LECTURE NOTES 03-09-2024

BCM 211 AND BQS 211:THEORY OF STRUCTURES II

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

The field of Civil Engineering includes:

1. Structural Engineering
2. Water Resources Engineering including water structures
3. Public Health Engineering
4. Transportation Engineering
5. Geotechnical Engineering
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1. TYPES OF STRUCTURES
There are two types of structures namely:
A. Natural Structures: These structures occur in nature (designed and
constructed by God. Examples are Skeleton of Animals, Trunk of a
Tree, Shell of a tortoise or web of a spider.

B. Artificial Structures: These are structures designed and constructed by

human beings. Examples include buildings, bridges, dams, tunnels,
silos, stadia, water tanks among others. (Civil Engineering Structures
are static).

Other examples include Wheelbarrows, bicycles, motor vehicles, ships

and aircraft among others. (Mechanical Engineering Structures are
mobile).

Note: All these structural forms and character are all borrowed from
nature (Creation by GOD).

2. GENERAL DEFINITION OF A STRUCTURE

A structure may be generally defined as anything that:
 Either supports or resists forces of some kind
 Or acts as a protective cover for something or someone
 Or does both of the above

3. STRUCTURAL FORMS

Structures may be divided into two categories depending on their structural

form:

1. Skeleton Structures: These structures are made up of distinct, ideally

linear members. Examples of skeletal structures include ALL frameworks
(trusses; grills, frames and arches).

2. Continuum Structures: These structures are made up of members that

can only be defined in at least two dimensions. Examples include floor
slabs, a wall, a dam or a dome.

4. STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL UNITS

 A structure is composed of structural units as follows:

 A structure is made up of several structural systems working together

 Each structural system is made up of several members inter-connected
and functioning in such a manner as to give the system complete
structural independence.
 Each member is made up of a series of cross-sections from one end to
the other.
 Each cross-section is seen to be suffering in a specific level of load
effects.

Members Cross-
Structure Structural System
Joints Joints

Note: Compare with the functions of an organism in biology

System Cell
Organism Organ Tissue

1. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
When a load is applied to a structure, the structure will respond by
developing stresses in its material. As a consequence of these stresses,
the material strains and hence the structure deforms.

The aim of structural analysis is to predict (i.e. to determine in advance)

the internal stresses that will be induced in the material of a structure due
to a given set of loads, and the deformations that the structure will have
to suffer. The internal stresses are called member forces, while the
deformations are referred to as the displacements.

2 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
Structural design refers to all that engineering work (modeling, analysis,
specifications, detailing) which results in creating on paper how what is
proposed must be constructed on site, so that its structural behavior is
acceptable.

Structural behaviour is considered acceptable if the structure is safe,

stable and serviceable throughout its design life.
 STRUCTURES

CHAPTER 1: CONCEPTS AND PRINCILES

1.1 CONCEPTS
[Concept = A notion retained in the mind, by reasoning or imagination]

A Structure
A structure is defined as an assembly of members joined together and
supported in such a manner as to form a stable framework.
The framework must be able to transmit the applied loads safely from
their points of application, via the joints, to the points of restraint, in a
stable manner and without excessive deformation.

Structural Analysis
Structural analysis refers to the techniques used in order to predict the
behaviour (response) of a structure when subjected to applied loads.
“Theory of structures” refers to a series of courses which deal with
structural analysis.
In 211 – Theory of Structures we shall determine (i.e. predict in
advance) the external forces (called support reactions) induced at
the supports, and the internal stresses (called member forces)
induced in the members due to a given set of loads acting on a given
structure.
Structural Idealization
Structural idealization is the simplification of an actual structural
system to a model that can be analysed easily using mathematical and
physical principles. Such simplification is only for purposes of
structural analysis.
The simplification is achieved by making appropriate assumptions
regarding:-

1. The nature of the applied loads.

2. The nature and behaviour of the members.
3. The nature and behaviour of the joints.
4. The nature and behaviour of the points of restraint
Structural idealization results in what is termed as the idealized
structure or structural model.
 Idealization of Applied Loads

P
1. Point loads
P P sin θ
P

θ
P
2 Distributed cos θ
loads
Uniformly distributed loading ω

3 Bending
moment M Linearly distributed loading

For purposes of analysis, all applied loads shall be considered with regard to
the Cartesian coordinate system; and hence your knowledge of resolution of
forces is a pre-requisite.

Idealization of Structural Members

In idealizing structural members, the following assumptions are made:-
1. The member is prismatic, or is linearly tapered
2. The member is linear, or curvilinear
3. The material is elastic, isotropic, and homogeneous.
4. The material is NOT stressed beyond the elastic limit.
5. The member may be represented by a line coinciding with its longitudinal
axis.
6. The self-weight of the member is negligible.
ii. Idealization of Joints
Joints are idealized into two categories:-
1. Pin joint (also called a hinge): Members meeting at a pin joint
m

A pin joint can resist force in the x- and/or y-direction, but cannot
resist any bending moment about the pin.

Rigid joint
A rigid joint can resist forces in the x- and/or y-direction and resist
bending moment.

Members meeting at a rigid joint:

 iii. Idealization of Supports (or points of restraint)
There are three basic types of supports as shown in the table below.

Real Model Idealized Free body Remarks

Model diagram
Pin Support H
Can resist a force in the x-
direction Can resist a force in
V
the y-direction
Cannot resist moment about the z-
axis
Roller Can resist a force in the y-
Support
direction Cannot resist a force in
V
the x- direction
Cannot resist moment about the z-
axis
Can resist a force in the x-
Fixed Support M H direction
Can resist a force in the y-
V
direction Can resist moment
about the z-axis

Note: The idealized loads, members, joints, and supports are only
conceptual

iv. Free Body Diagram

A “free body” is one that is imagined to be freed (i.e. totally
disconnected) from all of its surrounding members, joints, or supports,
whose presence is acknowledged only by the forces and moments they
apply to the free body.
A free body may consist of part of a member, or a whole member, or
several members, or the whole structure; BUT the free body must be
able to sustain all the forces and moments acting on it in equilibrium,
and in a stable manner.

A sketch of a free body showing the body and all the forces and moments
acting on it is referred to as a free body diagram.
 PRINCIPLES
1. Principle of Static Equilibrium
The principle of static equilibrium states that, for a free body to
remain static the algebraic sum of all the resolved forces in
any particular direction must equal zero; AND the resultant
moment must also equal zero.

Consider the free body shown below (which is a 2-D system).

∑Fx = 0, ∑Fy = 0, ∑Mx = 0,

y
F2
d2
Fn
F1
ΣFx = 0
For 3 – D system ΣMx = 0
ΣFy = 0
∑Fx = 0, ∑Mx = 0, ∑Fy = 0, ∑My = 0, 0,y = 0
∑Fz =ΣM
ΣFz = 0
∑Mz = 0, ΣMz = 0

The principle of static equilibrium requires that, for this free body to be
static, three equations must be satisfied:-

ΣFx = F1cosθ1 + F2cosθ2 +-------------+ Fncosθn = 0

ΣFy = F1sinθ1 + F2sinθ2 +-------------+ Fnsinθn = 0
ΣMz = F1d1 + F2d2 +-----------------+ Fndn = 0

In these equations, θi is the inclination of the ith force with

respect to the x-axis. Note that moments are taken about any
convenient point on the plane of the body.
In this chapter we shall apply the principle of static equilibrium to
determine the support reaction components induced at the supports of
a structure due to a given set of loads.
2. Principle of Compatibility
The principle of compatibility states that the strains distribution
over the whole structure must be compatible with the shape of
the deformed structure. In simpler terms, the principle states
that the structural form must show continuity both before and
after straining.

3. Principle of Constitutivity
The principle of constitutivity states that the stresses must be
related to the strains by means of the material constitutive
properties. In simpler terms the principle states that the stresses
are related to the strains by Hooke’s law of linear elasticity.
Thus σ = E ε

4 Principle of Superposition
The principle of superposition states that the structural response
due to a number of simultaneously applied loads is equal to the
algebraic sum of the responses due to the individual loads each
applied separately to the structure.

DETERMINATION OF SUPPORT REACTION COMPONENTS

The procedure for the determination of support reaction
components is as follows:-
Step 1: Isolate and sketch an appropriate free body
diagram.
[All the external forces and moments acting on it must be shown].
Step 2: Set up the equations of static equilibrium.
Step 3: Solve for the unknown forces.

Worked Examples
Determine the support reaction components induced at the supports of
each of the beam structures shown in examples 1 to 8.
Example 1 – Simply supported beam 4 metres span carrying a point
load of 14 KN at mid-span.
Example 2 – Simply supported beam 4 metres span carrying a uniformly
distributed load of 5KN per metre length throughout the entire span.
Example 3 – A cantilevered beam 3 metres span carrying a point load of
20KN at free end.
Example 4 – A cantilevered beam 3 metres span carrying a uniformly
distributed load of 5KN per metre length.
Example 5 – A cantilevered beam 3 metres span carrying a uniformly
distributed load of 5KN per metre length carrying a point load of 20KN at
mid-span
Example 6 – A propped cantilever 6 metres span with an internal hinge
4 metres from the fixed support carrying point loads of 60KN and 30KN
at 2 metres and 5 metres from the fixed support respectively.
Example 7 – A propped cantilever 6 metres span with an internal hinge
4 metres from the fixed support carrying a uniformly distributed load of
5KN/m along the entire span.
Example 8 – A propped cantilever 6 metres span with an internal hinge
4 metres from the fixed support carrying a uniformly distributed load of
5KN/m along the entire span.
Example 9 – A simply supported beam of 6 metres between the
supports with a 2 metres overhang carrying a uniformly distributed load
of 5KN/m along the entire overhang span.
Note: As long as there are no applied loads with components in the x
– direction, the horizontal reaction component HA will turn out to
be zero. Hence, the equilibrium equation in the x-direction is not
necessary.

The aim of the Theory of Structures II is to enable students to

determine the support reaction components of a structure and
analyse the effect of the loading to the structure and be able to
apply the principles to design basic members of the structure to
sustain the applied loading throughout the life of the structure.