Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

DTISL - T6 - Basic English II

Unit 1 - A. Vocabulary

1) Technical terms: Commerce

2) Technical terms: Computer Science

3) Technical terms: Corporate

4) Technical terms: Government and Legal setup

5) Technical terms: High school terms

6) Technical terms: Medical terms

7) Technical terms: School Subjects

8) Technical terms: Telecommunication

9) Phrasal verbs

Technical Terms

Technical terms are words or phrases that people use in a specific career field. These terms can
be any word, phrase or acronym that has a specialized meaning within a particular field of
expertise, such as words for equipment, personnel, software or processes. You can use technical
terms to save time when communicating with other knowledgeable people in the industry.

1) Technical terms: Commerce

Commerce refers to the buying and selling of goods and services for money or in kind. It is a
branch of business. It includes all the processes that have to do with the exchange of products
and services. The term usually refers to doing business on a large scale, specifically, on a scale
large enough to require transportation from seller to buyer. The transportation may be across a
town, a state or county, or from country-to. country.

The term ‘commerce’ usually means the same as ‘trade.’ Trade also means buying, selling, or
exchanging goods and services between people, firms, and countries.

Account Balance
Revenue generated during the current pay-out period (from the last pay-out date)

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Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

Account Updater Service

A service provided by credit card issuers to update changes in card numbers and expirations due
to replacements, reissues, account closures, upgrades, etc.

ACH Payment
Electronic payment made via the Automated Clearing House (ACH) network between two bank
accounts.

Address Verification System

The system used to verify the billing address of cardholders.

Affiliate
Agents who promote and sell the products of other merchants in return for compensation.

Affiliate Bonus
Incentives to agents who achieve sales or CTR target.

Affiliate Marketing
A form of marketing where businesses reward agents who drive sales or leads on their behalf.

Affiliate Network
Platforms that act as intermediaries between merchants and agents.

Analytics
The methodology of collating and analyzing data to find information to support decision-making
processes.

Annual Recurring Revenue (ARR)

This metric is derived by multiplying recurring monthly revenue by 12 months. Typically used
by subscription-based e-commerce entities.

Application Programming Interface (API)

A code that establishes a set of rules and commands which allow two software applications to
communicate with each other.

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

A field of computer science which attempts to replicate human intelligence in machines and
computers.

Authorization Rate
Ratio of successful transactions.

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Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

Auto-renewal
A billing model where charges are periodically made on customers’ accounts via existing
payment data,

Automated Clearing House (ACH)

A highly secure payment transfer platform which connects banks and financial institutions.

Automated workflows
A process that identifies and automates repetitive and time-consuming manual tasks using
technological solutions.

Average Cost of Service

The aggregate real cost of products or services. It includes manufacturing, labour, delivery,
storage, handling, etc. costs.

Average Order Value (AOV)

Average amount of individual purchase per individual customer.

Average Revenue Per User (ARPU)

Average revenue per customer over a specified period of time.

B2B
Business to business, i.e., companies that sell to other companies.

B2C
Business to consumer, i.e., companies that sell to end-users.

Back-End System
Software which support back-office applications like sales, inventory, ordering and payroll.

Bank Identification Number (BIN)

The first four to six digits of a credit or debit card. This can be used to identify a card’s issuing
bank.

Behavioral Biometrics
A revolutionary cyber security technology that identifies people using browsing habits, signature
analysis, mouse use, gait analysis, etc .

Big Mac Index

An index used to measure the purchasing power parity (PPP) between national currencies. The
price of a McDonald’s Big Mac is used as a base.

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Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

Billing
Invoicing.

Billing Currency
The currency which a transaction uses and payment is made in. This spans across the customer,
merchant and issuing bank.

Biometrics
Physical aspects, such as fingerprints, facial recognition or voice authorization, which are used to
digitally identify a human.

Brick and mortar

Traditional physical stores – as opposed to online stores.

Browser Pop-Up
A secondary browser window which opens independent of user request. Typically displays
advertisements. Can contain malicious pop-ups.

Bulk Ordering
Ordering a large volume of product.

Bundling
A strategy of selling multiple products or services together.

Buyer’s Journey
A customer’s pathway to purchase. This can be broken down into three stages, namely,
awareness, consideration and decision.

Call-to-Action (CTA)
A marketing message that triggers conversion. It may include text, image, video and/or voice.

Capture (or Settlement)

A credit or debit card transaction between end-user and merchant that are recorded and sent to
the issuing bank.

Card Not Present (CNP)

A transaction over the internet, mail or phone where credit or debit card information is
exchanged without the presence of a physical card.

Card Testing
When criminals use a variety of techniques to uncover whether information from a stolen card
can be used for fraud.

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Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

Cardholder Name
The name of the owner of the debit or credit card. The name is typically printed on the front of
the card.

Cardholder Verification Method (CVM)

A process used by the card issuer to authenticate the legitimacy of the cardholder. Performed
during point-of-sale. Methods used include, but not limited to, signature, enciphered pin and
OTP (one-time-password).

Cart Abandonment Rate

A ratio or percentage of cart abandonment incidents against the number of completed orders.

Channel Management
Optimisation and administration of multiple sales channels, such as print, social media and
affiliates, to reach specific target demographics.

Channel Manager
An automated tool which facilitates sales of products or services across all sales channels.
Critical for industries such as hospitality, tourism and services.

Chargeback
When an issuing bank revokes payment made to a merchant due to customer dispute.

Chargeback Fees
Administrative cost levied by issuing banks during chargebacks that are billed to merchants.

Chargeback Monitoring Program

Visa’s internal monitoring system to identify chargeback volume of merchants. Used to identify
merchants with an excessive number of chargebacks.

Chargeback Rate
A ratio or percentage of chargeback against the total number of transactions. Merchants with a
high chargeback rate are flagged.

Chargeback Threshold
The maximum number of chargebacks (rarely above 1%) allowed by issuing banks under a
merchant account.

Chat bot
Predictive or AI-powered programs which respond to customers’ common queries on websites
via chat widget (function).

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Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

Check-Out Flow
A process that every customer must go through when finalising sales of products in a shopping
cart. Typically entails filling out shipping and payment information.

Checking Account
A short-term liquid account in a bank which allows frequent withdrawals and deposits.

Checkout
The second last stage of a typical e-commerce flow, where customers finalise their purchase
right before submitting their payment and shipping details.

Churn Prevention
A strategy of retaining customers. Extremely important for subscription-based business models.

Churn Rate (Attrition)

The ratio or percentage of churn (voluntary or involuntary) against successful retention.

Co-termination
The consolidation of multiple services from a single vendor or merchant into a single account,
typically to align the period of service contracts or subscription cycles.

Cohort
Also referred to as cohort analysis. This is an analysis of customers who share identical
behavioural, purchase or conversion characteristics.

Configurable Retry Logic

Targeted at soft declines. Internal payment processing applications on websites and e-commerce
platforms are configured to reattempt approvals periodically.

Contactless Payments
Delivery agents deliver products to the home or office without making any contact with buyers.
The popularity of contactless payment skyrocketed during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Content Management System (CMS)

A collaborative software that allows users to create, optimise and publish content digitally.
Typically allows to create, design and manage a website.

Conversion Rate
The ratio or percentage of actions taken (such as purchase, opt-ins and following a funnel link)
against the total number of visitors to a web property.

Conversion Rate Optimisation (CRO)

The process of optimising and increasing responses to call to actions (CTAs) on webpages.
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Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

Credit Card
A credit card is a revolving credit facility issued by banks to approved customers. It comes in the
form of a thin rectangular piece of plastic (PVCA polymer) or metal. A credit card can be used to
make payments to merchants or draw funds from ATMs, subject to a preapproved credit limit.
There are many varieties of credit cards available to customers, such as classic, gold, business
and prepaid.

Credit Card Account Number

A unique 16-digit identification number that contains details about the issuing bank (first six
digits) and customer (next nine or ten digits). The last four digits are also frequently used as a
soft verification mechanism (such as during phone verifications).

Credit Card Authorization

An electronic request sent through a card system to authenticate whether the credit card account
is allowed to perform a transaction and has sufficient credit for purchase or verification.

Credit Card Authorization Code

When a credit card authorization is approved, the issuing bank will issue a five- or six-digit
authorization code for reference.

Credit Card Interchange

A payment system process where acquiring banks submit a settlement sheet to issuing banks to
process payments to merchants.

Customer Acquisition
A strategic process to convert prospects into paying customers for your business.

Customer Acquisition Cost (CAC)

The per capita cost of every new customer acquired during a specified period or campaign. The
cost is calculated by dividing total expenditure during a specified period or campaign with the
total number of new customers acquired.

Customer Churn
The ratio or percentage of customers who stopped purchasing or using a company’s product or
service over a specified period. Also known as customer attrition.

Customer’s Journey
A set of experiences, which define how customers discover, react and interact with your website
or brand.

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Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

Customer Lifetime Value (CLV)

A metric which calculates/estimates the amount of money customers will pay to your
organization throughout the time they remain as customers.

Customer Relationship Management (CRM)

A set of practices and technological applications (such as Fresh works, Sales force and Hub
Spot) for managing interactions with customers and prospects. This spans from quotes and
ordering to delivery and after-sales service.

Customer Retention
Refers to strategies and practices aimed at retaining customers and reducing attrition.

Days Sales Outstanding (DSO)

The average number of days required by companies to collect payment after a sale or service has
been completed.

Delayed Delivery Transaction

When delivery is not made after customers made an initial payment. Such payments are usually
made as deposits.

Depreciation Schedule
Forecast of declining asset value for bookkeeping purposes. Charts the projected depreciation of
company assets over a period of time.

Digital Wallet
A digital version of your financial instruments like credit and debit cards and crypto currencies.
Popular digital wallets include Google Pay, Apple Pay and Electrum. Also referred to as an e-
wallet.

Download Insurance Service (DIS)

DIS allow redownloads of software or application if the initial download is corrupted or lost.
Ensures that download links of software or digital products are active up to two years after
purchase.

Dunning Management
An automated recurring billing solution for hard declines. Enables smart retries of charges at
intervals.

E-Commerce Platform
An end-to-end software which allows organizations to create and manage e-commerce stores. E-
commerce platforms are typically delivered via cloud and on-premise platforms. Popular
platforms include Magento, Salesforce Commerce Cloud, Shopify, Storm and WooCommerce.

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Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

Electronic Draft Capture

A software which captures or ‘blocks’ a specified amount on a credit card at the point-of-sale.
This prevents cardholders from making multiple fraudulent purchases while approvals are sought
from issuing banks.

Expired Card Handling

An automated process that identifies expired credit cards and enables payment service providers
to update new expiry dates in their database. Very useful for subscription-based services and
deferred or instalment payment schemes.

Fintech
A portmanteau of the word financial and technology. An umbrella term used for start-ups in the
e-commerce and financial sectors.

Fraud
Activities designed to deceive online merchants to accept fraudulent transactions.

Growth Hacking
Accelerated testing and trials in various channels and funnels to help businesses grow quickly.

Hard Decline
A permanent and irrevocable authorization failure. It usually involves accounts that have been
closed or cards that have been stolen.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)

Enhanced security protocol between merchant websites and servers.

Independent Sales Organisation (ISO)

Marketing agencies that promotes and signs merchants to accept debit and credit cards on behalf
of acquiring banks.

Influencers
An individual, brand or organisation that are able to influence the purchasing decisions of others
due to their proven authority, expertise or influence in a particular market or industry.
Influencers may include celebrities, athletes, politicians, gamers, business leaders and social
media personalities.

Influencer Marketing
A marketing discipline which uses endorsements and mentions from influencers to drive
engagement and sales.

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Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

Intelligent Payment Routing

A global network of secure gateways to route merchant transactions to acquiring banks. Also
facilitates failover transactions and retries for soft declines.

Issuing Bank
Banks or financial institutions which issue credit cards to end-users.

JavaScript
A computer language that is designed specifically for the internet. This scripting language is the
backbone of many major e-commerce portals.

Knowledge Assets
Data that makes up an organization’s business function. Includes employee, organizational,
customer and framework data.

Localisation
Adapting content such as text, video and audio to new markets. Aside from language translation,
local culture is also taken into consideration.

Merchant
The term used to describe online sellers or vendors who accept credit or debit card payments
from customers and submit them to acquiring banks.

Merchant Account
Each approved merchant is provided with a single account. This account will be used to conduct
authorisation transactions, settlement and other related functions. Payments from issuing banks
will also be sent to this account.

Merchant Category Code (MCC)

A four-digit code issued by credit card companies to merchants to categorise the type of
business.

Merchant Discount Rate

Fees of between 1% and 3% applied to each transaction submitted by merchants.

Metadata
Metadata communicates to search engines what a website or page is about. Description of a
website contents such as a page title (title tag), summary of content (meta description) and
alternative text tag (typically to describe images and videos).

Monetization Model
An umbrella term to describe how organisations generate revenue. May include sales of products
or services, ads, subscriptions, sponsorships, etc.
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Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

Monthly Recurring Revenue (MRR)

The amount of revenue generated by individual customers over a one-month period.

Net Promoter Score (NPS)

A metric used to measure customer experience and satisfaction and their likelihood of promoting
your business to their social circle.

Omni channel
A comprehensive approach that attempts to provide customers with a unified experience across
all sales and marketing platforms.

On-premises
Software that is accessed from the vendor’s server instead of customers’ computers or servers.
For example, Microsoft 365 or Adobe Creative Cloud.

Payment Gateway
Servers that route sensitive transaction details to acquiring banks and reroute responses from
issuing banks

Payment Processor
A service platform which facilitates communications between the merchant, issuing bank and
acquiring bank, and vice versa. Sometimes referred to as merchant service.

Payment Service Provider (PSP)

Partners with acquiring banks to enable merchants to accept payments after settlement.

Personalization
A marketing and conversion strategy that is tailored to individual customers using purchasing,
behavioral and browsing data.

Plugins
Software additions to enhance or customise existing programs or applications.

Product Information Management

A software which centrally manages the product data of a company’s entire inventory. The data
can be used to populate webstores, e-commerce sites, inventory software, sales content, etc.

Product Texts
Texts that describe a product, such as product descriptions in e-commerce stores or product
reviews on funnel sites.

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Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

Purchase Flow
A part of the customer journey. Details they browsing and decision-making flow before
finalising a sale.

Quarterly Recurring Revenue (QRR)

A metric used to calculate/estimate the revenue generated by a single customer in one annual
quarter.

Recurring Billing
A scheduled billing that occurs over a period of time. Usually involves subscriptions and
instalment plans. Not to be confused with a recurring transaction.

Recurring Revenue
A company’s projected revenue based on expected recurring billing.

Recurring Transaction
Payments that are split over a duration of time. Typically involve deposit or milestone payments.

Refund
Reimbursement of funds from merchants to customers. Usually due to product or service defects.

Renewal
A manual or automated process taken to renew an existing subscription.

Sales Channel
Mediums to get products or services to customers. This may include field sales, inside sales and
website sales. Also known as a distribution channel.

Sales Closing Ratio

A ratio or percentage of the number of conversions against the number of total pitches or
presentations.

Shipping
The process of delivering physical products to buyers. Rarely includes ships.

Shopper
The customer who makes a purchase from a merchant.

Shopping Cart
A software that allows customers to tag items they intend to purchase for easy retrieval during
checkout.

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Split Payment
When a purchase is paid using more than one credit card or payment method.

Sponsored Merchant
Merchants which connect to selected payment service providers for access to payment services.

Subscription
A recurring transaction over a defined interval (typically one month) to gain access to a product
or service.

Subscription Lifecycle
The contracted length of access to products or services.

Tax (Sales Tax)

A legislated tariff levied on every transaction, payable to the government.

Transaction Settlemen
When the customer’s issuing bank sends payment to the merchant (via a payment processor).

Trial
A marketing strategy which offers customers free access to a product or service for a defined
period of time.

Usage Billing
A billing model that is reliant on a customer’s volume of use. Also known as metered billing.

Voice Shopping
Sales support in the form of a virtual assistant, normally in the form of a chatbot.

Voice-activated Banking
Allows customers to access their bank accounts using voice verification and commands.

Reference:

 https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/technical-terms
 https://marketbusinessnews.com/financial-glossary/commerce-definition-meaning/
 https://contentor.com/blogg/e-commerce-glossary/

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Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

2) Technical terms: Computer Science

Access Point :
This is wireless hardware connection in which networking devices are used which also known as
base station which create a wireless operation through a line for broadband network the access is
at the local area network LAN.

Aero :
This is the name of Window Vista graphical interface which gives a new look to the users’
device the full form of Aero is authentic, energetic, reflective and open.

Application :
Any program which is made to perform a special task that is known as application for example
Microsoft Word, Excel, PowerPoint etc.

Backup :
Any file which is copy to different source or device.

Bandwidth :
Tour connection when we transfer data and for that the measurement it is done through a
bandwidth this is calculated in bits per second.

Binary :
This is the basic series of system which has 0 and 1.

Bitmap :
The file format which is used for Digital pictures format.

Bluetooth :
Radio Technology through which electronic devices which is used as a facility without
connecting any wire so this is a wireless connectivity.

Browser :
For ceiling data on the web the software program which is used is called browser Microsoft
Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Netscape Navigator are all browsers.

Buffer :
For storing data on for storing data on a temporary basis which is showing various factors like
printing disk access etc this helps in increasing the speed.

Byte :
This is the measurement of byte data transfer or data storage one byte has 8 bit.

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Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

Cable Modem :
Cable modem is a type cable modem is a type of internet connection which is telecast through a
cable throw broadband connection we got the high speed network.

Cache :
This is the high speed memory which is equal to Random Access Memory Ram and cache has a
difference of cache memory server storage and a computer system storage.

CD-ROM :
This is cheap round storage device which is permanent in this the data can be stored in a bulk.

CGA :
Color graphic adaptor is a smallest form this is the microcomputer color standard off the IBM.

Client :
This is a process which ask other programs the information about any source email client
Outlook web browser are some example.

Clipboard :
The temporary data is stored over here which is stored while we transfer data from one device to
another or from one folder to another.

CPU :
All the actions all the actions are performed in a central Processing Unit which is given by a
CPU this is the brain of a computer whose work is to do to task ceded by the user and the CPU
perform the right function whatever is asked to do like addition subtraction etc.

Cursor :
This is type of mark which helps in doing work like clicking.

Data :
The information stored in a computer is data.

Database :
The information which the information which is in a large amount is called database the
collection of newspaper is again a database.

Demodulation :
This process is used by a telephone company through which the analogue signal is used in
computer by converting into a digital signal.

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Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

Desktop :
The very first screen which has the icon Taskbar sidebar etc.

Desktop Window Manager : Visual style window has a new Windows Vista this style is
known as Arrow glass for saying this we need a video card which is longhorn Display Drive
model.

Dial-Up Line :
Any telephone line which is joined to a server is known as dial up line.

Dial Up Networking :
This is generally used and window 95, 98 and Unix operating system through this various
computers are joined through a telephone line which is again connected to the internet through a
modem.

Digital :
This is a form in which a data is shown as a non-analogue and digital WWE this is similar to
Binary System.

Directory :
In computer language the file system which is having different forms is known as directory one
directory has a thousand files and folders which is used for data addition and update.

Domain :
This is a computer with side or network which is connected to internet a simple domain name
can be www.google.com.

DOS :
Disk operating system is desk operating system is a smallest form this is prepared by Bill Gates
it is the command line operating system.

Domain Name : This is the special and entity of the company e which is connected to the
internet this is also the remembering structure of IP address.

DPI :
The desktop publishing is a small computer and devices connected to it work as a publishing
process the more the pixel the better will be the picture.

Ethernet :
The high speed connectivity is possible through a networking system by a cable TCP IP
AppleTalk Novell wetware these are all network protocol with support the Ethernet network
system.

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Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

Executable File :
This is the exe this is a binary file which is used to do work through a computer system this
cannot be opened by a human this is made for understanding things just like a program.

Expanded Memory :
This is the expanded memory specification for EMS in a dos based system the one megabyte
address place is present in a main memory for increasing the memory capability this technique is
used 384 K is the high memory and 640K is the normal memory.

Expansion Card :
This is a circuit card which is used in motherboard for the extension slot.

External Modem :
This is different in real computer system this can easily be removed from one computer to
another.

Gateway :
This is a part of a software which create a link between two sides this is used for interconnecting
computer internally.

GIF :
Graphical interchange format is a process this is made ready by the campus this is a format of a
picture.

HTML :
Hypertext Markup Language which is used for structural and formatting tags which is used for
creating a web page.

HTTP :
Hypertext transfer protocol which is used in World Wide Web server.

Integrated Circuit :
The other name of a microchip is the other name of a microchip is integrated circuit this is a
small electronic device which is used as a semiconductor.

ISP :
The internet service provider is a company which provide you the facility of internet.

ISDN :
The integrated services Digital Network this is the present telephone lines process delivery this is
used for connecting various places and for this the other place also has an ISDN in it.

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Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

JPEG :
Joint photographic experts group this is the picture format.

Mainframe :
This is known as server or CPU this is huge and very powerful.

Motherboard :
This is the main circuit Board of a microcomputer in which various connectors are there for
connecting boards normal motherboard has CPU, chip Ram, ROM chip disk driver, control card,
output editor card, speaker, timer etc.

MP3 :
Moving picture expert group audio layer 3 this is used for making small audio file which has a
good audio quality.

MP4 :
Moving picture expert group audio layer 4 this has a bandwidth multimedia application.

MPEG :
Moving picture expert group this is the Digital audio and video files format making which is
used for viewing.

Newsgroup :
Online USENET net system which has a thousand and lacks of topics information in it which is
given at the free cost.

PDF :
Portable document format this is used by the Adobe through which you can convert the files into
a picture file, this is my mistake anything get disturbed there will be no no loss or change that
will occur on it.

Peripheral :
Any external device that is connected to a computer like printer, driver display, monitor,
keyboard, mouse etc.

Phishing :
Password harvesting fishing this take user private information like password. Through this we
can get information of anyone through a cheat.

Pixel :
This is picture element in graphic monitor the picture is seen in a thousand and lacks of digits
that is a division of a pixel in reality of pixel is a point through which a complete image is
formed.
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Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

Port :
Slots in the motherboard through which the parts are joined in a computer is known as port.

Ribbon :
Microsoft Office 2007 uses a toolbar of 2003 office and menus that are removed and given in a
ribbon through this we can go to any option easily, so we don’t need to see the menu again and
again.

RSS :
Really simple syndication this is a XML format which is used for the distribution of news
headlines.

Reference:

 https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/technical-terminology-of-computer/

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Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

3) Technical terms: Corporate

Corporate jargon is essentially workplace language, and is used to describe a set of words,
phrases, or acronyms used in a business or corporate setup.

Acquisition

Obtaining control of another corporation by purchasing all or a majority of its outstanding

shares, or by purchasing its assets.

Agent

Anyone who is authorized to act on the behalf of another. A corporation acts only through its
agents; therefore, it is important to define what actions an agent is authorized to perform.

Amendment

An addition to, deletion from, or a change of existing provisions of the articles of incorporation
of a domestic corporation or articles of organization for a limited-liability company. An
amendment is necessary to formally change the name of an entity or to change the capital stock
structure.

Annual Meeting

A yearly meeting of shareholders at which directors are elected and other general business of the
corporation is conducted.

Annual Report

A required annual filing in a state, usually listing directors, officers and financial information.
Also, an annual statement of business and affairs furnished by a corporation to its shareholders.

Authorized Shares

The maximum number of shares that a corporation may issue pursuant to its articles of
incorporation.

Attorney's Opinion

A lawyer's written statement that a certain matter or particular action complies with applicable
legal requirements and/or is duly authorized or binding.

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Board of Directors

The governing body of a corporation who is elected by shareholders. The directors are
responsible for selecting the officers and the supervision and general control of the corporation.

Bond

A long-term debt secured by a mortgage on real property or a lien on other fixed assets. A
certificate evidencing indebtedness. It is a legal contract sold by an issuer promising to pay the
holder its face value plus amounts of interest at future dates.

Business Corporation Act

A business corporation act is the collection of laws in each state that governs corporations.

Bylaws

The regulations of a corporation that, subject to statutory law and the articles of incorporation,
provide the basic rules for the conduct of the corporation's business and affairs.

Bearer Shares

Shares of capital stock that is issued payable to "bearer". This type of stock is specifically
allowed in the State of Wyoming and is also allowed under Nevada statutes for privately held
corporations. Public corporations are prohibited from issuing bearer stock.

Calendar Year

An accounting period that ends each December 31, which is the period most S corporation must
adopt as a permitted year.

Capital Stock

The outstanding shares of a joint-stock company considered as an aggregate.

Carry back

For federal income tax purposes, the portion of a net operating loss deductable from net income
of the prior three years. This amount is absorbed and the remainder carried forward to offset
future years net income.

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Carry Forward

To offset for tax purposes one period's loss against a subsequent period's net income. Losses
which are unused may generally carry over to another year. Such tax benefits may enhance the
value of a target to a buyer burdened with high taxes.

Certificate of Authority

Formal evidence of qualification issued by a state to a foreign corporation.

Common Shares

A class of shares that has no special features and possesses no greater rights than any other
shares except for Preferred Shares. All capital stock except for preferred stock is considered
Common Shares.

Consent Resolution

A consent resolution is any resolution signed by all of the directors or shareholders, which
authorizes a particular action. This act eliminates the need for face-to-face meetings of directors
and shareholders.

Consolidation

The statutory combination of two or more corporations to create a new corporation.

Constituent

A party to a transaction; a corporation involved in a merger, consolidation or share exchange.

Contract Creditors

Contract creditors are people or businesses which you owe money or property to because of a
written or verbal contractual agreement. If you buy 30 widgets from Widget World, Widget
World becomes a contract creditor.

Corporate Kit

A Corporate Kit is a binder usually containing essential items for the routine maintenance and
administration of a corporation or limited liability company. Corporate kits commonly include
sample minutes and bylaws, stock certificates, a corporate seal and stock ledger.

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Corporation

An entity formed and authorized by, created under and governed by the laws of the state of
incorporation to act as a single person even though it is constituted by one or more persons and
legally endowed with various rights and duties including the capacity of succession.

Corporation Law

The statutory provisions of a state relating to domestic and foreign corporations.

Debenture

A long-term debt issued mainly to evidence an unsecured corporate debt.

Debt Financing

A method of raising capital in which a corporation borrows money.

Derivative Suit

A lawsuit brought by a shareholder on behalf of a corporation to protect the corporation from

wrongs committed against it.

Directors

The individuals who, acting as a group known as the board of directors, manage the business and
affairs of a corporation.

Dissolution

The statutory procedure that terminates the existence of a domestic corporation.

Distribution

A transfer of money or other property made by a corporation to a shareholder in respect of the

corporation's shares.

Dividend

A distribution of a corporation's earnings to its shareholders.

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Duration

How long a business will be recognized as a corporate entity. A company with a perpetual
duration will last forever unless the state dissolves the company. A 30-year duration means that
the company will automatically dissolve on it's 30th anniversary of existence.

Disqualifying Act

An act by the corporation or shareholder that causes the corporation to cease to be an eligible
corporation and that generally results in termination of S corporation status.

Foreign Corporation

A term applied to a corporation doing business in a state other than its state of incorporation.

Fractional Share

Ownership in a corporation in an amount less than a full share.

Going Public

The process by which a corporation first sells its shares to the public.

Good Standing

A corporation is said to be in good standing when it has remained current with the necessary
reports and fees required by the regulatory jurisdictions under which it operates.

Hostile Takeover

A takeover that occurs without the approval of the target corporation's board of directors.

Incorporation

The act of creating or organizing a corporation under the laws of a specific jurisdiction.

Incorporator

The person(s) who perform the act of incorporation and who sign the articles of incorporation
and deliver them for filing.

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Limited Liability

Liability (as a stockholder or shipowner) limited by statute or treaty.

Majority

More than 50 percent; commonly used as the percentage of votes required to approve certain
corporate actions.

Management

The board of directors and executive officers of a corporation, limited liability company or
similar business entity.

Managers

The individuals who are responsible for the maintenance, administration and management of the
affairs of a limited liability company (LLC).

Members

The owner(s) of a limited liability company (LLC). Unless the articles of organization or
operating agreement provide otherwise, management of an LLC is vested in the members in
proportion to their ownership interest in the company.

Membership Certificates

Evidence of ownership of and membership in a limited liability company.

Merger

The statutory combination of two or more corporations in which one of the corporations survives
and the other corporations cease to exist.

Minutes

The corporate minutes are the written record of transactions taken or authorized by the board of
directors or shareholders. These are usually kept in the corporate minute book in diary fashion.

Name Registration

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The filing of a document in a foreign state to protect the corporate name, often in anticipation of
qualification in the state.

Name Reservation

A procedure that allows a corporation to obtain exclusive use of a corporate name for a specified
period of time.

No Par Value Shares

Shares for which the articles of incorporation do not fix a par value and that may be issued for
any consideration determined by the board of directors.

Not-For-Profit Corporation

A not-for-profit corporation is generally organized for some socially beneficial purpose, rather
than for the direct monetary benefit of the directors or members. Not all not-for-profit
corporations are tax exempt and some make a profit. However, the profit is not distributed to the
members or directors. Also known as a non-profit corporation.

Notice of Service of Process

Official notification of an action or proceeding by the delivery of a legal or court document, with
a request to answer in a specific period of time.

Natural Business Year

A fiscal year that is permitted for an S corporation because the corporation can show that 25
percent of gross receipts have been realized in the last two months of such a year for the last
three years.

Officers

Individuals appointed by the board of directors who are responsible for carrying out the board's
policies and for making day-to-day decisions.

Operating Agreement

A contract among the members of a limited liability company governing the membership,
management, operation and distribution of income of the company. Commonly abbreviated "Op-
Ag".

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Organizational Meetings

Meetings of incorporators or initial directors that are held after the filing of the articles of
incorporation to complete the organization of the corporation.

Organizer

The person(s) who perform the act of forming a limited liability company.

Parent Corporation

A corporation that owns a controlling interest in another corporation.

Partnership

A business organization in which two or more persons agree to do business together.

Par Value

A minimum price of a share below which the share cannot be issued, as designated in the articles
of incorporation.

Pass-Through Taxation

Rather than tax the income of the entity, taxation is “passed through” to the individual
shareholders in S corporations (and LLCs). Income or losses are declared on their individual tax
returns.

Perpetual Existence

Unlimited term of existence; characteristics of most business corporations.

Preferred Shares

A class of shares that entitles the holders to preferences over the holders of common shares,
usually with regard to dividends and distributions of assets upon dissolution or liquidation.

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Professional Corporation

A corporation whose purposes are limited to professional services, such as those performed by
doctors, dentists and attorneys. A professional corporation is formed under special state laws that
stipulate exactly which professionals are required to incorporate under this status.

Promoter

A written authorization given by a person to another party directing the party to vote on behalf of
him/her.

Passive Income

Income to certain taxpayers (including S corporation shareholders) that is subject to the passive
activity loss (PAL) rules because the taxpayer does not materially participate in the business
activity producing the income. Generally includes receipts from royalties, rents, dividends,
interest, annuities, and the sale and exchange of stock and securities.

Qualification

The filing of required documents by a corporation to secure a certificate of authority to conduct

its business in a state other than the one in which it was incorporated. Limited liability
companies or similar business entities may also conduct this process.

Record Date

The date for determining the shareholders entitled to vote at a meeting, receive dividends, or
participate in any corporate action.

Redeemable Shares

Shares subject to purchase by the corporation on terms set forth in the articles of incorporation.

Registered Office

The statutory address of a corporation. In states requiring the appointment of a registered agent,
it is usually the address of the registered agent.

Regulations - Regulations are administrative rules which have the force and effect of laws.
Government agencies promulgate rules. If you don't comply, you are subject to the possibility of
fines or revocation of the corporate charter.

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Resolution

A formal statement of any item of business that has been voted upon.

Restated Articles

A document that combines all currently operative provisions of a corporation's articles of

incorporation and amendments thereto.

Share

The unit into which the ownership interest in a corporation is divided.

Share Exchange

A statutory form of business combination in which some or all of the shares of one corporation
are exchanged for some or all of the shares of another corporation and neither corporation ceases
to exist.

Shareholders

Shareholders are the owners of a corporation based on their holdings. They own an interest in the
corporation rather than specific corporate property. Also known as stockholders.

Stock

Stock represents ownership in a corporation. It may be represented by a certificate and can be

common or preferred, voting or non-voting, redeemable, convertible, etc.. The classifications and
special designations, if any, of the stock are set forth in the articles of incorporation.

Stock Certificate

An instrument providing evidence of ownership of one or more shares of the capital stock of a
corporation. May also be referred to as a share certificate.

Stockholders

Stockholders are the owners of a corporation based on their holdings. They own an interest in the
corporation rather than specific corporate property. Also known as shareholders.

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Subscribers

Persons who agree under specific conditions to purchase shares in a corporation.

Subscription

The agreement executed by a subscriber.

Subsidiary

A corporation that is either wholly owned or controlled through ownership of a majority of its
voting shares, by another corporation or business entity.

Takeover

A merger, acquisition or other change in the controlling interest of a corporation.

Target

A corporation that is the focus of a takeover attempt.

Winding Up

The discharging of a corporation's liabilities and the distributing of its remaining assets to its
shareholders in connection with its dissolution.

Withdrawal

The statutory procedure whereby a foreign corporation obtains the consent of a state to terminate
its authority to transact business there.

Resource

 https://www.incorp.com/help-center/glossary

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4) Technical terms: Government and Legal setup

Technical terms: Government

ACT-a measure which has become law after being passed by both houses of Congress and
approved by the President, or passed by two-thirds vote over his veto.

ADJOURN-to end a meeting, usually for a stated time only.

AMENDMENT-an addition to a constitution (the United States Constitution or a state

constitution); a change in any bill or document by adding, substituting, or omitting a certain part
before its final passage.

APPROPRIATION-money set aside by a legislative body for some government expenditure.

BILL-a measure introduced in either house of Congress.

Public bill--a bill of broad general application.

Private bill--a bill for the benefit of one or a few individuals.

BIPARTISAN-approved by two political parties, or including representatives of two political

parties--for example, the U.S. bipartisan foreign policy, supported by most Democrats and
Republicans.

BUDGET-the document sent to Congress by the President in January of each year estimating
government revenue and expenditures for the ensuing fiscal year and recommending
appropriations in detail. The President's budget message forms the basis for congressional
hearings and legislation on the year's appropriations.

CALENDAR-a legislative schedule; thus when a bill is reported from a committee of the House
(or Senate), it is placed upon a "calendar." The House and Senate calendars are lists on which
bills are recorded in numerical order.

CAUCUS-a meeting of party members in a legislative body to determine the party's stand on
forthcoming issues.

CENSURE-a vote of condemnation or disapproval of the conduct of a member of Congress by

either house. It carries with it no special punishment.

CONFIRMATION-approval by the Senate of appointments made by the President.

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ELECTION-the process of choosing government officials by vote of the citizens.

Primary election--an election within a party to select its candidates for public office.

Off-year-election--a local (not federal) election.

Special or by-election--an election to fill an office vacated because of death or resignation.

FILIBUSTER-prolonged talking by a senator or senators for the purpose of delay, in the hope of
forcing the majority to give up the proposal being debated.

FISCAL YEAR-a 12-month period at the end of which accounts are reckoned. Congress
appropriates funds on the basis our our government's fiscal year, which begins July 1 and ends
on June 30. Fiscal year 1960, for example, began July 1, 1959.

FLOOR-a term referring to the full Senate or the full House. For example, "the bill is on the
floor of the House" means that the bill is up for consideration by the House.

HEARING-a session of a congressional committee at which supporters and opponents of a

proposed measure are given an opportunity to express their views.

Closed hearing--a hearing barred to the public and the press.

IMPEACHMENT-accusations against a civil official of misconduct while in office, used as

grounds for removal of that official from office. Impeachment should not be confused with the
trial itself. In Congress, impeachment proceedings take place in the House of Representatives.
The trial on the charges is held in the Senate.

LAW-an Act of Congress which has been signed by the President or passed over his veto by the
Congress. Laws are listed numerically by Congress; for example, the Civil Rights Act of 1964
(HR 7152) became Public Law 88-352 during the 88th Congress.

LOBBY-a group or person (lobbyist) seeking to influence legislators for the passage or defeat of
legislation.

MAJORITY-more than half, or the group that controls a vote of that size.

Absolute majority--more than half the entire membership of a voting body.

Simple majority--more than half the members present and voting at the moment.

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MINORITY-less than half, or the group which controls only a minor fraction of the total vote in
Congress.

MOTION-a proposal on procedure or action presented to a legislative body.

OVERRIDE-to set aside or annul, as to override a veto by the President (which requires a two-
thirds vote in each house of Congress).

Technical terms: Legal setup

Accomplice- A person who has taken part in or aided the commission of a crime.

Accused person- A person or persons accused of committing a crime but not yet tried for it.

Acknowledgement– It is a method to certify or declare one’s knowledge of some document. It is

a statement of acceptance.

Acquaintance Rape- When rape is being committed by a person known/related to the victim.

Acquittal- A conclusion by a judge that the accused person/s are not guilty of the commission of
the charged offence/s.

Actus Reus- It is the unlawful, physical act that constitutes an essential element of a crime and
which, in most cases, must be combined with mens rea (criminal intent) to prove that a crime has
been committed.

Adjournment– The postponement of a case hearing to a later date. Check the wiki page

Adjudication– The legal process of deciding a dispute between two or more parties by a
competent authority.

Admissible Evidence- The evidence that a trial judge may consider based on the provisions of
the Indian Evidence Act. All the evidence submitted by the parties to the court may not be
admissible.

Admission– The acceptance of document, fact, or statement by a party before the court.

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Affidavit– A document sworn by a party before a notary asserting that the contents of the
document are made to the best of the signatory’s knowledge, information and belief. Pleadings
filed in court cases usually need to be supported by affidavits.

Appeal– A process by which a litigant can approach a higher court/authority challenging the
order or judgment of a lower court, tribunal or authority

Appearance- A party showing up in court in response to summons or notice. A party can make
an appearance either in person or through their lawyer, depending on the case. In criminal
proceedings, the complainant and the accused needs to be personally present at every hearing,
unless the Court exempts them.

Appellant : A person who files an appeal i.e. applies to a higher court for a reconsideration of the
decision made by a lower court.

Appellate (also see Jurisdiction) : In a court, those applications that are concerned with decisions
made by a lower court, tribunal or authority.

Arrears : As per the 245th Law Commission report: Some delayed cases might be in the system
for longer than the normal time, for valid reasons. Those cases that show unwarranted delay will
be referred to as arrears. Check the wiki page

Arrest– An arrest is an act of taking a person into custody as he/she may be suspected of a crime
or an offence. It is done because a person is apprehended for doing something wrong. Check the
wiki page

Arrest Warrant– An order passed by a magistrate or judge authorising a law enforcement agency
to arrest a person suspected of committing a crime.

Arson- It is a voluntary act of burning a property or setting a property on fire.

Assault- It is a threat or attempt to use criminal force on an individual. Actual physical contact is
not required to prove assault.

Attachment– An order seizing or attaching property/assets (including bank accounts) to satisfy

the demands or claims made by a party. Courts may attach a debtor’s property to pay their
creditors or to secure the creditors’ interests during the pendency of proceedings.

Bail- Bail is referred to as the temporary release of the accused person in a criminal case in
which the trial has not started or the trial is going on and the court is yet to reach a decision. The
court granting bail usually imposes conditions such as sureties, personal bond, participation in
investigation, as conditions for release.

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Capital punishment- Capital punishment or the death penalty is the punishment for a crime
which involves taking the convicted person’s life. In India capital punishment is awarded in the
rarest of rare cases. Check the wiki page

Case Number : A unique identification number provided by the court for each case, made up of
three components: a case type, the said number, and the year in which the case was instituted.

Case Status : The stage at which a case is, within the process in the court.

Cause List : A list issued by the registry of the matters to be heard by the court on any day. The
bench, court hall number and the position of the matter are indicated on the cause list. This list
appears in print form in every court, and is made available on the website of several
courts. Check the wiki page

Cause of action– A set of facts and circumstances sufficient for a party to initiate legal action
against another party.

Charge sheet- Charge sheet refers to a formal police record presented to the court showing the
names of each person accused of the criminal offence/s, the nature of the accusations and the
crimes, and the evidence. If the person accused of a crime is in prison, the police has to file a
charge sheet in 60 days (where the punishment for the crime is less than 10 years) or 90 days
(where the punishment of the crime is more than 10 years). Check the wiki page

Circumstantial Evidence- Circumstantial evidence is indirect evidence that is not based on direct
observation. On its face circumstantial evidence does not prove a fact in issue but gives rise to a
logical inference that the fact exists. A person can be convicted on the basis of circumstantial
evidence only if the circumstances taken cumulatively form a chain so complete that there is no
escape from the conclusion that in all human probability, the crime was committed by them.

Civil Procedure Code : Codified procedural law related to administration of Indian civil law.

Civil : That part of the law that encompasses business, contracts, estates, domestic (family)
relations, accidents, negligence, and everything related to legal issues, statutes, and lawsuits, that
is not criminal law.

Commissions : A commission is appointed by a court to ascertain or investigate facts needed to

decide a case. A commission is usually given specific terms of reference. Members of a
commission can be academics, social activists/workers, advocates, or judges.

Commutation– The action of an executive officer to substitute a punishment given to a convicted

person, with a less severe punishment. Under the Constitution, the President and Governor have
the power to commute sentences.

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Complaint: Any allegation made orally or in writing to the police or a magistrate stating that a
criminal offence has been committed, with a view to them taking action to investigate the alleged
offence. Check the wiki page

Conviction– It is a final adjudication of finding an accused person guilty of the commission of s

crime by a Court.

Counterclaim– A claim made by the defendant against the plaintiff in answer to the claim raised
by the plaintiff.

Court Hall: The room in which the judicial proceedings of the court are carried out. Court halls
are usually described by the numbers assigned to them e.g. Courthall No. 3.

Court Notice/Summons– An official document that a court sends to a party informing them that a
case has been filed against them, and which indicates the date and time of the next
hearing. Check the wiki page

Criminal Procedure Code : The main legislation on procedure for administration of substantive
criminal law in India.

Criminal : That which pertains to crimes, and requires the administration of penal justice.
Involving those cases that deal with a violation of a law in which a citizen inflicts injury upon
another citizen or the state. Punishable with the curtailment of liberty, via imprisonment or
detention, or fines.

Cross-examination- The examination of witness by the opposite party shall be called a cross-
examination. Cross-examination gives the opposing party an opportunity to point out the
weaknesses of a witness’ testimony. The lawyer conducting the cross-examination cannot ask
questions outside the scope of the witness’s prior direct examination. Check the wiki page

Culpable homicide not amounting to murder- An act which has caused death done with the
intention of causing death, or causing such bodily injury which is likely to cause death, or done
by someone having the knowledge that they can, by their act, likely cause death, amounts to
culpable homicide.

Date of Hearing: The date on which a case is heard in court.

Date of Institution: The date when a case is filed and registered in a court.

Decree Holder – The person in favour of whom the judgment and decree is given by a court,
directing the other party to take action or desist from acting in terms of the decree.

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Decree– The formal order of a court that conclusively resolves the issues in a case and
determines the rights of the parties.

Defendant- The party against whom a civil suit is filed

Deferred Sentence- Postponement or delay of a sentence to a future date.

Delay : As per the 245th Law Commission report: A case that has been in the court or judicial
system for longer than the normal time that it should take for a case of that type to be disposed
of.

Disposal : The resolution of a case. This could either be the dismissal or a charge, or a final
judgment. Court records often specify the nature of resolution.

Dispute : A conflict of claims or rights that has given rise to the subject of litigation.

District : An administrative unit within a state. Each district is headed by an official called the
District Magistrate/Deputy Commissioner/Collector.

Evidence– Evidence are things or information brought before the court to prove a fact. Evidence
can be documents, computers, witness testimony, videos, audio recordings, weapons etc. The
Indian Evidence Act governs the admissibility of evidence and burden of proof.

Ex Parte- A hearing or trial conducted in the absence of one party.

Examination in chief- Examination-in-chief is the examination of a witness by the lawyer of the

side who called that witness. It is usually followed by a cross-examination of the witness by the
lawyers of the opposite side. Check the wiki page

Exculpatory Evidence- Evidence that establishes the innocence of the defendant.

Executing court– The court which executes the decree. It is generally the court which passed the
decree.

Execution– In a civil case execution is the process of enforcement of the decree to enable the
decree-holder to claim the benefits of the decree. In a criminal case execution is the
implementation of death sentence given by a court.

Executive : The executive is the part of the government that has sole authority and responsibility
for the effecting and enforcing laws.

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Exhibit- A document, electronic device or other item introduced in evidence during a trial or
hearing.

Fine– A fine is a sum of money imposed on a convicted person by a court as a punishment.

FIR– First Information Report (FIR) is a written document prepared by the police when they first
receive information about the commission of an offence.

Forgery– The act of making false documents or false electronic records to cause damage or
injury to the public or any person.

Fundamental Rights : A charter of rights contained in the Constitution of India which can be
enforced against the state.

Garnishee– Garnishee is a debtor of judgment debtor whose debt is attached by the court.

Gram Nyayalayas : Village courts instituted by the Gram Nyayalayas Act, 2008 for speedy and
easy access to justice system in the rural areas of India.

Habeas corpus- This is a writ that can be filed before the High Court or Supreme Court when a
person is in unlawful detention. A writ of habeas corpus is used to bring a prisoner or other
detainee before the court to determine if their imprisonment or detention is lawful.

Hand Summons/dasti summons– Giving summons “by hand” by the plaintiff or his lawyer
personally to the defendant.

Hearsay– A testimony or evidence by an individual not from his personal knowledge but what he
heard another person saying. Hearsay evidence is usually not admissible in a trial.

Homicide- The act of killing a human being.

Implied bar– A claim/right barred by necessary implication of statute, contract, or general

principles of law.

Indigent person–. An individual who does not possess the financial means to afford the court fees
to be paid with the plaint in a particular suit.

Inquiry- It is every inquiry, other than a trial, conducted by a Magistrate.

Indian Penal Code : Main criminal code of India that covers all aspects of substantive criminal
law in India.

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Interpretation : The process of determining the intended meaning of a written document, such as
the constitution, or a statute.

Interlocutory Application – An application filed by either party during the pendency of a civil
proceeding seeking relief of an interim/temporary nature.

Interrogation- The process of law enforcement agencies questioning a person accused of a crime.
The accused person is not obligated to answer the questions asked by the law enforcement
agency, and the fact that they have remained silent generally cannot be used by the prosecution
to help prove guilt. It is illegal for the police to use violence in the process of interrogation.

Investigation– Investigation includes all the proceedings required for the collection of evidence
to ascertain whether a crime has been committed, who has committed the crime and to provide
evidence to prove the guilt of the accused person. Investigation usually involves collecting
physical evidence like fingerprints, computers, weapons etc and information from people like
witnesses, informants and suspects. It is conducted by the law enforcement agency or by any
person other than a magistrate, who has been authorized by the magistrate on this behalf. Check
the wiki page

Issues : The question of fact or law that is in dispute.

Judge : A public official authorised to hear and decide cases in a court of law.

Judgment debtor – The party against whom a court has given a judgement and who is liable to
pay/perform in terms of the decree passed by the court in favour of the decree holder.

Judgment– The final decision in a case determining the rights of parties and the reasoning for
this decision given by a court.

Judicial Custody– Judicial custody means the detention of an accused person in the custody of
the concerned Magistrate. The accused person is lodged in a prison. Magistrates usually order
judicial custody after the accused person has been in police custody for fourteen days or less.

Judiciary : The judiciary is one of the three main organs of the government (also known as the
judicial system or court system). It is the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in
the name of the state.

Jurisdiction– Jurisdiction refers to the legal authority or power of a court to hear and decide a
case. It is the power to interpret and apply the law, and to determine the facts of a case and to
deliver a binding judgment and enforce it. Jurisdiction can be based on a number of factors,
including the location of the parties or the subject matter of the dispute, and may be limited by
geography, subject matter, and other legal principles.

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Juvenile- A juvenile is a person who is under the age of 16 years in the case of boys, or the age
of 18 years in the case of girls. A juvenile has to serve their sentence until the age of twenty-one
years in a remand home. A person between the ages of sixteen and eighteen, accused of
committing ‘heinous offences’ may be tried as an adult

Lawyer : A person who practices law.

Legal representative– The legal heir(s) of a deceased person, or the person(s) who represents the
deceased person after his death.

Legislative Assembly : The name given in some countries to either a legislature, or to one of its
branch. In India, legislative assembly usually refers to the legislature at the state-level.

Legislature : A branch of the government that has the power to make laws in a country.

Limitation The maximum time from the date of the offence that parties have to initiate legal
proceedings. Limitation does not apply to criminal cases involving offences punishable with
imprisonment of more than 3 years.

Litigant : A party to a lawsuit in a court.

Lok Adalats : A system of alternative dispute resolution developed in India. It roughly means
people’s court and it is a forum where disputes/cases pending in the court of law or at pre-
litigation stage are settled/ compromised amicably. Lok Adalats have been given statutory status
under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987.

Malice– Intention to commit a criminal offence.

Mandatory minimum sentence– It is a minimum sentence prescribed for certain serious offences
irrespective of the circumstances of the crime. It reduces a judge’s discretion since they cannot
reduce the sentence below the minimum. E.g. Section 376-DB of IPC provides for a mandatory
minimum punishment of life imprisonment without remission for persons convicted for
rape/gangrape of a girl under the age of 12 years.

Mediation– It is a form of alternative dispute resolution where parties choose a third party who is
neutral to help them to resolve their dispute through compromise and discussion.

Mens Rea- It means guilty mind in Latin. Mens rea refers to criminal intent required in order to
convict a person, and it is an essential element that has to be proved in criminal proceedings.

Merits– The substantive grounds of dispute between the parties.

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Mitigating Circumstances– Mitigating circumstances are facts that appear to mitigate the
seriousness of a crime by rendering the actions of the accused less severe and influences the
sentence given by the judge. E.g. the age of the accused person and their previous criminal
record are considered mitigating cricumstances.

Modus Operandi- The mode or way in which a person commits a crime.

Murder An act committed with an intention to cause death. The act is done with the intention of
causing such bodily injury which the offender has knowledge that it would result in death.

Notice : The legal notification by which a party or person is made aware of a legal process
affecting their rights, obligations, or duties.

Objection– An argument or contention raised in response to the actions of the other party in a
court or tribunal.

Order–A direction issued by a court against one of more parties to a case. Orders can be given
during the proceedings or after the case has been decided.

Pecuniary jurisdiction– The pecuniary jurisdiction of a court refers to the monetary value of
cases that can be adjudicated by it.

Pendency : As per the 245th Law Commission report pendency refers to all cases instituted but
not disposed of, regardless of when the case was instituted. Check the wiki page

Personal Bond- A personal bond is an agreement by the accused person as a condition for release
on bail that they will appear for court hearings and will comply with the conditions placed on
their release.

Petition A formal written request presented to a court of law.

Petitioner : The party who presents a petition in court of law. Check the wiki page

Plaint– A legal document which contains plaintiff’s claims and, and the remedies prayed for
from the court.

Plaintiff : The party who initiates a lawsuit (also known as an action) before a court of law.

Plea bargain- Plea bargaining is a negotiation between the accused and the prosecution where the
accused agrees to plead guilty in exchange for certain concessions by the prosecution. It is a
bargain where an accused person pleads guilty to a lesser charge and the prosecutors in return
drop more serious charges. Check the wiki page
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Plea– In a court of law, a person’s plea is the answer that they give when they have been charged
with a crime, saying whether or not they are guilty of that crime. It is usually taken at the initial
stage of the trial.

Pleadings- Written presentation by litigants in a case, setting forth the facts upon which they are
claiming legal relief or challenging the claims of the opposite party.

Police Custody- -Police custody means that the physical custody of the accused person is with
the police. The accused person is lodged in a lock-up of a police station. Police custody is
ordered for a maximum of fourteen days after which the accused person has to be kept in judicial
custody. Check the wiki page

Prayer : A prayer for relief is a portion of a complaint in which the plaintiff describes the
remedies that they seek from the court. Check the wiki page

Precedent: A precedent or authority is a principle or rule established in a previous legal case that
is either binding on a court or other tribunal when deciding subsequent cases with similar issues
or facts.

Pre-emption– It is the preferential right to purchase or enjoy property before another.

Prima facie– It means at first sight in Latin. It is a way to evaluate a case at an initial stage to see
if there is enough material for it to go to trial.

Probation The release of a convict from prison subject to good behaviour and any other
conditions. A violation of probation conditions can lead to its revocation and to
imprisonment. Check the wiki page

Procedural : Procedural law comprises the rules by which a court prescribes the steps for having
a right or duty that is judicially enforced, and determines what happens in civil lawsuit, criminal
or administrative proceedings.

Proceedings– It is the form and manner in which a court of law or judicial officer conducts
business.

Public Prosecutor A lawyer representing the state in a criminal trial. Since a criminal offence is
regarded as a public wrong, which has been committed not only against the victim, but also
against society as a whole, the case is prosecuted by the state. Check the wiki page

Rape– Sexual intercourse with a woman against her will, without her consent, by coercion,
misrepresentation or fraud or at a time when she has been intoxicated or duped, or is of unsound
mental health and in any case if she is under the age of 18 years.

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Record– It is the record maintained by the court for each case, including pleadings, documents
and evidence.

Recusal– It is an action of a judge to withdraw himself from a case in which his bias to one of
the parties may be called into question. Check the wiki page

Registry : An office of the court which receives and maintains documents for filing with the
court.

Rejoinder– A pleading in which the plaintiff explains or rebuts the additional facts brought up by
the defendant in their written statement. Check the wiki page

Remand- Police custody of an accused person ordered by a magistrate when the investigation is
not completed within 24 hours of arrest.

Remand– To send back the case to the lower court. Check the wiki page

Representative suit– It is a suit that is filed by one person on behalf of themselves and on behalf
of others who have the same interest in the suit.

Respondent : A party against whom a petition is filed. This term is generally used in appeals. A
respondent can be the plaintiff or defendant from lower court. Check the wiki page

Review : A proceeding in a court to review its own judgement in case of any error or mistake
made with regard to the decision rendered, to rectify the same. Check the wiki page

Right– A legally protected interest.

Robbery– Theft is a robbery when in order to commit theft, the offender voluntarily causes or
attempts to cause to any person death, subject him to wrongful restraint, cause hurt or induce fear
of instant death, instant wrongful restraint or cause instant hurt.

Search Warrant- An order signed by a judge for probable cause that directs owners of private
property to allow the police to enter and search for items named in the warrant.

Separation of Powers : A constitutional government with three separate branches: the legislative,
executive, and judicial.

Set off– It is a kind of cross-claim for the recovery of money which the defendant raises against
the claim of the plaintiff subtract dues owed to the defendant by the plaintiff from the dues
claimed by the plaintiff.

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Settlement– It is an agreement reached by the parties in a case to resolve their dispute

Special Courts : Bodies within the judicial branch of government that generally address only one
area of law or have specifically defined powers. Check the wiki page

Stage of the Case : The steps in process through which a case passes.

Statute– Any law passed by a legislative body at the municipal, state, or central level.

Substantive : A statutory, or written law, that creates and defines rights and duties and powers of
parties, such as crimes and punishments in criminal law, civil rights and responsibilities in civil
law.

Suit : A civil action brought by a party/parties against another in a court of law. Check the wiki
page

Summons- Summon is a document that commands a person to whom it is served to appear

before the court. and to answer the complaint made against him

Surety- A surety is a person that guarantees the accused person will attend their court hearing
after being granted bail. The surety is required to deposit a security which is forfeited if the
accused person fails to appear in court.

Testimony– It is evidence presented under oath by a witness in court

Theft– Theft means the dishonest removal of moveable property out of the possession of any
person without their consent

Tort- A civil wrong in which an injury is caused by one person to another, and which may be
intentional or unintentional. Prominent examples of torts include negligent injury, battery, deceit,
and defamation.

Transcript- It is a record of official proceedings of a hearing.

Trial- It is a process to determine the guilt or innocence of the accused person. It is a structured
process where the facts of a case are presented to the judge, and they decide if the accused
person is guilty or not.

Tribunals : Tribunals are dispute resolution institutions established for discharging judicial or
quasi-judicial duties related to certain areas of law. Check the wiki page

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Vakalatnama : A document by which an advocate is empowered to appear or plead before any

court, tribunal or other authority on behalf of a party. Check the wiki page

Waiver- It is a voluntary renunciation of a person’s rights, claims or privileges.

Written statement– It is a statement of defence filed by the defendant countering the allegations
of the plaintiff.

Writs : A writ is a formal written order issued by a high court or the Supreme Court asking the
state to refrain from or perform a specific act. Check the wiki page

The following are the five types of writs.

Mandamus : An order that is issued by a court of superior jurisdiction to ask a lower court,
tribunal, commission, or individual, to perform or refrain from performing an action that is
required by law.

Habeas
Corpus : A court order that commands an individual or a government official who has restrained
another to produce the prisoner at a designated time and place so that the court can determine th
e legality of custody.

Prohibition : An extraordinary writ issued by a higher court commanding an inferior court or

quasi-judicial body to keep within its jurisdiction.

Quo Warranto : A writ issued with a view to restrain a person from holding a civil office to
which he/she is not entitled

Certiorari : A writ to quash the order already passed by an inferior court, tribunal or quasi-
judicial body.

Reference:

 https://www.trumanlibrary.gov/education/three-branches/dictionary-government-terms
 https://www.vocabulary.com/lists/244694
 https://www.dakshindia.org/common-legal-terms/

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 Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

5) Technical terms: High School Terms

1. abjure

formally reject or disavow a formerly held belief

2. abrogate

revoke formally

3. abstemious

marked by temperance in indulgence

4. acumen

shrewdness shown by keen insight

5. antebellum

belonging to a period before a war

6. auspicious

indicating favorable circumstances and good luck

7. belie

be in contradiction with

8. bellicose

having or showing a ready disposition to fight

9. bowdlerize

edit by omitting or modifying parts considered indelicate

10. chicanery

the use of tricks to deceive someone

11. chromosome

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a threadlike strand of DNA that carries genes

12. churlish

having a bad disposition; surly

13. circumlocution

an indirect way of expressing something

14. circumnavigate

travel completely around something

15. deciduous

shedding foliage at the end of the growing season

16. deleterious

harmful to living things

17. diffident

showing modest reserve

18. enervate

weaken physically, mentally, or morally

19. enfranchise

grant freedom to, as from slavery or servitude

20. epiphany

an inspiration or divine manifestation

21. equinox

when the sun crosses the plane of the earth's equator

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22. evanescent

short-lived; tending to vanish or disappear

23. expurgate

edit by omitting or modifying parts considered indelicate

24. facetious

cleverly amusing in tone

25. fatuous

devoid of intelligence

26. feckless

generally incompetent and ineffectual

27. fiduciary

relating to or of the nature of a legal trust

28. filibuster

a tactic for delaying legislation by making long speeches

29. gamete

a mature sexual reproductive cell

30. gauche

lacking social poise or refinement

31. gerrymander

divide voting districts unfairly and to one's advantage

32. hegemony

the dominance or leadership of one social group over others

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33. hemoglobin

a red protein in blood that transports oxygen

34. homogeneous

all of the same or similar kind or nature

35. hubris

overbearing pride or presumption

36. hypotenuse

the side of a right triangle opposite the right angle

37. impeach

bring an accusation against

38. incognito

without revealing one's identity

39. incontrovertible

impossible to deny or disprove

40. inculcate

teach and impress by frequent repetitions or admonitions

41. infrastructure

the basic features of a system or organization

42. interpolate

insert words into texts, often falsifying it thereby

43. irony

incongruity between what might be expected and what occurs

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44. jejune

lacking interest or significance or impact

45. kinetic

relating to the motion of material bodies and their forces

46. kowtow

bend the knees and bow in a servile manner

47. laissez faire

a doctrine that government should not interfere in commerce

48. lexicon

a reference book containing an alphabetical list of words

49. loquacious

full of trivial conversation

50. lugubrious

excessively mournful

51. metamorphosis

striking change in appearance or character or circumstances

52. mitosis

the process by which a cell divides into two new cells

53. moiety

one of two approximately equal parts

54. nanotechnology

engineering that involves manipulating atoms and molecules

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55. nihilism

complete denial of established authority and institutions

56. nomenclature

a system of words used to name things in a discipline

57. nonsectarian

not restricted to one religious or political group

58. notarize

authenticate by someone empowered to witness signatures

59. obsequious

attempting to win favor from influential people by flattery

60. oligarchy

a political system governed by a few people

61. omnipotent

having unlimited power

62. orthography

representing the sounds of a language by written symbols

63. oxidize

enter into a combination with oxygen

64. parabola

a curve formed by an object thrown in the air and falling

65. paradigm

a standard or typical example

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66. parameter

a constant in the equation of a curve that can be varied

67. pecuniary

relating to or involving money

68. photosynthesis

formation of compounds in plants aided by radiant energy

69. plagiarize

take without referencing from someone's writing or speech

70. plasma

the watery fluid in which blood cells are suspended

71. polymer

a naturally occurring or synthetic compound

72. precipitous

extremely steep

73. quasar

a star like object that may send out radio waves

74. quotidian

found in the ordinary course of events

75. recapitulate

summarize briefly

76. reciprocal

concerning each of two or more persons or things

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77. reparation

something done or paid in expiation of a wrong

78. respiration

a single complete act of breathing in and out

79. sanguine

confidently optimistic and cheerful

80. soliloquy

speech you make to yourself

81. subjugate

make subservient; force to submit or subdue

82. suffragist

an advocate of the extension of voting rights

83. supercilious

having or showing arrogant superiority

84. tautology

useless repetition

85. taxonomy

a classification of organisms based on similarities

86. tectonic

pertaining to the structure or movement of the earth's crust

87. tempestuous

characterized by violent emotions or behavior

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88. thermodynamics

physics concerned with heat and other forms of energy

89. totalitarian

of a government with an authority exerting absolute control

90. unctuous

unpleasantly and excessively suave or ingratiating

91. usurp

seize and take control without authority

92. vacuous

devoid of matter

93. vehement

marked by extreme intensity of emotions or convictions

94. vortex

a powerful circular current of water

95. winnow

the act of separating grain from chaff

96. wrought

shaped to fit by altering the contours of a pliable mass

97. xenophobia

a fear of foreigners or strangers

98. yeoman

a free man who cultivates his own land

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99. ziggurat

a rectangular tiered temple or terraced mound

Reference

 https://www.vocabulary.com/lists/137567

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6) Technical terms: Medical Terms

This list contains some common medical abbreviations and acronyms:

AC: Ante cibum, or "before meals," indicating when a patient should take medication

ADR: Adverse drug reaction

ALOC: Acute loss of consciousness

BMI: Body mass index, a measurement of body fat based on height and weight

BP: Blood pressure, a measurement of the pressure exerted by the flow of blood upon vessel
walls. This measurement is expressed using two numbers, the systolic, or highest pressure and
the diastolic, or lowest pressure.

CHF: Congestive heart failure

DNR: Do not resuscitate, an indication that the patient does not want CPR or other life-saving
procedures performed on them

ECG or EKG: Electrocardiogram, a device that records heartbeats

EMS: Emergency medical services

FX: Fracture

HR: Heart rate, the number of times a person's heart beats, usually measured per minute

LFT: Liver function test

MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging, diagnostic imaging that uses magnetism and radio waves to
produce images of internal organs

PT: Physical therapy

Rx: Prescription

UTI: Urinary tract infection

Diseases and conditions

These are some common terms for diseases and conditions:

Acute: A condition that is often severe but starts and ends quickly

Angina: Intermittent chest pain normally caused by insufficient blood flow to the heart
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Benign: Refers to a tumor that is neither cancerous nor malignant

Chronic: Describes a condition that is persistent or recurring

Edema: Swelling as a result of fluid retention or buildup

Embolism: A clot caused by blood, fat, air or other types of fluid, gas or foreign material

Fracture: A cracked or broken bone

Hypertension: Unusually high blood pressure

Hypotension: Unusually low blood pressure

Intravenous: Administration of medication or fluids by vein

Lesion: Damage or change to tissue, such as a cut, a wound or a sore

Malignant: Refers to the presence of cancerous cells in a tumor or growth

Myocardial infarction: Also known as a heart attack, where the heart is deprived of blood due to
arterial blockage

Remission: Describes a disease that is not getting worse

Sepsis: An imbalance in the body's response to infection that injures the body's tissues and
organs

Thrombosis: A blood clot that forms inside a blood vessel restricting blood flow

Medical slang
This is a list of some informal terms often used by medical professionals:

Afib: Atrial fibrillation, irregular and rapid heartbeats

Bagging: Helping a patient breathe using a squeeze bag attached to a face mask

C-section: Caesarian section, where a baby is delivered through an abdominal and uterine
incision

Detox: Detoxification, the removal of toxins from the body, such as drugs or alcohol

Exam: Examination

Foley: A catheter inserted into the bladder to help with urinary drainage

GCS: Glascow Coma Scale, level of consciousness

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Labs: Laboratory work or tests

MVA: Motor vehicle accident

Nitro: Nitroglycerin

O sign: A patient who is unconscious and open-mouthed

OD'd: Overdosed

Script: Prescription

Stat: Immediately

Thready: Shallow and weak, particularly in reference to a person's pulse

Tox screen: A blood test to determine the type and quantity of drugs in the system

Prefixes and suffixes

You can often determine what a medical term means if you understand some basic prefixes and
suffixes, such as:

A- or an-: Lacking or without

Ab-: Away from

-algia: Indicates pain or a painful condition

Cardio-: Related to the heart

Ecto- or exo-: Outside of

-ectomy: Removal through surgery

Hyper-: Above, beyond or in excess

-itis: An inflammation

-mortem: Relating to death

-plasty: Repair through surgery

Post-: After or behind

-rrhea: A discharge or a flow

-somnia: Related to sleep

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Trans-: Across or through

-trophic: Relating to nutrition

Vas(o)-: Relating to a vessel

Procedures and tests

Here are some common medical procedures and tests:

Appendectomy: Surgical procedure to remove the appendix

Biopsy: Removal of a small tissue sample for testing

Blood culture: Test to reveal the existence of fungi or bacteria in the blood, possibly indicating
an infection

Blood swab: Taking a blood sample using a cotton-tipped stick

Coronary bypass: Surgical transplant of a healthy blood vessel into the heart to bypass or replace
an unhealthy vessel

Dialysis: Process to filter the blood, usually performed as a result of kidney failure

Fusion: Joining together adjacent bones or vertebrae to increase stability

Glucose test: A test to discover the quantity of a particular type of sugar in the bloodstream

Hysterectomy: Surgical procedure to remove the uterus

Intubation: Medical insertion of a tube into the body, for example, into the throat to assist with
breathing

Lead test: A test to reveal the quantity of lead in the bloodstream

Lumbar puncture or spinal tap: Drawing of cerebrospinal fluid from the lumbar region of the
back using a hollow needle

Mastectomy: Surgical procedure to remove part or all of the breast

Occult blood screen: Use of a chemically treated card or pad to test for blood hidden in a stool
sample

Ultrasound: Imaging produced by high-frequency sound waves, usually used to view internal
organs

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X-ray: Use of high-energy electromagnetic radiation to create images of internal bones and
organs

Root words
Many medical terms come from Greek or Latin root words. Knowing some of these may help
you determine the meaning of a term:

Aqua-: Pertaining to water

Asphyxia: Choking or loss of consciousness due to oxygen deprivation

Carcin(o)-: Related to or causing cancer

Cyto-: Pertaining to a cell or cells

Derma-: To do with the skin

Digit: Either a finger or a toe

Encephal(o)-: To do with the brain

Gastr(o)-: Related to the stomach

Lact-: Pertaining to milk

Men-: A month or occurring monthly

Nephr(o)-: Related to the kidneys

Onc(o)-: To do with tumors or masses, often related to cancer

Ov-: Pertaining to eggs

Pulmon(o)-: To do with the lungs

Stasis: Causing the flow of a fluid, such as blood, to slow or stop

Viscous or viscosity: Sticky or thick, thickness

Tools and equipment

Here are some common medical tools, devices and appliances:

Blood lancet: A double-edged blade or needle used to obtain blood samples

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Defibrillator: A device that discharges an electric current to the heart to correct cardiac
arrhythmia or arrest

Dialyser: A machine that replaces the function of the kidneys by removing solutes, excess water
and toxins from the blood

Endoscope: An optical instrument containing a tube with a lighted end used for internal
examinations

Forceps: A hinged instrument, like scissors, used to grasp and hold objects

Hypodermic needle: A very thin, hollow needle used with a syringe to inject substances into the
body or to extract blood

Nebulizer: A device used to deliver medication in an aerosol form through inhalation

Ophthalmoscope: An instrument used to examine the eye's fundus, retina and other structures

Otoscope or auriscope: A device for examining the external ear cavity

Pulse oximeter: A small device that clips to the finger, toe or earlobe used to measure blood
oxygen saturation

Reflex hammer: A specially designed hammer used to test deep tendon or motor reflexes

Speculum: An instrument used when examining body orifices to help widen the opening

Spirometer: A device that measures the amount of air breathed in and out by the lungs

Splint: A tool for immobilizing and protecting displaced or injured body parts such as broken
bones or dislocated joints

Stethoscope: A device for listening to the heartbeat or breathing

Ventilator: A machine that provides mechanical assistance with breathing

Reference:

https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/basic-medical-terminology-list

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7) Technical terms: School Subjects

A
Algebra
Anthropology
Architecture
Arithmetic
Art
Astronomy
B
Band
Biology
Business Studies
C
Calculus
Chemistry
Chinese
Choir
Civics
Classics
Computer Science
Creative Writing
Cultural Studies
D
Dance
Drama

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Poongothai G Prathap – English Faculty – DTISL – T6 – Basic English II ISLRTC – New Delhi

E
Economics
English
Environmental Science
Ethics
F
Foreign Languages
French
G
Geography
Geology
Geometry
German
Greek
H
Health Education
History
Home Economics
I
Italian
J
Jazz Choir
Journalism
K
Keyboarding
L
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Latin
Linguistics
Literature
M
Marketing
Mathematics
Media Studies
Music
N
Natural Sciences
O
Orchestra
P
Philosophy
Photography
Physical Education (PE)
Physics
Political Science
Psychology
Q
Quantum Mechanics
R
Reading
Religious Studies
S
Science

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Social Studies
Sociology
Spanish
Spelling
Statistics
T
Theater
U
US History
V
Video Arts
W
World History
Writing
X
X-ray Technology
Y
Yoga
Z
Zoology

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1. School subjects in English: Natural Sciences

Subjects
Meaning Example
vocabulary

the study of numbers and shapes. Branches

Mathematics (abbr:
of mathematics include arithmetic, algebra, Math is my favorite subject.
Maths)
geometry and trigonometry.

a type of mathematics in which letters and

Algebra
symbols are used to represent quantities
I prefer to study Algebra
the branch of mathematics that deals with than Geometry.
Geometry the measurements and relationships of lines,
angles, surfaces and solids

the scientific study of matter and energy and

Students in my country
the relationships between them, including
Physics have to learn Physics in
the study of forces, heat, light, sound,
elementary school.
electricity and the structure of atoms

the scientific study of the structure of

Chemistry is the scientific
substances, how they react when combined
Chemistry study of the properties and
or in contact with one another, and how they
behavior of matter.
behave under different conditions

Studying Biology helps me

the scientific study of the life and structure of
Biology better understand the
plants and animals
natural world.

knowledge about the structure and

behaviour of the natural and physical world, My best friend is very
Science
based on facts that you can prove, for interested in Science.
example by experiments

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Information Technology has

Computer Science
the study of computers and how they can be been introduced into the
= Information
used curriculum since
Technology
elementary school.

scientific knowledge used in practical ways Technology is a

Technology in industry, for example in designing new compulsory subject in basic
machines education.

the activity of applying scientific knowledge

to the design, building and control of Engineering is very suitable
Engineering
machines, roads, bridges, electrical for my brother.
equipment, etc.

2. Subjects in English: Social Sciences

School
subjects Meaning Example
vocabulary

pieces of writing that are valued as works of

art, especially novels, plays and poems (in Literature is an emotional
Literature
contrast to technical books and newspapers, subject.
magazines, etc.)

History is a compulsory
History all the events that happened in the past
subject in high school.

Geography is generally the

the scientific study of the earth’s surface,
analysis and study of
Geography physical features, divisions, products,
physics and human
population, etc.
geography.

Foreign The study of the language that is not your Learning a foreign language

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Language mother tounge is compulsory for all children

aged 7 to 11 in the UK

the study of what is morally right and what is

Ethics
not
Civic education subject in
elementary school will be
Civic Education the provision of information and learning
the subject of Ethics
experiences to equip and empower citizens to
participate in democratic processes

3. School subjects list: Physical education

School
subjects Meaning Example
vocabulary

Physical education
Physical should be 150
sport and exercise that is taught in schools
Education minutes a week for
primary students.

physical exercises intended to make the heart and Aerobic is rhythmic

Aerobics
lungs stronger, often done in classes, with music gymnastics.

sports such as running, jumping and throwing that Athletics is a sport

Athletics
people compete in with a long history.

Karate is a traditional
a Japanese system of fighting in which you use your
Karate martial art of the
hands and feet as weapons
Okinawa region..

Judo is the name of

a sport in which two people fight and try to throw each
Judo a martial art
other to the ground
originating in Japan.

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Tennis is a good
a game in which two or four players use rackets to hit a
Tennis/ping- sport for bones,
ball backwards and forwards across a net on a specially
pong joints, heart, and
marked court
physique.

a game like tennis played by two or four people, usually

Badminton is the
indoors. Players hit a small light kind of ball, originally
Badminton most popular sport in
with feathers around it (= a shuttlecock) across a high
Vietnam.
net using a racket.

a game in which two teams of six players use their

Volleyball is played
hands to hit a large ball backwards and forwards over a
Volleyball on a field 18m long
high net while trying not to let the ball touch the ground
and 9m wide.
on their own side

Swimming is a water
Swimming the sport or activity of swimming
sport .

a game played by two teams of 11 players, using a

Soccer/ round ball that players kick up and down the playing Football is a team
Football field. Teams try to kick the ball into the other team’s sport.
goal.

Basketball is a sport
a game played by two teams of five players, using a
that competes
Basketball large ball that players try to throw into a high net
directly between two
hanging from a ring
teams.

a game played especially in the US by two teams of

Baseball is a sport
nine players, using a bat and ball. Each player tries to
Baseball that dates back to
hit the ball and then run around four bases before the
1744.
other team can return the ball.

Pole vault a sporting event in which people try to jump over a high Philippine athlete
bar, using a long thin straight piece of wood or sets new record in

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fibreglass to push themselves off the ground pole vaulting at 31st

SEA Games.

High jump was

a sporting event in which people try to jump over a high introduced to the
High jump
bar that is gradually raised higher and higher Olympic Games in
1896 .

a game for two people played on a board marked with

black and white squares on which each playing piece
(representing a king, queen, castle, etc.) is moved Chess is an
Chess
according to special rules. The aim is to put the other intellectual sport.
player’s king in a position from which it cannot escape
(= to checkmate it).

4. School subjects vocabulary: Arts

Here are some vocabulary related to Art in English that you can use for effective communication:

School subjects vocabulary: Arts

School subjects
Meaning Example
vocabulary

Music is a compulsory subject

Music the art of writing or playing music
in basic education.

the skill of creating objects such as

Art in primary school is always
Art paintings and drawings, especially when
a favorite subject of students.
you study it

the art of dancing, especially for Dance is a highly-performing

Dance
entertainment sport.

5. All subject names in the university

All subject names in the university

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School subjects
Meaning Example
vocabulary

the type of mathematics that

deals with rates of change, for Calculus is widely regarded as a very
Calculus
example in the slope of a curve hard math class.
or the speed of a falling object

a branch of mathematics that

Please help me buy a Probability math
Probability math deals with the occurrence of a
textbook!
random event

the testing of the performance of Econometrics is a subject introduced

economies and economic into teaching for students of most
Econometrics
theories using mathematical majors of the University of Finance –
methods Marketing.

The philosophy of Marxism and

Philosophy of the political and social theories
Leninism clearly points out two basic
Marxism and that emerged from the works of
elements constituting human beings:
Leninism Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin
biological and social aspects.

the study of large economic

Macroeconomics systems, such as those of whole
countries or areas of the world
Macroeconomics and Microeconomics
the study of the economic are branches of economics.
problems of businesses and
Microeconomics
people and the way particular
parts of an economy behave

the part of economics that

Development This is the outline for the final exam in
studies economic growth in
economics development economics.
countries with little industry

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an introduction to concepts,
roles, and principles of law as Lectures on General Law are very
Introduction to laws
well as major fields of law in easy to understand.
society

Reference:

https://www.enchantedlearning.com/wordlist/school-subjects.shtml

https://prepedu.com/en/blog/school-subjects-vocabulary

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8) Technical terms: Telecommunication

ACCESS CHARGE
A fee charged subscribers or other telephone companies by a local exchange carrier for the use of
its local exchange networks.

ANALOG SIGNAL
A signaling method that uses continuous changes in the amplitude or frequency of a radio
transmission to convey information.

BANDWIDTH
The capacity of a telecom line to carry signals. The necessary bandwidth is the amount of
spectrum required to transmit the signal without distortion or loss of information. FCC rules
require suppression of the signal outside the band to prevent interference.

BROADBAND
Broadband is a descriptive term for evolving digital technologies that provide consumers a signal
switched facility offering integrated access to voice, high-speed data service, video-demand
services, and interactive delivery services.

CALLING PARTY PAYS

A billing method in which a wireless phone caller pays only for making calls and not for
receiving them. The standard American billing system requires wireless phone customers to pay
for all calls made and received on a wireless phone.

CELLULAR TECHNOLOGY
This term, often used for all wireless phones regardless of the technology they use, derives from
cellular base stations that receive and transmit calls. Both cellular and PCS phones use cellular
technology.

CLOSED CAPTIONING
A service for persons with hearing disabilities that translates television program dialog into
written words on the television screen.

COMMERCIAL LEASED ACCESS

Manner through which independent video producers can access cable capacity for a fee.

COMMON CARRIER
In the telecommunications arena, the term used to describe a telephone company.

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COMMUNICATIONS ASSISTANT
A person who facilitates telephone conversation between text telephone users, users of sign
language or individuals with speech disabilities through a Telecommunications Relay Service
(TRS). This service allows a person with hearing or speech disabilities to communicate with
anyone else via telephone at no additional cost.

COMMUNITY ANTENNA TELEVISION (CATV)

A service through which subscribers pay to have local television stations and additional
programs brought into their homes from an antenna via a coaxial cable.

CRAMMING
A practice in which customers are billed for enhanced features such as voice mail, caller-ID and
call-waiting that they have not ordered.

DIAL AROUND
Long distance services that require consumers to dial a long-distance provider’s access code (or
"10-10" number) before dialing a long-distance number to bypass or "dial around" the
consumer’s chosen long-distance carrier in order to get a better rate.

DIGITAL TELEVISION (DTV)

A new technology for transmitting and receiving broadcast television signals. DTV provides
clearer resolution and improved sound quality.

DIRECT BROADCAST SATELLITE (DBS/DISH)

A high-powered satellite that transmits or retransmits signals which are intended for direct
reception by the public. The signal is transmitted to a small earth station or dish (usually the size
of an 18-inch pizza pan) mounted on homes or other buildings.

E-MAIL
Also called electronic mail, refers to messages sent over the Internet. E-mail can be sent and
received via newer types of wireless phones, but you generally need to have a specific e-mail
account.

ENHANCED SERVICE PROVIDERS

A for-profit business that offers to transmit voice and data messages and simultaneously adds
value to the messages it transmits. Examples include telephone answering services,
alarm/security companies and transaction processing companies.

EN BANC
An informal meeting held by the Commission to hear presentations on specific topics by diverse
parties. The Commissioners, or other officials, question presenters and use their comments in
considering FCC rules and policies on the subject matter under consideration.
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FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)

A signaling method that varies the carrier frequency in proportion to the amplitude of the
modulating signal.

GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

A US satellite system that lets those on the ground, on the water or in the air determine their
position with extreme accuracy using GPS receivers.

HIGH DEFINITION TELEVISION (HDTV)

An improved television system which provides approximately twice the vertical and horizontal
resolution of existing television standards. It also provides audio quality approaching that of
compact discs.

INTERACTIVE VIDEO DATA SERVICE (IVDS)

A communication system, operating over a short distance, that allows nearly instantaneous two-
way responses by using a hand-held device at a fixed location. Viewer participation in game
shows, distance learning and e-mail on computer networks are examples.

INSTRUCTIONAL TELEVISION FIXED SERVICE (ITFS)

A service provided by one or more fixed microwave stations operated by an educational
organization and used to transmit instructional information to fixed locations.

LANDLINE
Traditional wired phone service.

LAND MOBILE SERVICE

A public or private radio service providing two-way communication, paging and radio signaling
on land.

LOW POWER FM RADIO (LPFM)

A broadcast service that permits the licensing of 50-100 watt FM radio stations within a service
radius of up to 3.5 miles and 1-10 watt FM radio stations within a service radius of 1 to 2 miles.

LOW POWER TELEVISION (LPTV)

A broadcast service that permits program origination, subscription service or both via low
powered television translators. LPTV service includes the existing translator service and operates
on a secondary basis to regular television stations. Transmitter output is limited to 1,000 watts
for normal VHF stations and 100 watts when a VHF operation is on an allocated channel.

MUST-CARRY (Retransmission)
A 1992 Cable Act term requiring a cable system to carry signals of both commercial and

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noncommercial television broadcast stations that are "local" to the area served by the cable
system.

NETWORK
Any connection of two or more computers that enables them to communicate. Networks may
include transmission devices, servers, cables, routers and satellites. The phone network is the
total infrastructure for transmitting phone messages.

NUMBER PORTABILITY
A term used to describe the capability of individuals, businesses and organizations to retain their
existing telephone number(s) –– and the same quality of service –– when switching to a new
local service provider.

OPEN VIDEO SYSTEMS

An alternative method to provide cable-like video service to subscribers.

OPERATOR SERVICE PROVIDER (OSP)

A common carrier that provides services from public phones, including payphones and those in
hotels/motels.

PAGING SYSTEM
A one-way mobile radio service where a user carries a small, lightweight miniature radio
receiver capable of responding to coded signals. These devices, called "pagers," emit an audible
signal, vibrate or do both when activated by an incoming message.

PERSONAL COMMUNICATIONS SERVICE (PCS)

Any of several types of wireless, voice and/or data communications systems, typically
incorporating digital technology. PCS licenses are most often used to provide services similar to
advanced cellular mobile or paging services. However, PCS can also be used to provide other
wireless communications services, including services that allow people to place and receive
communications while away from their home or office, as well as wireless communications to
homes, office buildings and other fixed locations.

PRESCRIBED INTEREXCHANGE CHARGE (PICC)

The charge the local exchange company assesses the long distance company when a consumer
picks it as his or her long distance carrier.

ROAMING
The use of a wireless phone outside of the "home" service area defined by a service provider.
Higher per-minute rates are usually charged for calls made or received while roaming. Long
distance rates and a daily access fee may also apply.

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SATELLITE
A radio relay station that orbits the earth. A complete satellite communications system also
includes earth stations that communicate with each other via the satellite. The satellite receives a
signal transmitted by an originating earth station and retransmits that signal to the destination
earth station(s). Satellites are used to transmit telephone, television and data signals originated by
common carriers, broadcasters and distributors of cable TV program material.

SATELLITE HOME VIEWER IMPROVEMENT ACT OF 1999 (SHVIA)

An Act modifying the Satellite Home Viewer Act of 1988, SHVIA permits satellite companies to
provide local broadcast TV signals to all subscribers who reside in the local TV station’s market.
SHVIA also permits satellite companies to provide "distant" network broadcast stations to
eligible satellite subscribers.

SATELLITE MASTER ANTENNA TELEVISION (SMATV)

A satellite dish system used to deliver signals to multiple dwelling units (e.g., apartment
buildings and trailer parks).

SCANNER
A radio receiver that moves across a wide range of radio frequencies and allows audiences to
listen to any of the frequencies.

SERVICE PLAN
The rate plan you select when choosing a wireless phone service. A service plan typically
consists of a monthly base rate for access to the system and a fixed amount of minutes per
month.

SERVICE PROVIDER
A telecommunications provider that owns circuit switching equipment.

SLAMMING
The term used to describe what occurs when a customer’s long distance service is switched from
one long distance company to another without the customer’s permission. Such unauthorized
switching violates FCC rules.

SPECTRUM
The range of electromagnetic radio frequencies used in the transmission of sound, data and
television.

SUBSCRIBER LINE CHARGE (SLC)

A monthly fee paid by telephone subscribers that is used to compensate the local telephone
company for part of the cost of installation and maintenance of the telephone wire, poles and

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other facilities that link your home to the telephone network. These wires, poles and other
facilities are referred to as the "local loop." The SLC is one component of access charges.

TARIFF
The documents filed by a carrier describing their services and the payments to be charged for
such services.

TELECOMMUNICATIONS RELAY SERVICE (TRS)

A free service that enables persons with TTYs, individuals who use sign language and people
who have speech disabilities to use telephone services by having a third party transmit and
translate the call.

TELEPHONY
The word used to describe the science of transmitting voice over a telecommunications network.

TTY
A type of machine that allows people with hearing or speech disabilities to communicate over
the phone using a keyboard and a viewing screen. It is sometimes called a TDD.

UNBUNDLING
The term used to describe the access provided by local exchange carriers so that other service
providers can buy or lease portions of its network elements, such as interconnection loops, to
serve subscribers.

UNIVERSAL SERVICE
The financial mechanism which helps compensate telephone companies or other
communications entities for providing access to telecommunications services at reasonable and
affordable rates throughout the country, including rural, insular and high costs areas, and to
public institutions. Companies, not consumers, are required by law to contribute to this fund. The
law does not prohibit companies from passing this charge on to customers.

VERY HIGH FREQUENCY (VHF)

The part of the radio spectrum from 30 to 300 megahertz, which includes TV Channels 2-13, the
FM broadcast band and some marine, aviation and land mobile services.

VIDEO DESCRIPTION
An audio narration for television viewers who are blind or visually disabled, which consists of
verbal descriptions of key visual elements in a television program, such as settings and actions
not reflected in dialog. Narrations are inserted into the program’s natural pauses, and are
typically provided through the Secondary Audio Programming channel.

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Bluetooth a short-range radio technology that allows wireless communication between a

computer and a keyboard, between mobile phones, etc

e-mail the transmission and distribution of messages, information, facsimiles of documents, etc,
from one computer terminal to another

instant messaging or IM the online facility that allows the instant exchange of written messages
between two or more people using different computers or mobile phones

landline a telephone attached to a network by a socket, as opposed to a mobile phone

MMS multimedia messaging service: a method of transmitting graphics, video or sound files and
short text messages over wireless networks, esp on mobile phones

mobile phone a portable telephone that works by means of a cellular radio system MSN

pager a small electronic device, capable of receiving short messages; usually carried by people
who need to be contacted urgently (e.g. doctors)

phablet a handheld personal computer between a smartphone and a tablet in size and which
combines features of both

Skype a software application that allows users to make voice and video calls over the internet

smartphone a mobile telephone with computer features that may enable it to interact with
computerized systems, send emails, and access the web

SMS or text messaging communication by means of text messages sent from mobile phones

Wi-Fi a system of accessing the internet from remote machines such as laptop computers that
have wireless connections

Reference:

https://www.fcc.gov/general/glossary-telecommunications-terms

https://www.collinsdictionary.com/word-lists/telecommunications-telecommunication-
terms

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9) Phrasal verbs
What are phrasal verbs?
Phrasal verbs are two or more words that come together to give us a new verb with a different
meaning from the original words.

To understand better, let's have a look at some examples of phrasal verbs: put on means to place
on something on yourself (like clothes), get on means to progress, and move on means to go
forward even if you must leave something behind.

Phrasal verbs are highly useful for informal conversations. But if we are not aware of the
meaning of these phrasal verbs, we might face difficulties in understanding informal English. So,
for a fluent and natural conversation, understanding phrasal verbs helps a lot!

How to use phrasal verbs in different sentences

Here is an interesting fact about phrasal verbs. We just need to conjugate the verb part of the
phrase, and the other words remain unchanged. For example:

When we eat at a restaurant, I eat up all my salad.

I ate up all the pie on my plate.

In the above sentences, only the word eat changed. The word up remained unchanged.

Also notice that eat is an irregular verb, so its past tense is irregular in the phrasal verb, too (ate).

As you can see, we can use phrasal verbs to make our conversations easier and more natural.
While learning about phrasal verbs, we also need to understand the importance of conjugation,
which maintains verb tense consistency.

Now that we know what phrasal verbs are, let’s look at types of phrasal verbs.

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What are the types of phrasal verbs?

The main types of phrasal verbs are as follows:

1. Separable phrasal verbs

2. Inseparable phrasal verbs

Transitive and intransitive are simply terms that apply to all verbs depending on whether an
action is transferred to an object (transitive) or not (intransitive), so let’s focus on separable and
inseparable phrasal verbs.

Separable phrasal verbs

Separable phrasal verbs are separable because they can be separated by the object (i.e. the object
can come between the words that make up the verb).

Although words may come between the two parts of the phrasal verb, the two parts should not be
switched in order. For example, in the examples below, holding comes before against and hand
comes before over.

Example:

1. For a long time, I was the one who had been holding all the anger against you.
2. Manish was waiting for his application form. If you don’t mind, can you please hand it over to
him?

Inseparable phrasal verbs

Unlike separable phrasal verbs, these particular phrases can never be separated from each other
no matter what. They are meant to be together, always.

Example:

1. The burglars broke into the car.

2. I need to do away with my past to get my things right.

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Now that you know about phrasal verbs and have learned about their types, identifying these
types of verbs in a sentence is easy.

There are many examples of phrasal verbs in English.

1. Bear with

Be patient.

Please BEAR WITH me a moment while I finish this email.

2. Break off

End a relationship.

She BROKE OFF their engagement when she found out that he'd been unfaithful.

3. Hold back from

Not allow yourself to do something.

I had to HOLD BACK FROM losing my temper with them.

4. Bottle away

Store up.

He kept his feelings BOTTLED AWAY.

5. Zone out

Dissociate yourself from a situation.

I put some ambient music on and ZONED OUT.

6. Wrap up

Cover in paper.

They WRAPPED UP the presents and then put a ribbon around them.

7. Go ahead

Proceed.

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We now intend to GO AHEAD with the final stage of the project.

8. Pick out

Choose.

She PICKED OUT the foods she wanted to take and left the rest.

9. Prey upon

Exploit or harm.

They PREY UPON people's fears in order to get them to buy products.

10. Look up

To get better.

Everything is finally LOOKING UP for Lucy.

11. Come out

Make your sexual or gender identity known to others.

She CAME OUT while she was at college and has been living with her partner, Jane, for
the last couple of years.

12. Get away

Escape

She went on vacation in the country in order to GET AWAY from the city for a while.

13. Jerk around

Behave stupidly.

The rude students were JERKING AROUND during the lecture.

14. Kill off

Reduce or exterminate a population by hunting, pollution, development, etc.

There used to be a lot of wolves around here, but most of them have been KILLED OFF
by humans.

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15. Pair off

Begin a romantic relationship.

They PAIRED OFF shortly after starting university.

16. Pass out

Distribute.

The protesters PASSED OUT leaflets to the growing crowd.

17. Pile in

Enter a place quickly, in a disorganized way.

We all PILED IN the bus to go to the concert.

18. Strike down

Make someone ill.

I was STRUCK DOWN with food poisoning.

19. Track down

Find after a long search.

It took me ages to TRACK my friends DOWN in the crowd at the football game.

20. Train up

Teach someone the specific skills they will need to carry out a job or task (this is a
British example).

I have been TRAINING my new assistant.

21. Walk up

Go to someone.

A man WALKED UP and asked me the time.

22. Double as

Have a second function or purpose.

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My study DOUBLES AS a spare bedroom when we have visitors.

23. Dob in

To report someone’s wrongdoing (this is a British usage).

He DOBBED us IN as soon as he found out.

24. Cut off

Isolate or make inaccessible.

The heavy snow has blocked many roads and CUT OFF a number of villages.

25. Pass for

Be accepted as something that it is not.

You'd be surprised at what PASSES FOR good cooking in many restaurants.

26. Run over

Exceed a time limit.

The meeting RAN OVER by twenty minutes.

27. Go down

Reach or go as far as.

This path GOES DOWN to the lake.

28. Hand back

Return something.

The police officer checked my license and then HANDED it BACK.

Reference:

https://www.busuu.com/en/english/phrasal-verbs

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