular foil type).
or
where k and δ are the thermal conductivity and thickness of the material, respectively, and
Rth is the thermal resistance δ/k. Often, k and δ are difficult to measure directly, and, thus,
thermal resistance Rth is determined from a calibration of the heat flux gauge. Even for a
finite-size system where the temperature and/or Rth are not perfectly uniform along the
gauge, the later heat flux equation can still be used with Rth determined by calibration.
(a) (b)
Fig. 2 (a) Sandwich-type heat flux gauge; (b) Gardon-type heat flux gauge (Circular foil heat flux gauge).
(2) Thermal capacitance or calorimetric type
Heat balance on the device yields the desired heat flow (e.g., the wall-heating (cooling)
type or temperature-transient type).
Wall-Heating (Cooling) Type
A wall-heating system employing a heat source (or heat sink) can be used not only to
measure the heat flow from a surface but also to control the thermal boundary conditions.
Temperature-Transient Type
With a temperature-transient gauge, the time history of temperature (an indicator of the
change in internal energy) is used to determine the heat flux.
Assuming two-dimensional (rectangular coordinates) heat flow, the governing equation for
the temperature within a homogeneous gauge can be given as follow.
where αs is the thermal diffusivity.
(1) Semi-infinite type
The heat flux is derived from the solution of the equation above for heat flow into a semi-
infinite conductor.
The boundary and initial conditions for the rectangular heat flux gauge are expressed as:
By solving the three-dimensional heat diffusion equation on the surface at x = 0, the
average temperature for the rectangular heat flux gauge with an area of 4ab can be given
as:
Fig. 3 Geometry for determining the temperature response of a thin-film heat flux gauge attached to an
infinitely long surface.
For a thin-film heat flux gauge, the calibration of the physical properties k, Cp, and U of
each layer of the heat flux gauge are crucial for the accurate measurement of heat flux on
the test surface.
(2) Finite thickness type
The wall beneath the gauge is assumed to be insulated and the heat flux is determined by
the temporal variation of the (assumed uniform) sensor temperature.
Finite-thickness-type gauges include slug (or plug) calorimeters and thin-wall (or thin
skin) calorimeters. They assume the gauge is exposed to a heat flux on the front surface
and is insulated on the back.
The slug calorimeter consists of a small mass of high-conductivity material inserted into
the insulated wall. Assuming that the temperature within the gauge is uniform, the energy
balance equations for a slug (plug) calorimeter can be determined as:
A thin-wall calorimeter covers a large (or the entire) surface of a well-insulated wall.
Assuming that the temperature within the gauge is uniform, the energy balance equations
for a thin-wall calorimeter can be determined as:
where m and A are the mass and surface area of the slug (plug); U and δ are the density and
thickness of the wall; and Cp and Ts are the specific heat and mean temperature of the slug
or wall.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3 Calorimeter: (a) slug (plug) calorimeter, and (b) thin-wall (thin-skin) calorimeter.
Uncertainties in the use of these sensors include the temperature nonuniformity across the
sensor's thickness at high heat flux, the edge correction for localized gauges, and the
disturbance of the temperature field caused by the presence of the sensor.
(3) Energy input or output type
A direct measurement of the energy input or output on the heat flux instrument is required.
(4) Temperature gradient
3.4.3 Some common methods for measuring heat flux:
(1) Thermocouples are devices that measure the temperature difference between two
points. They can be used to measure heat flux by placing a thermocouple on one side of a
material and measuring the temperature difference between the thermocouple and the other
side of the material.
(2) Heat flux sensors are specialized devices that are designed specifically to measure heat
flux. They typically include a heat-sensitive element, such as a thermocouple or thermistor,
that is in contact with the material or system being measured.
(3) Infrared imaging can also be used to measure heat flux. Infrared cameras can detect
the temperature of a material or system and can be used to create a thermal map that shows
the distribution of heat.
The difference between heat flow and heat flux:
Heat flow is the generation and exchange of thermal energy between physical systems.
Heat flux is the flow of energy per unit of area, per unit of time.
The difference between heat flux and convection:
Heat flux is a measure of the rate of heat transfer per unit area, while convection is a mode
of heat transfer that occurs when a fluid is heated and rises, and as it cools, it sinks, leading
to a continuous transfer of heat. In other words, heat flux is a scalar quantity that describes
the flow of heat through a material, while convection refers to the movement of heat in a
fluid, typically caused by differences in density.
3.5 Applications of Heat Flux
Heat flux can be used in a variety of applications. Some common applications include:
(1) HVAC Systems
(2) Energy conservation and management in buildings
(3) Automotive thermal management
(4) How Heat Flux Measurement Helps us Understand Batteries
(5) Thermal insulation and building envelope performance
(6) Quality control in manufacturing and materials testing
(7) Biomedical research and medical device development.
