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Computer Networks & Virtualisation.docx

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May 17, 2025, 9:46 AM UTC

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41% detected as AI Caution: Review required.

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well as likely AI-generated text that was also likely AI-paraphrased. about a student’s work. We encourage you to learn more about Turnitin’s AI detection
capabilities before using the tool.

Detection Groups
29 AI-generated only 41%
Likely AI-generated text from a large-language model.

0 AI-generated text that was AI-paraphrased 0%

Likely AI-generated text that was likely revised using an AI-paraphrase tool
or word spinner.

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Programme Title: MSc Computer Science

Module Title: Computer Networks & Virtualisation

Module Code: 2216

ASSIGNMENT 1 TITLE: Develop an understanding of Cyber threats

to show understanding of the strategies available to offer protection
against cyber threats.

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PART A: Analyse the TCP/IP layered architecture with a focus on

SDN
1. Introduction

In the ever-evolving digital landscape, the need for efficient, secure, and scalable
communication across computer networks is paramount. At the heart of global connectivity lies
the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) model, a robust and widely
implemented suite of communication protocols that form the backbone of the Internet. It
provides a standardized framework that governs how data is transmitted and received across
interconnected networks.

The TCP/IP model supports end-to-end data communication and is designed to work reliably
over unreliable and heterogeneous networks. Each of its layers plays a critical role in ensuring
data integrity, proper routing, and efficient delivery. As network infrastructure becomes more
dynamic and complex—driven by trends such as cloud computing, virtualisation, and Internet
of Things (IoT)—the traditional static approach of TCP/IP-based networking is increasingly
being challenged.

To address the growing need for flexibility and control, Software-Defined Networking (SDN)
has emerged as a transformative paradigm. SDN decouples the control plane (which decides
how data is forwarded) from the data plane (which actually forwards the data), enabling
centralised control and programmability of network behavior. This report provides a detailed
analysis of the TCP/IP architecture, including the functions and protocols of each layer, a
comparison with the OSI model, and a critical discussion of SDN’s role and impact on
traditional network design and management.

2. Overview of the TCP/IP Layered Architecture

The TCP/IP model, developed in the 1970s, was designed to provide a set of standards for
interconnecting different computer systems. It consists of four layers:

1. Application Layer

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2. Transport Layer

3. Internet Layer

4. Link Layer (also referred to as Network Access Layer)

Each of these layers abstracts a certain set of responsibilities, forming a modular stack that
promotes interoperability, scalability, and layered troubleshooting.

Application Layer

The Application Layer provides network services to end-users and applications. Unlike the OSI
model, which separates the application, presentation, and session layers, TCP/IP consolidates
all three into this single layer. Common protocols at this layer include:

 HTTP/HTTPS: For web communication.

 SMTP: For email transmission.

 DNS: For translating domain names to IP addresses.

 FTP: For file transfers.

This layer is responsible for initiating communication, formatting data for transmission, and
handling the interface with end-user processes.

Transport Layer

This layer is responsible for the logical communication between application processes. It
provides services such as segmentation, error checking, flow control, and retransmission of lost
packets. The two most prominent transport layer protocols are:

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Reliable, connection-oriented protocol.

 UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Unreliable, connectionless, but faster.

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TCP ensures ordered data delivery through sequence numbers and acknowledgements, while
UDP is suitable for real-time applications where speed is prioritised over reliability (e.g.,
streaming, VoIP).

Internet Layer

The Internet Layer is crucial for routing and addressing packets across networks. It defines how
data is encapsulated into packets and routed from the source to the destination host. Protocols
include:

 IP (Internet Protocol): Manages addressing (IPv4, IPv6).

 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Provides error messages and operational
information.

 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses.

This layer is responsible for packet forwarding and routing decisions based on IP addresses.

Link Layer

The Link Layer governs communication between nodes on the same physical network. It
includes both the Data Link and Physical Layers of the OSI model. Protocols operating here
include:

 Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)

 Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)

 PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)

Responsibilities of this layer include framing, physical addressing (MAC), and managing
access to the transmission medium.

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3. TCP/IP vs OSI Model: A Comparative Perspective

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a conceptual framework developed by ISO
that standardises the functions of a communication system into seven layers. These include:

1. Application

2. Presentation

3. Session

4. Transport

5. Network

6. Data Link

7. Physical

While OSI offers finer granularity, TCP/IP is more practical and widely implemented. A
comparison of both models is shown below:

OSI Model TCP/IP Model Functionality

Application (7) Application User applications and services

Presentation (6) Data format translation (combined in TCP/IP)

Session (5) Session management (combined)

Transport (4) Transport Reliability, segmentation, flow control

Network (3) Internet Logical addressing and routing

Data Link (2) Link Layer Physical addressing and framing

Physical (1) Transmission medium (included in Link Layer)

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The OSI model is prescriptive, ideal for understanding, while the TCP/IP model is descriptive,
reflecting actual protocol implementation.

4. Protocols and Design Issues at Each TCP/IP Layer

Each layer of the TCP/IP model comes with its own design considerations and challenges:

Application Layer Design Issues

 Data representation and formatting: Ensuring compatibility across different systems.

 Authentication and Security: Implementing HTTPS or SSL/TLS for secure

communication.

 Protocol overhead: Managing latency due to application-layer headers.

Transport Layer Design Issues

 Reliability and Ordering: TCP implements sequence numbers and acknowledgements.

 Flow and Congestion Control: TCP uses sliding windows and congestion avoidance
algorithms.

 Multiplexing: Multiple applications share a single transport channel using port

numbers.

Internet Layer Design Issues

 Scalability of IP addresses: IPv6 introduced to overcome IPv4 address exhaustion.

 Routing algorithms: Distance vector (RIP) vs. link state (OSPF).

 Fragmentation and Reassembly: Required when packets exceed MTU size.

Link Layer Design Issues

 Framing and error detection: Ensuring data integrity with CRC.

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 MAC addressing: Unique hardware addresses.

 Media Access Control: Collision handling in Ethernet (CSMA/CD).

5. Software-Defined Networking (SDN) Overview

Software-Defined Networking (SDN) is an architectural approach that simplifies network

management by separating the control plane (decision-making) from the data plane (packet
forwarding).

Traditional networks configure devices manually, leading to scalability and consistency issues.
SDN centralises control in a software-based controller that communicates with hardware
through southbound APIs like OpenFlow.

Core Characteristics of SDN:

 Centralised network intelligence.

 Programmability of traffic routing.

 Abstraction of hardware functionality.

 Improved agility and automation.

6. How SDN Integrates with the TCP/IP Model

SDN transforms the TCP/IP model by reassigning traditional responsibilities:

TCP/IP Impact of SDN

Layer

Application SDN introduces Northbound APIs that allow applications to directly

communicate with the SDN controller. This facilitates dynamic definition of
network behaviours, such as adjusting bandwidth or security policies based on

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application demands.

Transport SDN enables real-time traffic engineering, allowing the controller to optimise
TCP and UDP performance. It can dynamically adjust routes to meet Quality
of Service (QoS) requirements and reduce congestion.

Internet Traditional IP routing is replaced by centralised decision-making. The

controller manages all IP address assignments, routing tables, and forwarding
rules, resulting in more efficient and adaptive routing.

Link At the data link layer, SDN uses Open vSwitch, VLANs, and VXLANs to
virtualise switching. This allows administrators to manage networks abstractly,
without being limited by physical topology.

Control Plane vs Data Plane

 Control Plane (SDN Controller): Handles logic and decision-making (traditionally

part of routers).

 Data Plane (Switches/Routers): Forwards packets based on controller’s instructions.

SDN introduces Northbound APIs for applications to communicate with the controller, and
Southbound APIs like OpenFlow to communicate with the physical devices.

7. SDN's Implications on Network Design and Management

SDN significantly alters network design principles, offering:

1. Simplified Management

 SDN centralises control through software-based controllers, enabling administrators to

manage the entire network infrastructure from a single point. This eliminates the need
for manual device-by-device configuration, reducing operational complexity and human
error.

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2. Enhanced Scalability

 With SDN, scaling a network becomes more seamless. Technologies like VLANs and
VXLANs allow virtualised networks to span large infrastructures, particularly in data
centres and cloud environments, without disrupting existing services or topology.

3. Security

 SDN enables dynamic and granular security policies. Centralised controllers can detect
anomalies and deploy Access Control Lists (ACLs) instantly across the network. It
supports traffic isolation, segmentation, and rapid threat containment.

4. Optimised Performance

 By monitoring network conditions in real-time, SDN can dynamically reroute traffic to

reduce latency and avoid congestion. It enhances Quality of Service (QoS) by
prioritising critical data flows based on application needs.

5. Network Virtualisation

 SDN supports Network Function Virtualisation (NFV), allowing software-based

deployment of firewalls, routers, and load balancers. This reduces hardware dependency
and increases flexibility in deploying services on-demand.

8. Conclusion

The TCP/IP model remains an essential framework in understanding and implementing modern
network communications. Its layered architecture, coupled with well-defined protocols,
supports robust and scalable data exchange across global networks. However, as digital
environments grow increasingly dynamic, the limitations of hardware-centric, distributed
control become evident.

Software-Defined Networking (SDN) represents a transformative shift in networking

architecture. By decoupling the control plane from the data plane, SDN enables centralised,

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software-driven management that enhances scalability, flexibility, and security. SDN aligns
well with and augments the TCP/IP model by abstracting complexity and introducing
programmability at every layer. As the networking landscape evolves, the integration of SDN
with traditional architectures will be pivotal in shaping future-proof, efficient, and intelligent
networks.

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Part B
Task 1: Network Design and Subnetting
Network Diagram

Subnetting Calculation

The private network range selected is:

192.168.10.0/24 (Class C), providing 256 addresses (254 usable).

Device Count per Lab:

Lab Physical PCs VM (2 OS) Switch & Router Total Devices

A 4 1 2 7

B 4 1 2 7

C 4 1 2 7

D 4 1 2 7

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Each lab thus requires at least 7 usable IP addresses. For scalability, we assume space for 20–30
hosts per lab.

VLSM Subnetting Strategy

Using Variable Length Subnet Masking (VLSM) allows for efficient allocation:

Lab Needed Hosts Allocated Subnet Subnet Mask Usable Hosts

A 20–25 192.168.10.0/27 255.255.255.224 30

B 20–25 192.168.10.32/27 255.255.255.224 30

C 20–25 192.168.10.64/27 255.255.255.224 30

D 20–25 192.168.10.96/27 255.255.255.224 30

We reserve the rest of the block (192.168.10.128–255) for:

 Inter-router connections

 VM guest networks

 Future expansion

Hosts per Subnet

A /27 subnet mask (255.255.255.224) provides:

 32 total IPs

 30 usable IPs (after subtracting network & broadcast)

 Sufficient for up to 30 hosts per lab, supporting:

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o 20–24 physical/virtual devices

o 1 switch and 1 router

o +3–5 spare IPs for future virtual machines or IoT devices

IP Address Allocation per Lab

Lab Subnet Usable IP Gateway IP Switch VMs

Range (Router)

A 192.168.10.0/27 192.168.10.1 192.168.10.1 192.168.10.2 .25

– (Linux),
192.168.10.30 .26
(Windows)

B 192.168.10.32/27 192.168.10.33 192.168.10.33 192.168.10.34 .55, .56

– .62

C 192.168.10.64/27 192.168.10.65 192.168.10.65 192.168.10.66 .75, .76

– .94

D 192.168.10.96/27 192.168.10.97 192.168.10.97 192.168.10.98 .115, .116

– .126

Each lab will have its PCs assigned sequentially from lower to higher IPs in the subnet range.
The VM will occupy the upper IPs for consistency and easy identification.

Justification of Design Decisions

a. Scalability

Using /27 subnetting provides room for future devices without reallocating the address plan.
With only 128 of 256 IPs used, we retain 128+ addresses for:

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 New labs or IoT integration

 Servers or guest VLANs

 Routing links

b. Modularity

Each lab is self-contained with its own router and switch. This simplifies:

 Lab-specific policy enforcement

 Fault isolation (e.g., Lab C fails, Lab A still works)

 Independent upgrades

c. Performance

 Broadcast traffic is limited within subnets.

 Dedicated switches per lab reduce collision domains.

 Inter-router links ensure manageable routing without single points of failure.

d. Availability & Reliability

 The layout supports redundant paths via router interconnections.

 Individual device failure doesn’t collapse the full network.

 Labs remain partially functional during outages.

e. Security

 Each lab is isolated via a router, enabling firewall policies.

 Traffic filtering (ACLs) can restrict access to critical segments.

 VLANs and virtual routing (future) can further harden security.

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f. Cost-Effectiveness

 Using Class C private IP avoids the cost of public IPs.

 Design supports use of Cisco Packet Tracer or affordable switches.

 Each lab has only essential hardware, optimising budget and energy.

TASK 2: Network Development, Testing, and Evaluation

1. Network Setup and Configuration

After finalising the design in Task 1, the network was physically constructed and configured
using Cisco Packet Tracer. Each lab was connected as a distinct subnet through its own switch
and router. Routers were interconnected to allow routing of packets between labs, enabling
complete internetworking.

Key Setup Steps:

1. Assign IP addresses to all PCs, routers, and switches as per the subnetting plan.

2. Configure router interfaces using the ip address command.

3. Enable routing protocols (RIP or static routing) to ensure inter-lab communication.

4. Set up default gateways on PCs using ip default-gateway.

5. Configure DNS (optional) and verify layer 3 connectivity using ping and simulation.

2. Testing Network Functionality and Connectivity

Testing was conducted using:

 Ping commands (ICMP echo requests)

 PDU packets in simulation mode

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 Routing table verification from routers

2.1 Ping Test: Intra-Lab Communication

Each lab's PCs were successfully able to ping their default gateway (router interface) and each
other.

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Intra-lab communication is fully functional and error-free.

2.2 PDU Delivery Simulation

Using Packet Tracer’s Simulation Mode, a PDU was sent from Lab D (PC12) to Lab A (PC2).
The packet travelled through Router3 → Router2 → Router0, confirming that packet
forwarding and path selection are correct.

Physical and logical connections, protocol configurations, and routing are functioning correctly
across the network.

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3. Evaluation Against User Requirements

The network designed and implemented for the Camden House labs was evaluated against core
user requirements, focusing on five key parameters: capacity, speed, fault tolerance, security,
and quality of service (QoS). The results confirm that the network meets foundational
requirements while allowing room for future upgrades.

a. Capacity

Each lab is configured with a /27 subnet mask, allowing up to 30 usable IP addresses per
subnet. This is sufficient for 20–25 physical and virtual devices, while still leaving space for
future additions such as IoT devices, printers, or departmental servers. Furthermore, with only
50% of the 192.168.10.0/24 address space used, additional subnets can be allocated without
requiring major reconfiguration.

b. Speed and Throughput

Tests conducted in Cisco Packet Tracer indicate that intra-lab communication latency is
consistently below 1ms, mimicking real-world switch behavior in local environments. Inter-lab
routing via RIP also exhibited minimal delays. While simulation tools are limited in bandwidth
emulation, the overall topology supports high-throughput, low-latency communications for
most typical educational lab scenarios.

c. Fault Tolerance

The modular architecture—with each lab having its own switch and router—ensures that a fault
in one segment (e.g., a router failure) does not affect the operation of other labs. Each router
operates independently, and communication paths are isolated, which prevents cascading
failures and increases resilience.

d. Security

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While advanced security measures are not implemented in this phase, the use of separate
routers and subnets for each lab inherently supports network segmentation. This allows for the
future integration of access control lists (ACLs) or firewall policies to restrict or monitor inter-
lab communication.

e. Quality of Service (QoS)

Although QoS mechanisms are not simulated in Packet Tracer, the current setup provides the
structural foundation to introduce router-level traffic prioritisation in future phases. For
example, bandwidth shaping or priority queuing could be configured for VM traffic or
administrative systems to ensure service reliability.

4. Recommendations for Network Improvement

While the current network design at Camden House successfully delivers essential connectivity,
reliability, and modularity, there are several areas where the network can be improved to
enhance its efficiency, scalability, and manageability. Below are three targeted
recommendations:

Recommendation 1: Implement OSPF Instead of RIP

The network currently uses RIP (Routing Information Protocol), a distance-vector routing
protocol known for its simplicity. However, RIP has significant limitations, including a
maximum hop count of 15, slow convergence, and susceptibility to routing loops. For a campus
environment expected to scale with additional labs and services, it is advisable to replace RIP
with OSPF (Open Shortest Path First). OSPF is a link-state protocol that provides faster
convergence, hierarchical network design through areas, and more efficient bandwidth usage. It
also supports route summarisation and can handle more complex topologies without
degradation in performance.

Recommendation 2: VLAN Implementation per Department

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Although the labs are physically segmented, logical segmentation using VLANs (Virtual
LANs) would allow for more refined traffic control. For example, PCs used by students,
lecturers, and administrative staff can be placed in separate VLANs, even if they share the same
physical switch. VLANs enhance network security, reduce broadcast traffic, and simplify
policy enforcement. VLAN-aware switches and a trunking protocol (e.g., IEEE 802.1Q) would
be required to support this upgrade.

Recommendation 3: Centralised SDN Controller

Currently, all routers are manually configured, which is time-intensive and difficult to scale.
Implementing a Software-Defined Networking (SDN) framework using a controller like
OpenDaylight or ONOS would allow centralised control and automation of routing, traffic
shaping, access control lists (ACLs), and quality of service (QoS) rules. This would improve
agility, reduce administrative overhead, and future-proof the network for cloud and
virtualisation needs.

Task 3: Install and Configure a Virtual Machine

In modern educational and corporate IT environments, virtual machines (VMs) are essential
tools for simulating complex, multi-operating system environments. For this task, a virtual lab
is created where two different operating systems—Ubuntu Linux and Windows 10—are
installed concurrently using a virtualisation platform such as VMware Workstation Player or
Oracle VirtualBox. This setup helps simulate cross-platform networking scenarios, Active
Directory testing, and security configurations without the need for multiple physical machines.
This guide outlines how to install and configure a virtual machine environment capable of
hosting both Windows and Linux systems with internet connectivity.

1. Tools and Software Requirements

 Host Operating System: Windows 10

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 Virtualisation Platform: VMware Workstation Player (free for personal use) or Oracle
VirtualBox

 Guest Operating Systems:

o Ubuntu 22.04 LTS (ISO image)

o Windows 10 Education or Professional Edition (ISO image)

Both ISO images must be downloaded in advance. A system with at least 8 GB RAM and 60
GB of free storage is recommended to run both VMs efficiently.

2. Step-by-Step Installation and Configuration

Step 1: Creating a Virtual Machine

Begin by launching VMware Workstation Player or Oracle VirtualBox, both of which are free
virtualisation platforms. Select “Create a New Virtual Machine.” Follow the on-screen wizard
to allocate system resources:

 Assign at least 2 GB RAM per VM (4 GB recommended for smoother performance).

 Allocate 20–30 GB of virtual disk space for each operating system.

 Choose the number of CPU cores (typically 1–2 per VM for testing environments).

 Select the ISO file for the operating system you intend to install.

This process creates a bootable virtual hardware instance capable of running an operating
system independently of the host.

Step 2: Installing Ubuntu and Windows OS

Each guest OS is installed on a separate VM. During setup:

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 For Ubuntu, select the language and keyboard layout, create a user account, and
proceed with the default desktop installation. Ubuntu is known for its ease of setup and
broad compatibility with VMware/VirtualBox.

 For Windows 10, follow the setup prompts to partition the disk, enter license details (if
required), and configure initial preferences.

Users with advanced hardware can enable nested virtualization, allowing them to install and
run both OSes simultaneously within one hypervisor for parallel testing.

Step 3: Configuring Networking

Post-installation, configure networking settings from the VM’s settings menu:

 NAT (Network Address Translation) allows the VM to share the host’s internet
connection.

 Bridged Adapter lets the VM act as a standalone device on the same network as the
host.

Test internet connectivity from within each OS:

 In Ubuntu, open a terminal and run: ping www.google.com

 In Windows, open Command Prompt and type: ping google.com

A successful response indicates that networking is correctly configured.

3. Simulating Concurrent Use

To simulate concurrent VM usage, run both VMs side-by-side (resources permitting). This
allows:

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 Testing file transfers between OSes using shared folders or FTP.

 Configuring a local network between VMs for services such as DNS, DHCP, or AD
domain joining.

Advanced users may also install VirtualBox inside Ubuntu to emulate nested virtualization
and run Windows within Linux.

4. Evidence and Screenshots

Virtual Machine Creation:

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