Received: 20 August 2022 Revised: 26 October 2022 Accepted: 7 November 2022

DOI: 10.1002/leg3.166

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Sensory analysis of microwave-roasted fenugreek and coffee

blend

Nalan Yazicioglu

Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Health

Sciences, University of Health Sciences, Abstract
Ankara, Turkey
Fenugreek is one of the well-known legumes, used for its antimicrobial, antioxidant,
Correspondence nutritional, and pharmaceutical properties. It was aimed to obtain coffee by blending
Nalan Yazicioglu, Assist. Prof. Dr., Nutrition
microwave (600 W)-roasted fenugreek with coffee arabica and to determine the best
and Dietetics, Faculty of Health Sciences,
University of Health Sciences, Ankara, Turkey. roasting conditions (2 and 4 min), and blending ratios (20% and 50%) for fenugreek
Email: [email protected]
seeds by consumer sensory analysis. A voluntary, minimal-trained consumer panel of
80 panelists was conducted. Coffee from roasted Arabica beans (100%) was used as
a control. Cronbach's alpha values of 67.2% and 90.9% were obtained for the reliabil-
ity of the first and second parts of the survey, respectively. The attributes “brown”
color, “burnt,” and “bitter” taste, and “astringent” texture were significantly different
between samples (p < 0.05), whereas oily appearance, green color, coffee, green/
vegan, fruity, sour, sweet, nutty, caramel, cacao, caffeine and creamy flavor, and vis-
cosity sensation were statistically the same. The Tamhane T2 post hoc test showed
that the color of the control sample was more brownish, whereas the 50% blend of
4 min roasted fenugreek had a more burnt, bitter, and astringent taste. Appreciation
scores for taste/aroma, appearance, and mouthfeel also differed significantly
between samples, whereas odor was rated as the same by panelists. This study
shows that sample with 20% mixture of fenugreek roasted for 4 min at 600 W had
statistically the same scores as the control sample in terms of odor, appearance,
aroma, taste, and mouthfeel. These findings were also supported by physical and
antioxidative quality measurements such as color, pH, moisture content, total
phenolic content, and antioxidant activity.

KEYWORDS
fenugreek, roasting conditions, sensory analysis

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N stated that the annual production of 3.5 million tons of coffee beans
creates a value of more than 20 billion dollars; coffee agriculture and
Coffee is one of the most consumed beverages in the world due to its trade are an essential part of the economy of many countries in South
stimulating effect, taste, and aroma. Beverages prepared from coffee America, Africa, and Asia. Coffee is the product with the highest
in different ways are among the most popular beverages and account commercial volume in the world after oil (Taştan, 2009). In addition,
for 75% of daily beverage consumption (Mohammed et al., 2019). It is coffee beans were said to be extinct by 2080 (Paramaguru, 2012).

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
© 2022 The Author. Legume Science published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.

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The reason why people like the taste and smell of coffee is the combi- mucilaginous fiber, saponins, and sapogenins such as diosgenin and
nation of more than 1000 compounds, including carbohydrates, lipids, trigonelline, which are responsible for therapeutic effects such as
nitrogenous compounds, vitamins, minerals, alkaloids, and phenolic inhibiting cholesterol and lowering sugar levels (Hamden
compounds, which are produced as a result of a long chain of chemical et al., 2010; Kumar et al., 2014; Smith, 2003). However, one draw-
transformations during roasting and brewing the coffee (Bae back of fenugreek seeds is their bitter taste and unpleasant odor,
et al., 2014). One of the unique aroma compounds is caffeine, which which limits their use in food formulations.
is responsible for the stimulating effect. Arabica coffee beans contain In this study, fenugreek seeds were not used directly as a cof-
1% caffeine, whereas Robusta coffee beans contain 1.7% (Ashihara & fee substitute because of their bitterness and unlikable odors.
Crozier, 2001). Therefore, to reduce these undesirable properties, fenugreek seeds
There are controversial opinions about the health effects of caf- were roasted and blended with regular coffee. As fenugreek seeds
feine. Caffeine is said to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory were roasted at 130
C for 7 min in an open pan, they exhibited
effects (Iris et al., 2018; Li et al., 2021) and is thought to reduce the higher 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) content than the raw
risks of cardiovascular diseases, obesity, diabetes mellitus, and certain seeds (Saini et al., 2016). The beneficial effects of conventional
cancers (Collado-Mateo et al., 2020; Machado et al., 2021) when con- roasting of fenugreek seeds have been studied by many authors,
sumed moderately. However, when consumed in excess, caffeine can whereas information on phenolic and antioxidant changes after
cause an increased risk of heart disease and cancer, caffeine intoxica- microwave roasting and the effect of roasting time are limited. In
tion and addiction, nervous system restlessness, irritability, migraine, one study, roasted fenugreek seed flour was found to have the
anxiety, insomnia, difficulty in sleeping, agitation, mental atrophy, and higher antioxidant capacity and phenolic content with less dietary
other side effects (Juliano & Griffiths, 2004). To avoid health prob- fiber (Pandey & Awasthi, 2015). The phenolic content of roasted
lems, decaffeinated coffee has been produced in the industry. How- fenugreek seed flour was found to have 48.5 mg as opposed to
ever, decaffeination is an expensive process and causes undesirable 45.4 mg of gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per gram of sample, and
changes in the aroma of the product. Therefore, decaffeinated coffee the antioxidant activities of roasted and raw fenugreek seed flours
is not consumed in large quantities. Due to the negative health effects were 32.0% and 18.1%, respectively.
caused by overconsumption of coffee, its expensiveness and its future The fact that fenugreek seeds contain coffee like components
extinction, researchers are interested in coffee substitutes obtained and that antioxidant capacity and phenolic compounds increase upon
by roasting different beans that provide the coffee taste experience roasting suggests that a coffee-like beverage can be obtained from
without caffeine. fenugreek seeds. Therefore, the aim of this study was to obtain an
In fact, different varieties of coffee-like substitutes such as chic- optimum blend formulation of fenugreek seeds and arabica coffee
ory, malt, wheat, rye, barley, mung bean, and date seed (Alptekin & (20% and 50% roasted fenugreek seeds) and microwave roasting
Bölek, 2020; Fadel et al., 2008; Gani et al., 2012; Majcher et al., 2013; (600 W) time (2 and 4 min).
Prohens et al., 2014; Vieira, 2013) have been studied in the literature The roasting time of fenugreek beans was an important quality
to produce coffee-like beverages. However, there was no study in the parameter in the production of coffee blends. Therefore, through sen-
literature on the use of fenugreek as coffee substitute in coffee sory analysis of the resulting beverages, the mixing ratio and roasting
blends and the impact of roasting time and blend ratio on consumer time leading to the highest quality product were determined in com-
sensory analysis, physical and antioxidative properties. The flavor and parison to regular coffee. During roasting, simultaneous formation of
fragrance analysis of fenugreek revealed that fenugreek imparts cof- antioxidants due to Maillard reaction and release of phenolic com-
fee aroma compounds. Fenugreek seeds were reported to contain pounds improves the color, flavor, and odor of coffee blend; thus, it is
3-Amino-4, 5-dimethyl2(5H)-furanon, a strong flavor compound that convenient to analyze sensory attributes, phenolic compounds, and
contributes to the burnt sweet note of coffee (Pasricha & antioxidant capacity together.
Gupta, 2014). Fenugreek is also reported to have maple-like aroma
and bitter taste, but this can be eliminated by roasting (Dwivedi
et al., 2019). 2 | M A T E R I A L S A N D M ET H O D S
Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) is a herbaceous legume
species that belongs to the Leguminosae (Fabaceae) family and is 2.1 | Materials
one of the oldest medicinal plants used mainly in the countries of
Eastern Mediterranean and Central Asian (Goyal et al., 2016; Fenugreek seeds of Gupguru Baharat was purchased in 500 g package
Ouzir et al., 2016). Fenugreek used as seeds is often included in from an online store (https://magaza.hammaddeler.com). Arabica cof-
the recipes of these countries, but it is also known to have been fee seed (Jacobs Banquet Medium Espresso Beans), Na2CO3 (Alev
used therapeutically in the past (Altuntas et al., 2005). Fenugreek Kimya, Turkiye), gallic acid (Merck KGaA, Germany), Folin–Ciocalteu
seeds are thought to have pharmacological effects such as antiviral, reagent (Merck KGaA, Germany), ABTS (2,20 -azinobis (3-ethylben-
anti-tumor, and antioxidant activities. The seeds contain proteins zothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)) (Sigma-Aldrich, USA), and K2S2O8
rich in lysine and L-tryptophan, galactomannan that forms (Merck KGaA, Germany) were used in the experiments.
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YAZICIOGLU 3 of 12

2.2 | Preparation of fenugreek-arabica blends ensure that panelists were coffee lovers. Formal sensory evaluation
training was conducted prior to analysis. The basic requirements of
2.2.1 | Roasting sensory evaluation were explained to the panelists such as what to
do and what not to do, and they were informed about the descrip-
One hundred grams of fenugreek seeds was placed at the geometrical tion of sensory characteristics. The sensory panel was conducted at
center of turntable as a single layer and roasted in a microwave oven room temperature in a fluorescent-lit room between 09:00 and
(Bosch Built-in Oven HMT75M551B) at 600 W microwave power for 15:00. Subjects were asked not to eat or chew gum for 1 h before-
2, and 4 min. Roasting was repeated three times for each condition. hand. Between tastings, the subjects were asked to wait 1 min and
The roasted fenugreek seeds were mixed to assure uniformity, and drink water as a mouth rinse. Five different coffees were served
they were blended with roasted coffee arabica with 20% and 50% warm in clear plastic cups with a code name. The survey consisted
(w/w) (Table 1). The power supplied by microwave was calculated by of two parts. In the first part, subjects were asked to describe
IMPI (International Microwave Power Institute) 2 L test with three the appearance, taste, aroma, and mouthfeel. Sensory attribute
replications. Coffee prepared by 100% roasted coffee arabica was definitions and descriptors for freshly brewed coffee samples from
used as control (C5). Chapko and Seo (2019) and Seninde and Chambers (2020) were
used with minor modifications (Table 2). This definition was
expressed on a 5-point hedonic sensing scale, ranging from
2.2.2 | Grinding 1 (not sensed at all) to 5 (extremely sensed). In the second part, a
5-point hedonic scale ranging from 1 (dislike extremely) to 5 (like
A grinder (Delonghi Coffee Grinder KG79) was used separately for extremely) was used to express whether subjects liked the look,
roasted fenugreek and control coffee seeds to obtain medium size smell, aroma, taste, and mouthfeel.
particles suitable for filter coffee. The grinding was carried out in
three batches for coffee and fenugreek seeds individually. Particle size
of the ground 2 min roasted fenugreek and coffee seeds was calcu-
TABLE 2 Sensory analysis descriptors and the definitions
lated by method described by Maille et al. (2021) by using ImageJ
(National Institution of Health, Bethesda, Md., USA) as 0.73 ± 0.3 mm Physical appearance
and 0.68 ± 0.3 mm, respectively. Amount of Amount of oil visible on the surface
oil
Brown Amount of brown color visible
color
2.2.3 | Brewing
Green Amount of green color visible
color
Five grams of microwave-roasted fenugreek seeds and coffee arabica
Aroma/flavor
blend was added to 100 ml of 100 ± 2
C (IKEA Fantast Thermometer
Coffee Aroma/flavor related with brewed coffee
with Fork Kitchen Thermometer, Sweden) water. French Press
(Bodum, Switzerland) was used to brew the samples for 5 min to Burnt-acrid Aroma/flavor related with blackened carbohydrates

obtain filter coffee. Totally, 4 L of each blend was prepared through- Fruity Aroma/flavor associated by the odor produced by
fruits
out the study. Coffee was served warm.
Green, Aroma/flavor associated with unripe fruits or green
vegan vegetables
Bitter The taste of caffeine on the tongue
2.3 | Sensory analysis
Sweet Taste factor associated by sucrose

A voluntary consumer panel was conducted with 80 semi-trained Sour The taste of acidic compounds on the tongue

panelists over 18 years of age who were preferred coffee Hazelnut The taste of nuts, seeds, beans, and grains on the
tongue
consumers and did not have chronic diseases. Care was taken to
Caramel Aroma/flavor associated with caramel made from
heated syrup
Cacao The impression of brown, sweet, roasted aroma/flavor
TABLE 1 Code values of fenugreek-arabica blends
Caffeine Flavor notes that give substance to the coffee brew
Blending ratio Microwave roasting time
Creamy Aroma/flavor associated by thick, smooth texture of
Code (X1) (%) (X2) (min)
cream
C1 20 4 Mouth feeling
C2 50 4 Astringent Chemical feeling factor in the language defined as
C3 20 2 shrinkage/dry
C4 50 2 Viscosity Thickness of the solution in the mouth
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2.4 | Moisture content determination 2.8 | Antioxidant activity determination

Fenugreek-arabica blends and ground control coffee were dried in an Percent ABTS (2,20 -azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid))


electrical oven (Nuve ENO55, Ankara, Turkey) at 105 C up to the radical inhibition was used to evaluate antioxidant activity based on
establishment of constant weight (Association of Official Analytical the method of Re et al. (1999). The ABTS solution was prepared by
Chemists [AOAC], 1984). The calculation was done by using weight mixing 0.195 g of ABTS and 0.033 g K2S2O8 in 70 ml of distilled
before they were placed into the oven and weight immediately after water in dark bottle, then stored in refrigerator. The ABTS solution
they were removed from the oven with two replications. was diluted with distilled water to obtain an initial absorbance of
0.7 at 734 nm. The solution was left at room temperature in darkness
for 16 h. To determine the antioxidant ability, 0.05 ml of the sample
2.5 | pH measurement was mixed to 2.5 ml of an ABTS solution. Absorbance was measured
after 6 min incubation at 734 nm against water as blank. The percent-
The pH of the fenugreek blended and control coffee was determined age of ABTS radical inhibition was calculated for each sample by the
by using an OHAUS ST 10 pH meter (OHAUS Corp., USA) with an equation below.
accuracy of ±0.1. Average of two replications was considered.
Ac  As
AA ð%Þ ¼  100
Ac

2.6 | Color measurement

where, AA is the ABTS radical inhibition, As is the absorbance of sam-
The color of roasted fenugreek-arabica blends was measured using ple, and Ac is the absorbance of control. All measurements were repli-
(Konica Minolta Spectrophotometer, CM-5, Japan). Results were cated two times.
expressed in terms of CIE color coordinate system (L*, a*, and b*)
where L* value represents “lightness,” from zero (black) to 100 (white);
a* value represents “+redness” or “greenness”; and b* represents 2.9 | Statistical analysis
“+yellowness” or “blueness.” For the homogeneity among the runs,
three different measurements were performed with two replications. For data collection and processing Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Corpo-
To provide the same environmental conditions, no sunlight was ration, Redmond, WA, USA) and for statistical analysis, IBM SPSS Sta-
allowed to pass into the laboratory. tistics 22 was used. Descriptive statistics (mean and standard
deviation), hedonic scores for descriptive sensory attributes, and rank-
ing preferences were described. Data were tested for normality using
2.7 | Total phenolic content (TPC) determination the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. The Kruskal–Wallis test was used to
examine differences between samples and controls. Results were con-
Total phenols were determined as GAE mg/L according to the method sidered statistically significant when p < 0.05. Tamhane's T2 post hoc
described by Samsonowicz et al. (2019) and Waterhouse (2002). test was used for mean comparisons when the equal variance assump-
Folin–Ciocalteu colorimetry was adapted for small sample volumes as tion was not met. Comparison of physical and antioxidative quality
microscale protocol. Twenty percent of Na2CO3 was prepared by dis- properties of fenugreek blended coffees and control coffee was per-
solving 200 g anhydrous sodium carbonate in 800 ml distilled water formed by ANOVA with Tukey post hoc test, since data distributed
and brought to a boil. After cooling, crystals of sodium carbonate were normal and had constant variance. Regression equations and coeffi-
added and allowed to stand at room temperature for 24 h. Then the cients were determined by Minitab Release 17.1 (Minitab Inc. State
solution was filtered through Whatman filter paper no. 1 and diluted College, PA, USA) for color, moisture content, pH, total phenolic, and
to 1 L with distilled water. To prepare the gallic acid standard, 0.5 g antioxidant activity. To verify the best formulation, selection effec-
gallic acid was dissolved in 10 ml ethanol and then diluted to 100 ml tiveness index method by Degarmo et al. (1984) was employed to
with distilled water (5 g/L). Dilutions of 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, and 10 ml of the choose the best formulation based on the result of hedonic test.
solution were made to 100 ml with water to obtain 0, 50, 100, 150,
250 and 500 mg/L phenol concentrations. After solutions were pre-
pared, 20 μl of coffee extracts (C1-C2-C3-C4-C5) was mixed with 3 | RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1.58 ml of distilled water and 100 μl of Folin–Ciocalteu and then, the
mixture was left at room temperature for 6 min. Three hundred 3.1 | Physical and antioxidative quality properties
microliters of 20% Na2CO3 was added to the mixture. The samples
were incubated for 2 h at room temperature in the dark, and the Mean and standard deviations and the comparison of means of physi-
absorbance of blue-colored solutions was measured at 765 nm using cal and antioxidative quality properties of fenugreek blends and con-
spectrophotometer (T80+, UV/Vis. spectrometer, PG Instrument trol coffee are shown in Table 3 with significant p values. The effects
Ltd.). All measurements were replicated two times. of blending ratio (%) (X1) and microwave roasting time (min) (X2) on
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YAZICIOGLU 5 of 12

TABLE 3 Physical and antioxidative quality properties of fenugreek blended coffee and control samples (mean ± standard deviation)

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
d b c a
L* value* 41.33 ± 0.001 43.39 ± 0.007 42.85 ± 0.000 47.24 ± 0.000 38.5 ± 0.000e
a* value* 4.29 ± 0.001b 5.01 ± 0.001a 3.57 ± 0.007e 3.68 ± 0.000d 3.96 ± 0.007c
d b c a
b* value* 7.85 ± 0.001 10.04 ± 0.001 9.32 ± 0.007 13.48 ± 0.021 4.81 ± 0.000e
Moisture content (%)* 3.84 ± 0.001c 3.65 ± 0.001e 4.80 ± 0.000a 4.54 ± 0.000b 3.77 ± 0.021d
b a a a
pH* 5.85 ± 0.071 6.15 ± 0.071 6.15 ± 0.071 6.20 ± 0.000 5.75 ± 0.071b
Total phenolic content (mg GAE/L)* 936.3 ± 14.2c 1262.2 ± 17.6a 930.9 ± 13.4c 1219.8 ± 24.3a,b 1162.03 ± 40.2b
c a d a
Antioxidant activity (% inhibition)* 79.39 ± 0.161 83.26 ± 0.161 78.36 ± 0.0 83.49 ± 0.161 82.57 ± 0.161b

Note: C1 = 20% blend + 4 min roasted, C2 = 50% blend + 4 min roasted, C3 = 20% blend + 2 min roasted, C4 = 50% blend + 2 min roasted,
C5 = 100% regular coffee. Different uppercase letters in the rows indicate a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) by the Tukey post hoc test.
Abbreviation: GAE, gallic acid equivalents.
*Significant difference with p < 0.001 level.

TABLE 4 Regression equations for microwave-roasted fenugreek blend with coffee arabica

Quality parameters Equation Radj2

L* value 39.8867 + 22.4167X1**** + 0.01833X2***  3.89167X1X2**** 0.9999
a* value 3.1667  1.6333X1**** + 0.16083 X2**** + 1.00833X1X2**** 0.9999
b* value 6.6933 + 20.4333X1****  0.0758 X2***  3.2833X1X2**** 0.9999
Moisture content (%) 5.9917  1.083X1****  0.5100 X2**** + 0.1250X1X2* 0.9984
pH 6.583  0.667X1  0.2333 X2* + 0.417X1X2* 0.6444
Total phenolic content (mg GAE/L) 728.7 + 1024.6X1**** 0.9712
Antioxidant activity (%) 73.083 + 21.26X1**** + 0.930 X2***  2.088 X1X2*** 0.9925

Abbreviation: GAE, gallic acid equivalents.

****Significant at 0.01% level.
***Significant at 0.1% level.
**Significant at 1% level.
*Significant at 5% level.

quality parameters of fenugreek blends were expressed by mathemat- this roasting time (Nagaraju et al., 2016). When ΔE values were calcu-
ical models given by regression equations with adjusted coefficient of lated based on control samples, C1 received the lowest score repre-
determination (Radj2) in Table 4. The coefficient of determination was senting the smallest difference.
quite high for all the quality parameters. Rajhi et al. (2022) analyzed volatile chemicals when fenugreek
seeds were microwaved at 800 W for 5 min. Amines, pyrazines and
pyridines, and sulfur were released after the breakdown of proteins
3.1.1 | Color values of fenugreek blended coffee by proteases and hydrolysis of peptides to nitrogen compounds,
and control samples whereas the pyrazines were not detectable in the raw fenugreek.
Pyrazine compounds were observed in the volatile aroma constituents
Mean and standard deviations of L*, a*, and b* values of fenugreek of coffee and cocoa (Koehler et al., 1971). Because microwave
blended coffee and control samples were given in Table 3. Regression technology has many advantages such as rapid heating, saving energy
models of L*, a*, and b* values of fenugreek blended coffee were and water at lower economic cost and environmental damage
given in Table 4. There was a statistically significant decrease in the L* (Kubo et al., 2021), Ahmed and Ramaswamy (2020) suggested
and b* values of the samples with increasing roasting time, with the microwave as an alternative to conventional methods for enhancing
lowest values observed for the control coffee. The decrease in the L* volatile compounds in legumes.
value reflects the darker color of fenugreek-coffee blend due to the
formation of brown pigments through Maillard reactions. As the blend
ratio increases, the L* and b* values increase, which is obvious 3.1.2 | Moisture content and pH values of
because roasted fenugreek seeds are lighter than regular coffee. The fenugreek blended coffee and control samples
reason for the lower L* and b* values of the samples roasted in micro-
wave 600 W for 4 min can be explained by the fact that the enzy- Moisture content of fenugreek blended coffee and control samples
matic and non-enzymatic browning reactions occur more intensely for was presented in Table 3. Regression model shows (Table 4) that the
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moisture content of the samples decreased significantly with increas- Similarly, debittered fenugreek flour addition to flour increased the
ing microwave roasting time and increasing fenugreek seed blend TPC levels (Dhull et al., 2020). TPCs of coffee blends C2 and C4
ratio, with the lowest values obtained for the control coffee. Similar were higher than the TPC of individual fenugreek and arabica
results were observed for microwave drying of green lentil seeds and coffee seeds. This can be explained by the synergistic effect of
moth bean sprouts by Heydari et al. (2020) and Sedani et al. (2021), fenugreek and coffee seeds. Similar findings were reported by
respectively. The moisture content of the C1 sample was closest to Krishnaiah et al. (2012). They revealed that TPCs of sole Beta
that of the control sample. vulgaris L., sole Morinda citrifolia L., and the mixture of these fruit
A significant decrease in the pH values of the samples was extracts were 0.0455, 0.2104, and 0.2534 mg of TAE/g of extract,
observed with increasing microwave roasting time, while the pH respectively, which may be attributed to the synergistic effect of
decreased with increasing blend ratio (Table 4). The pH of the control phenolic compounds. Contini et al. (2012) studied the effect of the
coffee was statistically the same as that of sample C1 (Table 3). As addition of hazelnut skin waste to the espresso coffee brew on
reported earlier, the pH of carob powders decreased with prolonged phenolic content of mixture in vitro and found that although hazel-
application of microwave power (Gunel et al., 2018). The decrease in nut skin phenolics were in the range of 32.8–327.6 mg, hazelnut
pH value can be attributed to Maillard reaction as oxidation by heat skin added to espresso coffee varied from 48.2 to 481.6 mg/serving
converted the aldehyde functional group of reducing sugar to the due to additive effect of phenolics.
carbonyl functional group and decreases soluble amino acid
(Gunel et al., 2018). The degradation of sugar into acid condensation
between the free amino group of amino acid and the carbonyl group 3.1.4 | Antioxidant activity
of glucose lowers the pH of the environment due to Maillard reactions
(Beck et al., 1990). Moreover, acidic chemical compounds such as The antioxidant activity of coffee blend brews was measured using
pyruvic acid can be formed, which can cause pH lowering ABTS method (Table 3). This method is widely used to evaluate
(Şahin et al., 2009). in vitro antioxidant activity of coffee (Jeszka-Skowron et al., 2016;
Złotek et al., 2016). DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate)
method was not preferred in this study because it is more appropriate
3.1.3 | TPC for polar compounds, whereas ABTS assay can be used for both
lipophylic and hydrophilic compounds (Dudonne et al., 2009). The
Gallic acid was used to prepare the calibration curve by converting antioxidant activity of fenugreek blended coffee samples ranged from
the absorbance values to the TPC (y = 592.58x + 7.3992, 78.36 ± 0.0% to 83.485 ± 0.16%. These results were in the range of
R2 = 0.9985). TPC value of control coffee was 1162.03 previous study of Priftis et al. (2015), who observed that percent inhi-
± 40.2 mg GAE/L. The value was consistent with previous studies in bition by ABTS assay of green coffees roasted at different times was
which TPC of brewed regular coffee ranged between 1562.5– in the range of 33.4–135.0.
1812.5 mg GAE/L by Sánchez-González et al. (2005) and 1812.5– The antioxidant activity of 2 and 4 min microwave-roasted
2750 mg GAE/L by Pérez-Martínez et al. (2010) when their calcula- fenugreek seeds was 70.501 ± 0.16% and 72.551 ± 0.16%, respec-
tions were adjusted for 5 g of coffee powder to 100 ml of water. The tively, whereas ABTS inhibition was 82.57 ± 0.16% for 100% cof-
differences in the values may be due to different coffee varieties and fee arabica brew. The results were close to the antioxidant activity
the effect of fenugreek seeds in the blend. TPC of 50% of 2 min of fenugreek seeds determined by Mashkor (2014) by DPPH assay
roasted fenugreek-50% of arabica coffee blend was statistically the ranging from 43.61% to 67.30% inhibition. Antioxidant activity of
same with control coffee in terms of TPC. Results showed that micro- C1 and C3 was lower than that of C5 whereas the activity of C2
wave roasting time had no statistical effect on TPC because the dif- and C4 was higher than that of C5. Regression equation and coef-
ference in time was slight (Table 4). Fenugreek seeds roasted for ficients show that the effect of blending ratio on the increase of
2 and 4 min had 271.39 ± 6.3 and 375.69 ± 2.1 mg GAE/L total phe- antioxidant activity was greater than that of roasting time
nols, respectively. Mashkor (2014) determined the TPC of fenugreek (Table 4). When fenugreek seeds were blended with arabica coffee
seeds with 50% acetone extracts as 15.45 to 25.90 mg GAE/100 g 50%, the synergistic effect of antioxidants becomes highly effective
dw. Microwave roasting increased the phenolic content of fenugreek due to the interaction of bioactive compounds. Results of antioxi-
seeds. Phenolic compounds were assumed to bind the plant by cova- dant activities (ABTS) of blends were correlated significantly with
lent bonds (Hayat, Zhang, Farooq, et al., 2010). Volumetric heating of results obtained with phenolic compound concentration with corre-
microwave may release the free phenolic compounds in the plant lation coefficient r = 0.975 (p = 0.000). TPC values improve the
matrix, by increasing the free fractions and decreasing the bound frac- antioxidant capacity. Similarly, TPC improved the antioxidant
tions of phenolic compounds (Hayat, Zhang, Chen, et al., 2010).  rnas et al., 2016)
activity of green and roasted coffee beans (Go
The TPC of the coffee samples mixed with fenugreek ranged and total polyphenol content of tea, coffee, and cocoa was corre-
from 930.9 ± 13.4 to 1262.2 ± 17.6 mg GAE/L. As the blend ratio lated with antioxidant capacity by ABTS method (r = 0.79) (Abd
of fenugreek seeds increased, the TPC increased linearly (Table 4). et al., 2011).
 26396181, 2023, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/leg3.166, Wiley Online Library on [26/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
YAZICIOGLU 7 of 12

3.2 | Descriptive sensory analysis of fenugreek- found to be statistically same. Brown color intensity observed for C1
arabica blend coffee in comparison with arabica coffee and C4 was less than control coffee. However, brown color observed
by the panelists for C2 and C3 was statistically the same with control
In Figure 1, the mean and standard deviation of the descriptive coffee, C5. Instrumental color analysis results highlighted C1 blend
sensory analysis results of volunteer panelists after tasting fenugreek- because ΔE values were closest to the value of C5.
arabica blend coffee and control coffee were presented. The reliability
of the descriptive sensory analysis part was calculated as 67.2% by
using Cronbach's alpha. For normality assumption, descriptive sensory 3.2.2 | Flavor/aroma
data were tested by using Kolmogorov–Smirnov test and found that
all the data were not distributed normally. Thus, the significant Among the physical appearance, flavor/aroma, and mouth feeling, fla-
differences between the samples were evaluated by p values vor/aroma has the most significant motivation in drinking coffee
calculated by Kruskal–Wallis test (p < 0.05). Different uppercase because flavor is a combination of retronasal aroma and taste. Retro-
letters on the columns indicate a statistically significant difference nasal perception is formed by the flow of food volatile stream from
(p < 0.05) by the Tamhane T2's post hoc test (p < 0.05). Of the 17 the back of the throat towards the nasal discharge. The volatile sub-
sensory attributes used to describe physical appearance, aroma/flavor stances interact with the receptors and then processing the sensory
and mouth feel texture, brown color, burnt and bitter flavor, and information as odor recognition (Mombaerts, 2001). Consumers first
astringent texture attributes were found to differ significantly perceive and describe the smell of flavor; thus, it is defined as the
between samples (p < 0.05). However, oily appearance, green color, fragrant component of flavor (Petracco, 2001). In addition, roasting
coffee, fruity, green/vegan, sweet, sour, nutty, caramel, cacao, improves the taste and aroma (Nwadi et al., 2020). Thus, aroma sub-
caffeine, creamy flavor, and viscosity feel were statistically the same stances and their components are primarily responsible for flavor
between the coffee samples. diversity, and they are extremely important for complex products such
as coffee (Murphy et al., 1977).
Among 127 sensory descriptors listed for coffee (Hayakawa
3.2.1 | Physical appearance et al., 2010), 12 sensory descriptors were selected. Figure 1 shows
that coffee, fruity, green/vegan, sweet, sour, nutty, caramel, cacao,
Figure 1 shows that the amount of visible oil and green color caffeine, and creamy flavor/aroma sensed by the panelists had sta-
observed by the panelists for fenugreek-arabica blend coffee samples tistically the same intensity in all the samples. Mean of the descrip-
obtained by different roasting times had the same intensity with the tive sensory analysis scores showed that brewed coffee aroma and
regular coffee. Fenugreek blended coffees' brown color intensity was caffeine flavor notes were sensed higher among other sensory

F I G U R E 1 Sensory attributes of fenugreek blended arabica coffees. C1 = 20% blend + 4 min roasted, C2 = 50% blend + 4 min roasted,
C3 = 20% blend + 2 min roasted, C4 = 50% blend + 2 min roasted, and C5 = 100% regular coffee. ***Significant at 0.1% level. **Significant at
1% level. *Significant at 5% level. No superscript means not significant. Error bars represent means ± standard deviation.
 26396181, 2023, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/leg3.166, Wiley Online Library on [26/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
8 of 12 YAZICIOGLU

attributes with scores of 3.90 and 3.49, respectively. A good coffee 3.2.3 | Mouth feel
taste was a combination of a well-balanced acidity arising from
fruity and bitterness arising from roasty note. Fruity, green/vegan, Mouth-feeling also called the body or texture is also an important sen-
sweet, sour, nutty, caramel, cacao, and creamy notes of 2 and 4 min sory descriptor for fenugreek blended coffee. Mouth feel affects the
microwave-roasted fenugreek blended (20% and 50%) coffees and perception of taste and is affected by the interaction of mouth layer
arabica coffee (100%) were not sensed by the panelists with mean and food structure during consumption (Taylor & Roozen, 1996).
values of 1.57, 1.71, 1.59, 1.65, 1.58, 1.44, 1.88, and 1.93, These perceptions typically include characteristics such as astringency
respectively. Limitations of the study design include that the blend and viscosity, which are more complex sensations resulting from the
samples were brewed at 100
C with 2
C error margin because it interaction of food components with the skin and mucous mem-
has been found in the literature that the brewing temperature branes. Sensory results showed that, shrinkage/dry feeling on the
has a strong influence on the sensory perception of espresso mouth, described as astringency, sensed higher for sample C2 among
(Andueza et al., 2003; Klotz et al., 2020). other coffee samples including control coffee. Viscosity, which is the
When 4 min roasted fenugreek seeds blended 50% with arabica thickness of the coffee solution in the mouth, was sensed statistically
coffee (C2), burnt/acrid and bitter sensory attributes sensed by panel- with the same intensity among all samples. Chlorogenic acids act as
ists were significantly higher than C1, C3, C4, and control coffee. This precursors of phenols, leading to bitter taste, acidity, and astringent
can be due to dark scorched taste of cooked or nearly burnt slightly feel in the mouth. The higher astringency of the C2 sample may
sharp and acrid flavors arising from higher roasting time in microwave be resulting not just from coffee but also from fenugreek which
with higher blend ratio of fenugreek seeds. Instrumental analyses was roasted for 4 min and added to the coffee at 50%. Because
were also in agreement with this result, because as roasting time the main phenolic compounds in fenugreek were chlorogenic
increased, a significant decrease in the pH values of the samples was acid (2.01–5.49 ppm), caffeic acid (2.42–4.93 ppm), quercetin
observed due to release of acidic chemical compounds and Maillard (1.98–4.45 ppm), comaric (1.09–2.43 ppm), apigenin (1.97–2.99 ppm),
reaction. Moreover, 50% blend of roasted fenugreek with coffee and gallic acid (1.76–2.92 ppm) (Ghaderimokri et al., 2022).
improved TPC and antioxidant activity, which may contribute to
burnt/acrid and bitter sensory attributes.
It is known that ancient Egyptians consumed fenugreek as a vege- 3.3 | Consumer acceptance test
table, used its seeds to preserve mummies, and used roasted seeds as
coffee and for medicinal purposes (Sarwar et al., 2020). However, in Subjects were asked to evaluate the preference level for the fenu-
literature, its direct or partial use as a coffee has not been studied, so greek blended coffee samples with regular coffee in the second part
sensory attributes of fenugreek coffee have not been documented of the sensory analysis. The reliability of the consumer acceptance
yet. Roasted fenugreek seeds were used as flour and incorporated in test was calculated as 90.9% by using Cronbach's alpha. The mean
food formulations other than coffee, but its use is limited because of and standard deviation of the acceptance level of the samples were
its distinctive pungent odor and unique taste (Snehlata & Payal, 2012). presented in Figure 2. Appearance, odor, aroma, taste, and mouth feel
In functional food research, fenugreek has been incorporated as a liking scores were found to change with respect to different coffee
whole seed meal into different flours that can be used in the produc- formulations.
tion of baked goods, including pizza, bread, and cakes (Afzal Figure 3 and Tamhane T2 results showed that the best result
et al., 2016; Chauhan & Sharma, 2000; Hegazy & Ibrahium, 2009; close to the scores of coffee control sample (C5) was C1 in terms of
Hooda & Jood, 2005a; Hooda & Jood, 2005b; Man et al., 2019). The appearance, odor, aroma, taste, and mouth feel appreciation. The
bitter taste of foods containing fenugreek has been associated with verification of the best formulation selection was done by the
fenugreek saponins, alkaloids, and volatile constituents (Khorshidian effectiveness index method of Degarmo et al. (1984) by the
et al., 2016; Srinivasan, 2006). Shirani and Ganesharanee (2009) inves- formulation below.
tigated the effects of fenugreek flour on the sensory quality of
chickpea–rice-based extruded products and found that fenugreek Value of effectiveness ¼ ðTreatment value  Worst valueÞ=
flour percentage of more than 2% was not accepted because of its ðBest value  Worst valueÞ:
distinct bitter taste. Fenugreek flour was obtained in another study by
roasting in an open pan at 130
C for 7 min and decreased the bitter-
ness to a certain extent to make possible to use fenugreek in high Effectiveness index showed that appearance, aroma, taste, and
amount in various preparations with an enhancement of TPC to mouth feel liking scores of C1 were higher than all the other
48.5 mg GAE/g sample and antioxidant activity to 32.0% (Pandey & formulations, whereas in terms of odor, C3's score was slightly higher
Awasthi, 2015). Despite the stated health benefits of fenugreek, its than C1.
bitter and astringent taste significantly reduces consumption of its Consumer acceptance results (Figure 3) were in great agreement
flour. Adding it directly to products such as bread, cookies, and cakes with instrumental analysis perspective. Higher TPC and antioxidant
in the form of food has caused unexpected changes in the taste and activity values were obtained for C2 and C4, which lead to unaccept-
smell of these products. able appearance, odor, aroma, taste, and mouthfeel by panelists.
 26396181, 2023, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/leg3.166, Wiley Online Library on [26/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
YAZICIOGLU 9 of 12

F I G U R E 2 The acceptance level of fenugreek blended coffee and control samples. C1 = 20% blend + 4 min roasted, C2 = 50% blend
+ 4 min roasted, C3 = 20% blend + 2 min roasted, C4 = 50% blend + 2 min roasted, and C5 = 100% regular coffee. ***Significant at 0.1% level.
**Significant at 1% level. *Significant at 5% level. No superscript means not significant. Error bars represent means ± standard deviation.

As fenugreek was blended 50% with arabica coffee (C2 and C4), TPC
and antioxidant activity were improved due to the synergistic effect
of fenugreek with coffee.
The sensation scale of oily appearance, green color, coffee, fruity,
green/vegan, sweet, sour, nutty, caramel, cacao, caffeine, creamy
flavor, and viscosity feel of fenugreek-arabica blends was statistically
the same as the control sample. Sensory perception results revealed
that C2 sample's burnt/acrid and bitter sensory attributes sensed by
panelists were significantly higher than C1, C3, C4, and control coffee.
These findings were consistent with the instrumental analysis. As a
result, 4 min roasted fenugreek seeds blended 20% with arabica
coffee resulted in higher acceptance score in terms of appearance,
aroma, taste, and mouthfeel with a similar oily appearance, green
color, coffee, fruity, green/vegan, sweet, sour, nutty, caramel, cacao,
caffeine, creamy flavor, viscosity, and burnt/acrid and bitter taste with
F I G U R E 3 Liking scores in terms of appearance, odor, aroma, control coffee. Effectiveness index and instrumental analysis of pH,
taste, and mouth feel appreciation color, moisture content, TPC, and antioxidant activity also verified
these findings. Considering the possibility of coffee bean depletion in
the future, in this study, it was proved that roasted fenugreek can be
While 50% of roasted fenugreek was added to coffee, it caused coffee incorporated into the formulation of coffee blends.
to reach higher values than the current TPC and antioxidant levels;
however, it was not accepted by sensory analyses due to the bitter- CONFLIC T OF INT ER E ST
ness of fenugreek. Selection of C1 was also acceptable in terms of None.
color, pH, TPC, and antioxidant activity measurements.
DATA AVAILABILITY STAT EMEN T
Data are available upon request.
4 | C O N CL U S I O N
OR CID
In this study, the possibility to use fenugreek seeds in coffee blend Nalan Yazicioglu https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9569-3361
was investigated. When control samples' (C5) L*, a*, and b* values
were used as a base for the calculation of ΔE values of the fenugreek- RE FE RE NCE S
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Medicinal Plant Research, 5(20), 5071–5078.
decreased the moisture content and pH of samples significantly; thus, Afzal, B., Pasha, I., Zahoor, T., & Nawaz, H. (2016). Nutritional potential of
the closest results to the control coffee were obtained by sample C1. fenugreek supplemented bread with special reference to antioxidant
 26396181, 2023, 3, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/leg3.166, Wiley Online Library on [26/03/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
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