Operating System

An operating system (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer

hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs. The
operating system is a vital component of the system software in a computer
system.

Why to Learn Operating System?

An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and
computer hardware. An operating system is a software which performs all the
basic tasks like file management, memory management, process management,
handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives
and printers.
Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows
Operating System, VMS (Virtual Memory System), OS/400, etc.

OVERVIEW OF OPERATING SYSTEM: Definition

An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and
the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

• Memory Management
 • Processor Management
• Device Management
• File Management
• Security
• Control over system performance
• Job accounting
• Error detecting aids

• Coordination between other software and users

Memory Management
Memory management refers to management of Primary Memory or Main
Memory. Main memory is a large array of words or bytes where each word or
byte has its own address.
In most of the cases, primary memory or main memory refers to RAM.
Main memory provides a fast storage that can be accessed directly by the CPU.
For a program to be executed, it must in the main memory. An Operating System
does the following activities for memory management −
• Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom,
what part are not in use.
• In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory
when and how much.
• Memory Allocation: Allocates the memory when a process requests it to
do so.
• Memory De-allocation: De-allocates the memory when a process no
longer needs it or has been terminated.
Processor Management
In multiprogramming environment, the OS decides which process gets the
processor when and for how much time. This function is called process
scheduling. An Operating System does the following activities for processor
management −
• Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible
for this task is known as traffic controller.
• Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
• De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.
Device Management
An Operating System manages device communication via their respective
drivers. It does the following activities for device management −
• Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as
the I/O controller.
• Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
• Allocates the device in the efficient way.
• De-allocates devices.
File Management
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and
usage. These directories may contain files and other directions.
An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
• Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective
facilities are often known as file system.
• Decides who gets the resources.
• Allocates the resources.
• De-allocates the resources.
Other Important Activities
Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System
performs –
• Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents
unauthorized access to programs and data.
• Control over system performance − Recording delays between request
for a service and response from the system.
• Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various
jobs and users.
• Error detecting aids − Production of dumps*, traces**, error messages,
and other debugging and error detecting aids.
• Coordination between other software and users − Coordination and
assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to
the various users of the computer systems.
*Some computer errors are unrecoverable because they require a reboot to regain
functionality, but the information stored in RAM at the time of a crash contains the code that
produced the error. Memory dumps save data that might otherwise be lost to RAM's volatile
nature or overwriting.

**Traces involve a specialized use of logging to record information about a program's

execution (log file).
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Types of Operating System

Operating systems are there from the very first computer generation and they
keep evolving with time. In this chapter, we will discuss some of the important
types of operating systems which are most commonly used.
1. Batch operating system
The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly.
Each user prepares his job** on an off-line device like punch cards* and submits
it to the computer operator. To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are
batched together and run as a group. The programmers leave their programs with
the operator and the operator then sorts the programs with similar requirements
into batches.

** Job means combination of Program + Input Data + Control Instructions

* A punch card is a simple piece of paper stock that can hold data in the form of
small punched holes, which are strategically positioned to be read by computers
or machines. It is an early computer programming relic that was used before the
many data storage advances relied upon today.
A punch card is also known as a punched card, IBM card or Hollerith card.

The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −

 • Lack of interaction between the user and the job.
• CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is
slower than the CPU.
• Difficult to provide the desired priority.

Spooling: Spooling is used to improve the processing speed of batch processing.

Spooling means Simultaneous Peripheral Output on Line. The process of storing
input data and output results on secondary storage is known as spooling. The
input data is stored on magnetic disks and is fed to the CPU when it is not too
busy. The processor then processes the data and the resulting output is again
stored on secondary storage device. Thus, in spooling, the magnetic storage
media acts as a buffer between the memory and the input/ output devices.

2. Multiprogramming OS
In multiprogramming, the CPU is capable of running more than one program
concurrently. More than one programs can reside in the main memory at any
given time, however the processor is able to execute only one instruction at a
time. The, operating speed of the CPU is much faster than that of the I/O devices.
Therefore, when one program is busy with I/O operations, the CPU is able to
allocate time to other programs instead of remaining idle. Thus, a number of users
can share CPU time.
A number of programs can reside in the main memory of the computer system.
The place in memory where a program resides is known as partition. Depending
upon the operating system, the actual number of partitions in the memory and the
number of programs that can reside simultaneously is decided. Thus, in
multiprogramming it is possible to run a number of programs in much less time
than would be required to execute them one after the other.
Multiprogramming increases both the throughput and response time of the
computer system. However operating systems which can support
multiprogramming are required to have high memory capacity and at the same
time effective mechanism of protecting the memory.

3. Multiprocessing OS
In multiprocessing systems, two or more CPUs are connected together.
Therefore, it is possible to execute instructions from different programs at the
same time. Thus, more than one instruction can be executed simultaneously. The
idle time of the computer reduces, since there is not user intervention in between
jobs.
4. Time-sharing operating systems
Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various
terminals, to use a particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or
multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time which
is shared among multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.
The main difference between Multi-programmed Batch Systems and Time-
Sharing Systems is that in case of Multi-programmed batch systems, the
objective is to maximize processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the
objective is to minimize response time.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the
switches occur so frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response.
For example, in a transaction processing, the processor executes each user
program in a short burst or quantum of computation. That is, if n users are
present, then each user can get a time quantum. When the user submits the
command, the response time is in few seconds at most.
The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide
each user with a small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed
primarily as batch systems have been modified to time-sharing systems.
Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are as follows −

• Provides the advantage of quick response.

• Avoids duplication of software.
• Reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages of Time-sharing operating systems are as follows −

• Problem of reliability.
• Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
• Problem of data communication.

5. Distributed operating System

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time
applications and multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the
processors accordingly.
The processors communicate with one another through various communication
lines (such as high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely
coupled systems or distributed systems. Processors in a distributed system may
vary in size and function. These processors are referred as sites, nodes,
computers, and so on.
The advantages of distributed systems are as follows −

• With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the
resources available at another.
• Speedup the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
• If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially
continue operating.
• Better service to the customers.
• Reduction of the load on the host computer.
• Reduction of delays in data processing.

6. Network operating System

A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the
capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other
networking functions. The primary purpose of the network operating system is
to allow shared file and printer access among multiple computers in a network,
typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to other networks.
Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server
2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell
NetWare etc.
The advantages of network operating systems are as follows −

• Centralized servers are highly stable.

• Security is server managed.
• Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into
the system.
• Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of
systems.
The disadvantages of network operating systems are as follows −

• High cost of buying and running a server.

• Dependency on a central location for most operations.
• Regular maintenance and updates are required.
 7. Real Time operating System
A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time
interval required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the
environment. The time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of
required updated information is termed as the response time. So in this method,
the response time is very less as compared to online processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the
operation of a processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as
a control device in a dedicated application. A real-time operating system must
have well-defined, fixed time constraints, otherwise the system will fail. For
example, Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, healthcare system,
industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems,
etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.
Hard real-time systems
Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time (Task
completion at EXACT TIME). In hard real-time systems, secondary storage is
limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM.
Soft real-time systems
Soft real-time systems are less restrictive (task completion WITHIN TIME
LIMIT). A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks and retains the
priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard
real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific
Projects.
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Operating System - Services

An Operating System provides services to both the users and to the programs.

• It provides programs an environment to execute.

• It provides users the services to execute the programs in a convenient
manner.
Following are a few common services provided by an operating system −

• Program execution
• I/O operations
 •File System manipulation
• Communication
• Error Detection
• Resource Allocation
• Protection
Program execution
Operating systems handle many kinds of activities from user programs to system
programs like printer spooler, name servers, file server, etc. Each of these
activities is encapsulated as a process.
A process includes the complete execution context (code to execute, data to
manipulate, registers, OS resources in use). Following are the major activities of
an operating system with respect to program management −

• Loads a program into memory.

• Executes the program.
• Handles program's execution.
• Provides a mechanism for process synchronization.
• Provides a mechanism for process communication.
• Provides a mechanism for deadlock* handling.

* Deadlock is a situation where a set of processes are blocked because each process is
holding a resource and waiting for another resource acquired by some other process (system
hanging situation).

I/O Operation
An I/O subsystem comprises of I/O devices and their corresponding driver
software. Drivers hide the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the
users.
An Operating System manages the communication between user and device
drivers.

• I/O operation means read or write operation with any file or any specific
I/O device.
• Operating system provides the access to the required I/O device when
required.
File system manipulation
A file represents a collection of related information. Computers can store files
on the disk (secondary storage), for long-term storage purpose. Examples of
storage media include magnetic tape, magnetic disk and optical disk drives like
CD, DVD. Each of these media has its own properties like speed, capacity, data
transfer rate and data access methods.
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and
usage. These directories may contain files and other directions. Following are
the major activities of an operating system with respect to file management −

•Program needs to read a file or write a file. (different files like .doc, .txt,
.jpeg, .mp3 etc)
• The operating system gives the permission to the program for operation on
file.
• Permission varies from read-only, read-write, denied and so on.
• Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete files.

• Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete

directories.
• Operating System provides an interface to create the backup of file system.
Communication
In case of distributed systems which are a collection of processors that do not
share memory, peripheral devices, or a clock, the operating system manages
communications between all the processes. Multiple processes communicate
with one another through communication lines in the network.
The OS handles routing and connection strategies, and the problems of
contention and security. Following are the major activities of an operating
system with respect to communication −

• Two processes often require data to be transferred between them

• Both the processes can be on one computer or on different computers, but
are connected through a computer network.
• Communication may be implemented by two methods, either by Shared
Memory or by Message Passing.
Error handling
Errors can occur anytime and anywhere. An error may occur in CPU, in I/O
devices or in the memory hardware. Following are the major activities of an
operating system with respect to error handling −

• The OS constantly checks for possible errors.

• The OS takes an appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent
computing.
Resource Management
In case of multi-user or multi-tasking environment, resources such as main
memory, CPU cycles and files storage are to be allocated to each user or job.
Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to resource
management −

• The OS manages all kinds of resources using schedulers.

• CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of CPU.

Protection
Considering a computer system having multiple users and concurrent execution
of multiple processes, the various processes must be protected from each other's
activities.
Protection refers to a mechanism or a way to control the access of programs,
processes, or users to the resources defined by a computer system. Following are
the major activities of an operating system with respect to protection −

• The OS ensures that all access to system resources is controlled.

• The OS ensures that external I/O devices are protected from invalid access
attempts.
• The OS provides authentication features for each user by means of
passwords.
e.g. WiFi Bluetooth passwords or Login account password of OS

Operating System - File System

File
A file is a named collection of related information that is recorded on secondary
storage such as magnetic disks, magnetic tapes and optical disks. In general, a
file is a sequence of bits, bytes, lines or records whose meaning is defined by the
files creator and user.
File Structure
A File Structure should be according to a required format that the operating
system can understand.
• A file has a certain defined structure according to its type.
➢ A text file is a sequence of characters organized into lines.
 ➢ A source file is a sequence of procedures and functions.
➢ An object file is a sequence of bytes organized into blocks that are
understandable by the machine.
• When operating system defines different file structures, it also contains the
code to support these file structure. Unix, MS-DOS support minimum
number of file structure.
File Type
File type refers to the ability of the operating system to distinguish different types
of file such as text files, source files and binary files etc. Many operating systems
support many types of files. Operating system like MS-DOS and UNIX have the
following types of files −
Ordinary files

• These are the files that contain user information.

• These may have text, databases or executable program.
• The user can apply various operations on such files like add, modify, delete
or even remove the entire file.
• photo, text, audio, video files etc. (.jpeg, .txt, .doc, .ppt, .mp3 etc)

Directory files

• These files contain list of file names and other information related to these
files. (.dir)
• Directory is a file system cataloguing structure which contains references
to other computer files, and possibly other directories. On many
computers, directories are known as folders
Special files

• These files are also known as device files.

• These files represent physical device like disks, terminals, printers,
networks, tape drive etc.
• A special file provides a universal interface for hardware devices.
These files are of two types −
• Character special files − data is handled character by character as in case
of terminals or printers. A character special file is similar to a block
device, but data is written one character (eight bits, or one byte) at a time.
 • Block special files – A block special file acts as a direct interface to a
block device. A block device is any device which performs data I/O in
units of blocks. The data is handled in blocks as in the case of disks and
tapes. (Blocks means bytes of data).
File Access Mechanisms
File access mechanism refers to the manner in which the records of a file may
be accessed. There are several ways to access files −

• Sequential access
• Direct/Random access
• Indexed sequential access
Sequential access
A sequential access is that in which the records are accessed in some sequence,
i.e., the information in the file is processed in order, one record after the other.
This access method is the most primitive one. Example: Compilers usually
access files in this fashion.
Direct/Random access
• Random access file organization provides, accessing the records directly.
• Each record has its own address on the file with by the help of which it can
be directly accessed for reading or writing.
• The records need not be in any sequence within the file and they need not
be in adjacent locations on the storage medium.
Indexed sequential access

• This mechanism is built up on base of sequential access.

• An index is created for each file which contains pointers (addresses) to
various blocks.
• Index is searched sequentially and its pointer is used to access the file
directly.