Introduction to Human Movement

S
tructure allows for and provides the basis of function.
1 Therefore, the

components that make up a structure have a drastic influence on how

that structure ultimately functions. In the human body, the
components that make up the human movement system include the nervous
system, the skeletal system and the muscular system. Together, these
components are known as the kinetic chain and are responsible for human
movement (Figure 2-1).2,3
All systems of the kinetic chain must work together to produce movement.
If one system (or component) of the kinetic chain is not working properly,it
will
affect the other systems and ultimately affect movement. 4-10 Therefore, it is
imperative that the health and fitness professional fully understand all
components of the kinetic chain and how they work together to construct
efficient movement.To gain a complete understanding of the kinetic chain, it
is
necessary to look at the structure and function of each component.
Optimum Performance Training for the Health and Fitness Professional
Figure 2-1: The Equation for Movement
Nervous System
Skeletal System
+ Muscular System
The Kinetic Chain
KINETIC CHAIN:
The combination
and interrelation of
the nervous,
muscular and
skeletal systems.25
MODULE 2-1:The Nervous System
Overview of the Nervous System
The nervous system is a conglomeration of billions of cells forming
nerves that are specifically designed to provide a communication network
within the human body (Figure 2-2). It is the central command center that
allows us to gather information about our internal and external
environments,
process and interpret the information and then respond to it. 11-14
The three primary functions of the nervous system include sensory,
integrative and motor functions.11-13 Sensory function is the ability of the
nervous system to sense changes in either the internal or external
environment, such as a stretch placed on a muscle (internal) or the change
from walking on the sidewalk to walking in the sand (external). Integrative
function is the ability of the nervous system to analyze and interpret the
sensory information to allow for proper decision making, which produces the
appropriate response.The motor function is the neuromuscular (or nervous
and muscular systems’) response to the sensory information, such as
causing
the muscle to initially contract when stretched,or changing our walking
pattern
when in the sand, as opposed to the sidewalk. 11-13
The key aspect to note here is that all movement is directly dictated by
the nervous system.Thus, it becomes important to train the nervous system
efficiently to ensure that proper movement patterns are being developed,
which enhances performance and decreases the risk of injuries. 11,13,15 This
important concept will be discussed throughout the remainder of the text.
Anatomy of the Nervous System
The Neuron
The functional unit of the nervous system is known as the neuron (Figure
2-2).11 Billions of neurons make up the complex structure of the nervous
system and provide it with the ability to communicate internally with itself,
as
well as externally with the outside environment. Collectively, the merging of
many neurons together forms the nerves of the body. Neurons are
comprised
of three main parts: cell body, axon and dendrites. 11-13,16
The cell body (or soma) of a neuron is much like any other cell body in
that it contains a nucleus and other organelles such as
lysosomes,mitochondria
and a Golgi complex.The axon is a cylindrical projection from the cell body
that transmits nervous impulses to other neurons or effector sites (muscles,
organs, other neurons, etc.). This is the part of the neuron that provides
communication from the brain and/or spinal cord to other parts of the body.
CHAPTER TWO
Basic Exercise Science
NERVOUS SYSTEM:
Large groups of
cells that form
nerves, which
provide a
communication
network within
the body.
SENSORY
FUNCTION:
The ability of the
nervous system
to sense changes
in either internal
or external
environments.
INTEGRATIVE
FUNCTION:
The ability of the
nervous system
to analyze and
interpret sensory
information to
allow for proper
decision making,
which produces
the appropriate
response.
MOTOR
FUNCTION:
The neuromuscular
response to sensory
information.
NEURON:
The functional unit
of the nervous
system.26
The dendrites are responsible for gathering information from other structures
back into the neuron.11-13,16
Essentially, there are three main functional classifications of neurons that
are determined by the direction of their nerve impulses (Table 2-1). Sensory
(afferent) neurons transmit nerve impulses from effector sites (such as
muscles and organs) via receptors to the brain and/or spinal cord.
Interneurons transmit nerve impulses from one neuron to another. 12,16
Motor (efferent) neurons transmit nerve impulses from the brain and/or
spinal cord to the effector sites such as muscles or glands.
A demonstration of the way these different neurons work together to
produce a given response can be explained through the example of a person
touching a hot object.The sensory (afferent) neurons send a signal from the
hand to the brain telling the brain that the object is hot.This signal makes its
way to the brain by traveling from one neuron to another via the
interneurons.
Once the signal has made it to the brain, the brain then interprets the
information sent from the sensory neurons (the object is hot) and sends the
appropriate signals down to the muscles of the hand and arm via the motor
neurons, telling the muscles to contract to pull the hand away from the hot
object, protecting the hand from injury.
The Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems
The nervous system is comprised of two interdependent divisions.These
include the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. 1,11-
13,16
The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord
(Figure
2-3).1,11-13,16The central nervous system serves mainly to interpret
information.
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Figure 2-2: The Neuron
SENSORY
(AFFERENT)
NEURONS:
Transmit nerve
impulses from
effector sites to the
brain or spinal cord.
INTERNEURONS:
Neurons that
transmit nerve
impulses from one
neuron to another.
MOTOR
(EFFERENT)
NEURONS:
Neurons that
transmit nerve
impulses from the
brain or spinal cord
to effector sites.
CENTRAL
NERVOUS
SYSTEM:
Comprised of the
brain and spinal
cord and serves
mainly to interpret
information.27
The peripheral nervous system consists of 12 cranial nerves, 31 pairs
of spinal nerves (that branch out from the brain and spinal cord) and sensory
receptors (Figure 2-4).11-13,16
These peripheral nerves serve two main functions. First, they provide a
connection for the nervous system to activate different bodily organs, such
as
muscles. This is the efferent (motor) information going to an effector site
(organs within the body).
Second,peripheral nerves relay information from the bodily organs back to
the
brain providing a constant update on the relation between the body and the
environment.This is the afferent (sensory) information coming from an
effector site
(muscles, organs) back to the brain and/or spinal cord via sensory
receptors.11-14,16
CHAPTER TWO
Basic Exercise Science
Figure 2-3: The Central Nervous System
Figure 2-4: The Peripheral Nervous System
PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS
SYSTEM:
Cranial and spinal
nerves that spread
throughout the
body and serve to
relay information
from bodily organs
to the brain and
from the brain to
bodily organs.
Brain
Spinal cord28
The sensory receptors are specialized structures located throughout the
body that are designed to transform environmental stimuli (heat, light,
sound,
taste, motion, etc.) into sensory information that the brain and/or spinal cord
can then interpret to produce a response.These receptors can be subdivided
into four major categories. Mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical forces
(touch and pressure), nociceptors respond to pain (pain receptors),
chemoreceptors respond to chemical interaction (smell and taste) and
photoreceptors respond to light (vision).13,16 For relevance to this text, we will
focus the attention on the mechanoreceptors.
With respect to the health and fitness professional and human movement,
mechanoreceptors are specialized structures that are essentially
responsible
for sensing distortion in tissues. 18-21,23-25 This is brought about through
stretch,
compression, traction and/or tension to the tissue and then transmitted to
the
nervous system. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that
mechanoreceptors are located in muscles, tendons, ligaments and joint
capsules.23,24,26-30 Mechanoreceptors include muscle spindles, Golgi tendon
organs and joint receptors.
Muscle spindles are the major sensory organs of the muscle and sit
parallel to the muscle’s fibers (Figure 2-5). Muscle spindles are sensitive to
change in length and rate of length
change.1,5-7,10,11,13,16,20,24,30 When a muscle is
stretched the spindles of that muscle are
also stretched. This information is
transmitted to the brain and spinal cord
to update the nervous system on the
status of the muscle length and the rate at
which that muscle is lengthening. When
excited, the muscle spindle will cause the
muscle to contract.This is to prevent the
muscle from stretching too far and/or too
fast, either of which could otherwise
cause injury.1,5-7,10,11,13,16,20,24,30
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MECHANO
RECEPTORS:
Sensory receptor
responsible for
sensing distortion
in body tissues.
MUSCLE
SPINDLES:
Fibers sensitive to
change in length of
the muscle and the
rate of that change.
Figure 2-5: Muscle Spindles29
Golgi tendon organs are at the point where the muscle and tendon meet
(musculotendinous junction) and are sensitive to changes in muscular
tension
and rate of the tension change (Figure 2-6).1,5-7,10,11,13,16,20,24,30 When excited,
the
Golgi tendon organ will cause the muscle to relax.This is to prevent the
muscle
from being placed under excessive stress and sustaining injury.
Joint receptors are located in and around the joint capsule. They
respond to pressure, acceleration and deceleration of the joint (Figure 2-7).
These receptors act to signal extreme joint positions and thus help to
prevent
injury. They can also act to initiate a reflexive inhibitory response in the
surrounding muscles if there is too much stress placed on that joint. 17,23,24,32,33
CHAPTER TWO
Basic Exercise Science
GOLGI TENDON
ORGANS:
Organs sensitive to
change in tension of
the muscle and the
rate of that change.
JOINT
RECEPTORS:
Receptors sensitive
to pressure,
acceleration and
deceleration
in the joint.
Figure 2-6: Golgi Tendon Organs
Figure 2-7: Joint ReceptorsOptimum Performance Training for the Health and
Fitness Professional
MODULE 2-1 Summary
The movement system of the human body is called the kinetic chain.The
three components of the kinetic chain are the nervous system, the skeletal
system and the muscular system.
The nervous system is comprised of billions of neurons that transfer
information throughout the body, through two interdependent systems: the
central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous
system (nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord). The system
gathers information about our external and internal environments, processes
that information and then responds to it. It has three major functions:
sensory
(recognizes changes), integrative (combines information and interprets it)
and
motor (produces a neuromuscular response).