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 Engineering Statics
with MATLAB®

This text makes use of symbolic algebra and vector-matrix algebra to

demonstrate a new approach to learning statics. Symbolic solutions are
obtained, together with the types of solutions covered in other texts, so
that students can see the advantages of this new approach.

This innovative text is an extension of second-generation vector Statics

courses to a new, third-generation matrix-vector Statics course, a course that
addresses deformable as well as rigid bodies and employs MATLAB®.

MATLAB® is used as a “calculator” whose built-in functions are used to

solve statics problems. This text uses vectors and matrices to solve both
statically determinate rigid body problems and statically indeterminate
problems for deformable bodies.

The inclusion of statically indeterminate problems is unique to this text.

It is made possible by using symbolic algebra and a new, simplified
vector-matrix formulation that combines the equations of equilibrium,
the homogeneous solutions to those equations, and a description of the
flexibilities found in the deformable elements of a structure to solve
directly for the unknown forces/moments.

Lester W. Schmerr Jr. holds a PhD in Mechanics from the Illinois

Institute of Technology and a BS in Aeronautics and Astronautics from
MIT. He is a Professor Emeritus at Iowa State University, where he
taught and conducted research for four decades.
Advances in Applied Mathematics
Series Editor: Daniel Zwillinger

Experimental Statistics and Data Analysis for Mechanical and Aerospace

Engineers
James Middleton
Advanced Engineering Mathematics with MATLAB®, Fifth Edition
Dean G. Duffy
Handbook of Fractional Calculus for Engineering and Science
Harendra Singh, H. M. Srivastava, Juan J. Nieto
Advanced Engineering Mathematics
A Second Course with MATLAB®
Dean G. Duffy
Quantum Computation
Helmut Bez and Tony Croft
Computational Mathematics
An Introduction to Numerical Analysis and Scientific Computing with
Python
Dimitrios Mitsotakis
Delay Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations
Andrei D. Polyanin, Vsevolod G. Sorkin, Alexi I. Zhurov
Clean Numerical Simulation
Shijun Liao
Multiplicative Partial Differential Equations
Svetlin Georgiev and Khaled Zennir
Engineering Statics with MATLAB®
Lester W. Schmerr Jr.
https://www.routledge.com/Advances-in-Applied-Mathematics/book-
series/CRCADVAPPMTH?pd=published,forthcoming&pg=1&pp=12&
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Engineering Statics
with MATLAB®

Lester W. Schmerr Jr.

MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission.
The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this
book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products
does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a
particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software.
First edition published 2024
by CRC Press
2385 Executive Center Drive, Suite 320, Boca Raton, FL 33431
and by CRC Press
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2024 Lester W. Schmerr Jr.

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but
the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all
materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have
attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this
publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged
please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be
reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or
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For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access
www.copyright.com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222
Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not
available on CCC please contact [email protected]
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.

ISBN: 978-1-032-43700-2 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-44526-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-37259-2 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003372592

Typeset in Palatino
by MPS Limited, Dehradun

Access the Instructor Resources: www.routledge.com/9781032437002

Contents

Preface.................................................................................................................ix

1. Introduction to Statics and the Concept of Force .............................. 1

1.1 About This Book ............................................................................ 1
1.2 Quantities and Units ..................................................................... 2
1.3 Numerical Calculations ................................................................ 4
1.4 Forces and Vectors......................................................................... 5
1.5 Scalars, Vectors, and Matrices ................................................... 10
1.6 Unit Vectors and Cartesian (Rectangular) Components ...... 12
1.7 Oblique Components .................................................................. 18
1.8 The Dot Product and Direction Cosines.................................. 24
1.8.1 The Dot Product ............................................................. 24
1.8.2 Direction Cosines ........................................................... 28
1.9 Position Vectors............................................................................ 31
1.10 Problems ........................................................................................ 34
1.10.1 Review Problems.......................................................... 41

2. Moments and Couples............................................................................ 44

2.1 Moment of a Force about a Point ............................................... 44
2.1.1 The Vector Cross Product............................................... 47
2.2 Couples ............................................................................................ 57
2.3 Moment of a Force about a Line ................................................ 61
2.4 Problems .......................................................................................... 68
2.4.1 Review Problems.............................................................. 73

3. Equivalent Systems and Resultants .................................................... 76

3.1 Resultants of Two-Dimensional Force Systems ....................... 78
3.2 Resultants of Three-Dimensional Force Systems ..................... 81
3.3 Reduction to a Wrench ................................................................. 84
3.4 Resultants and the Center of Gravity ........................................ 87
3.5 Resultants of Distributed Forces ................................................. 92
3.6 Problems .......................................................................................... 95
3.6.1 Review Problems............................................................ 100

4. Equilibrium ............................................................................................. 103

4.1 Free Body Diagrams.................................................................... 104
4.2 Reaction Forces at Supports....................................................... 110

v
vi Contents

4.3 Solving Equilibrium Problems – I ............................................ 116

4.4 Alternate Systems of Equilibrium Equations.......................... 135
4.5 Problems ........................................................................................ 138
4.5.1 Review Problems............................................................ 146

5. Trusses...................................................................................................... 149
5.1 The Method of Pins ..................................................................... 151
5.1.1 Summary.......................................................................... 157
5.2 Zero-Force Members ................................................................... 157
5.3 The Method of Sections .............................................................. 159
5.4 Space Trusses................................................................................ 161
5.5 Problems ........................................................................................ 165
5.5.1 Review Problems............................................................ 171

6. Frames and Machines ........................................................................... 173

6.1 Solving Equilibrium Problems – II ........................................... 173
6.2 Problems ........................................................................................ 196
6.2.1 Review Problems............................................................ 201

7. Centroids.................................................................................................. 204
7.1 Centroids of Volumes, Areas, and Lines................................. 204
7.1.1 Integration with Strips .................................................. 210
7.2 Composite Areas.......................................................................... 215
7.3 Distributed Line Loads ............................................................... 218
7.4 Problems ........................................................................................ 220
7.4.1 Review Problems............................................................ 227
7.5 Tables of Centroids...................................................................... 228

8. Beams........................................................................................................ 232
8.1 Internal Forces and Moments.................................................... 232
8.2 Singularity Functions .................................................................. 246
8.3 Problems ........................................................................................ 256
8.3.1 Review Problems............................................................ 259

9. Frictional Forces ..................................................................................... 261

9.1 Slipping and Tipping .................................................................. 261
9.2 Flat Belts or Ropes in Contact with Rough Surfaces ............ 281
9.3 Wedges........................................................................................... 286
9.4 Problems ........................................................................................ 287
9.4.1 Review Problems............................................................ 291

10. Statically Indeterminate Structures ................................................... 294

10.1 Solving a Statically Indeterminate Problem.......................... 295
Contents vii

10.2 A Matrix-Vector Force-Based Method ................................... 299

10.3 Steps in the Force-Based Method ........................................... 309
10.4 Examples of the Force-Based Method.................................... 311
10.5 Problems ...................................................................................... 332
10.5.1 Review Problems........................................................ 336

11. Area Moments and Mass Moments of Inertia ................................ 339

11.1 Area Moments ............................................................................ 340
11.2 Polar Area Moment and the Radius of Gyration ................ 347
11.2.1 Polar Area Moment ................................................... 347
11.2.2 Radius of Gyration..................................................... 347
11.3 Composite Areas........................................................................ 348
11.4 Rotation of Coordinates............................................................ 350
11.5 Principal Area Moments and Principal Axes ....................... 351
11.6 Area Moment Matrices ............................................................. 356
11.7 Mass Moments of Inertia.......................................................... 363
11.7.1 Parallel Axis Theorem ............................................... 365
11.7.2 Radius of Gyration..................................................... 367
11.8 Problems ...................................................................................... 367
11.8.1 Review Problems........................................................ 371
11.9 Tables of Mass Moments of Inertia and Area
Moments ...................................................................................... 372

Appendices..................................................................................................... 375
A MATLAB® Overview ......................................................................... 375
A.1 Constants, Operations, and Built-in Functions ..................... 375
A.2 Vectors .......................................................................................... 377
A.3 Matrices ........................................................................................ 382
A.4 Solutions of Simultaneous Linear Equations......................... 388
A.4.1 Numerical Solution ...................................................... 389
A.4.2 Symbolic Solution in Terms of Numerical
Variables ........................................................................ 390
A.4.3 Symbolic Solution in Terms of Symbolic
Variables ........................................................................ 391
A.5 Element-by-Element Operations, Plotting, and
Logical Vectors ............................................................................ 397
A.5.1 Element-by-Element Operations................................ 397
A.5.2 Plotting ........................................................................... 398
A.5.3 Logical Vectors ............................................................. 401
A.5.4 Constants eps and inf.................................................. 402
A.6 Functions and Scripts................................................................. 403
A.7 Anonymous Functions............................................................... 405
viii Contents

A.8 Symbolic Calculations................................................................ 406

A.8.1 Symbolic Integration.................................................... 406
A.8.2 Symbolic Differentiation ............................................. 407
A.8.3 Substitution ................................................................... 408
B MATLAB® Files ................................................................................... 409
Problem Answers.......................................................................................... 411
Index ................................................................................................................ 417
Preface

This book is based on a course in Engineering Statics I have taught and

developed for over 40 years at Iowa State University. Since statics is an
entry-level course in engineering that has a highly developed role and
place in an engineering curriculum, the topics covered are many of the
same found in a wide variety of universities and contained in many
textbooks. However, the approach here has some new and unique aspects
that I would like to highlight. Statics texts have changed little over the
years since the 1960s when I was first learning the subject. Certainly,
changes in homework problems have reflected the emergence of hand-
held calculators and personal computers in engineering. A stronger
emphasis on student participation has reflected a new understanding of
the role of active learning in the material being presented. But the basic
structure and content of the course have remained relatively static (pun
intended) for many decades – a situation that I have sought to address. Let
me explain.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, in response to Sputnik and the space
race, engineering curricula developed a new, more heavily math- and
science-based approach. In statics, that push was reflected in the
introduction of vectors and vector algebra into “second generation”
statics texts. Since that time, there have been many changes to how
students work and learn. The introduction of the hand-held calculator
and the personal computer has been a major part of those changes. But
the development of computer software environments such as MATLAB®
has also had a major impact. In MATLAB, for example, students and
practicing engineers now have access to a wide range of tools for solving
the statics problems of the past as well as new problems. MATLAB is also
ideally suited for solving problems described in vector-matrix and
symbolic terms. In this book, we will closely incorporate MATLAB into
the statics teaching and learning environment. This will let us broaden
the horizons of statics without sacrificing the “traditional” content of
statics courses that educators (but not the students, perhaps) cherish. This
new approach will include:
Using symbolic algebra to define and solve problems, compute
integrals, etc.
Dealing with matrices as well as vectors.
Examining systems and structures from a complete standpoint
rather than emphasizing problems where, for example, a student is

ix
x Preface

asked to find only a particular force or moment within an entire

structure.
Dealing with statically indeterminate problems as a precursor to
later courses such as Strength of Materials.

The symbolic algebra capabilities of MATLAB warrant special mention.

Statics problems have traditionally been done with paper and pencil, and
consequently, much attention is often paid to finding “efficient” solutions
for unknowns that avoid having to solve simultaneous equations. With
MATLAB, it is possible to write the equations of equilibrium in a form that
is almost identical to what is placed on paper and then solve them in that
symbolic form, regardless of the number of equations. The answers can
either be numerical or in terms of some symbolic variables of the problem,
for which specific values can then be substituted. This makes statics less
about finding “clever” solution paths through a problem to more about
accurately representing the problem from free body diagrams and then
letting MATLAB handle the solution process. If MATLAB’s symbolic math
toolbox capabilities are not available, then one can use the numerical
matrix-vector algebra capabilities of MATLAB in much the same fashion.
For testing purposes, of course, one may design problems that do not need
symbolic or matrix-vector capabilities, but having those capabilities offers
many new possibilities for the examples one covers in class as well as the
homework that is assigned. Just as in the past there came a time to replace
the graphical methods taught in statics with vector algebra, it is time to
move from vector algebra to matrix-vector algebra and symbolic methods,
a move that can be effectively done with MATLAB.
The inclusion of statically indeterminate problems in statics is unusual,
so let me explain how it is possible. Traditionally, statics has only dealt
with rigid bodies where the equations of equilibrium are all that are needed
to solve problems that are statically determinate. Those equations can be
written in matrix-vector form as [E]{F} = {P}, where [E] is the equilibrium
matrix, {F} is a vector of the unknown forces/moments, and {P} is a vector
of known forces/moments. Statically indeterminate problems have not
been considered because of the necessity of also describing deformations
and their relationship to displacements and forces/moments, requiring a
more detailed look at topics that are thought better suited to courses such
as Strength of Materials. However, a recent and deeper understanding of
statically indeterminate problems has shown that, besides the equilibrium
matrix, the only thing we really need to solve for all the unknown forces is a
flexibility matrix that relates the forces to the deformations [1]. If one stays
with simple problems such as systems with springs, 2-D and 3-D trusses,
and wire-supported structures (problems that are commonly used
examples in statics anyway), the flexibility matrix is a diagonal matrix
Preface xi

that is simple to obtain and whose physical meaning is also easy to

understand at the level of a statics course. To solve statically indeterminate
problems, it is well known that one must augment the equilibrium
equations with compatibility equations for the deformations. Normally,
compatibility equations are obtained by looking at the conditions
the geometry places on the deformations. Compatibility equations, however,
can also be obtained directly from homogeneous solutions of the underdetermined
equilibrium equations found in statically indeterminate problems! Relating the
deformations to the forces through the flexibility matrix gives the additional
equations needed to turn the underdetermined equilibrium equations into a
determinate set. Solving the homogeneous underdetermined equilibrium
equations is no more difficult than solving the equilibrium equations for
statically determinate problems (which we do all the time in statics), and
MATLAB has built-in methods one can use in both cases. In addition,
the equilibrium matrix and the flexibility matrix are all that are needed
to determine the displacements present in a deformable structure. In
problems such as statically indeterminate trusses, for example, one can
then illustrate the geometry changes of the truss. Thus, with a modest
knowledge of matrix-vector algebra and an understanding of the roles
that equilibrium, compatibility, and flexibilities play in deformable
bodies, statically indeterminate problems can and should be included
in statics. This provides engineering students with a new and practical
understanding of the statics of both rigid and deformable bodies and
better paves the way for later courses such as Strength of Materials.
This extension of a traditional statics course can only be found in this
text.
Some may ask if such changes to a statics course can be made to an
already full course. The answer is yes. Example problems are solved
using the traditional approaches found in other texts alongside
solutions obtained with MATLAB. In this way, students can see the
advantages that MATLAB provides. All of this can be done without
sacrificing the traditional learning objectives and content of the course.
It should be noted that the approach of this text does not require students
to learn MATLAB programming. MATLAB is instead used here as a
powerful “calculator” where students need only learn how to
manipulate the built-in matrix-vector and symbolic functions of that
“calculator”, just as they learn how to manipulate the built-in functions
of a hand-held calculator.
The text includes the topics most instructors cover in a statics course,
but there are additional topics that one might consider. These have been
included in an addendum to the text that is available for students and
instructors on the website www.eng-statics.org. There are four additional
chapters in that addendum on (1) fluid pressure forces and forces in
xii Preface

cables, (2) the principle of virtual work for rigid bodies, (3) work-energy
principles for deformable bodies and stability, and (4) an introduction to
the finite element method. Virtual work principles for rigid bodies, fluid
pressure forces, cables, and stability are topics that can often be found in
other texts but are likely covered lightly, if at all, in a statics course. With
the addendum, one or more of these topics can be readily included. The
work-energy principles for deformable bodies and a very gentle
introduction to finite elements are present to introduce statics students
to topics that are foundations of some of the most powerful tools used in
engineering analysis and practice.
There are also differences between the homework problems here and
those found in other texts. There are three types of homework problems.
First, there are multiple-choice problems. These are generally simple
problems that can be worked out in class. In my classes, I have used
“clickers” or learning software (such as Top Hat [2]) and cell phones to
get and tally the students’ answers to these types of problems. However,
these multiple-choice problems also can be used by students to validate
their basic understanding of how to solve problems. The second type of
homework problem generally asks for more results than found in the
multiple-choice problems. They often include asking for specific forces or
moments, as found in other texts, but they also may include determining
complete solutions involving all the unknowns, which generally is best
done with MATLAB. An example of the latter case would be obtaining
a solution for all the member forces in a truss and the reactions using
the method of pins (joints). Like the examples given in the text, many
homework problems are solved both by “hand” (i.e., with a calculator)
and with MATLAB. This approach again shows the value that
MATLAB has for solving many of the problems we deal with in
statics. The third type of homework problem I have called review
problems − two- or three-step problems that are like what might be
placed on a test and do not require MATLAB. Answers to all the
homework problems except the multiple-choice problems and those
problems having graphical answers are given at the end of the text and
at the end of the addendum.
Another unique feature for instructors is that all the homework
problems that have numerical answers also include a MATLAB script
that solves the problem with either the parameters that are given in the
text or for other values that can easily be specified before running the
script. This allows instructors to “refresh” almost all the homework
problems without waiting for a new edition of the text. The homework
solutions are available to instructors in a PDF solutions manual as well as
individual PowerPoint slides. All instructor materials are available from
the publisher. Lecture slides (with commentary notes) that present the
Preface xiii

content of the text and an addendum are also available for both students
and instructors on the author’s website, www.eng-statics.org, as is a
tutorial on solving statics problems with MATLAB and other course
materials.

[1] Schmerr, L.W., Advanced Mechanics of Solids – Analytical and Numerical

Solutions with MATLAB®, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
U.K., 2021.
[2] https://tophat.com
1
Introduction to Statics and the
Concept of Force

OBJECTIVES
• To provide an overview of the basic quantities and
numerical calculations used in statics.
• To define forces as vectors and the use of the parallelogram
law of addition.
• To express a vector in terms of its Cartesian components or
in terms of its magnitude and a unit vector that defines its
direction.
• To introduce the notations used for scalars, vectors, and
matrices.
• To define the dot product and its relationship to direction
cosines.
• To describe the use of MATLAB® in numerical and sym-
bolic solutions.
• To introduce position vectors.

1.1 About This Book

Archimedes (287–212 BCE) is often considered to be the founder of statics,
making statics one of the oldest engineering subjects. He described the
principle of the lever, the concept of the center of gravity, and the principle
of buoyancy for floating objects, all of which are part of the foundations of
statics. Since much of the subject matter in statics is based on centuries of
experience, statics texts are often highly uniform in the topics that they
cover, but the way in which problems are solved has changed significantly
over time. Early statics texts, for example, solved many problems with the

DOI: 10.1201/9781003372592-1 1
2 Engineering Statics with MATLAB®

use of geometrical methods that could be executed by hand with paper and
pencil graphics and with drawing instruments. From the late 1950s to early
1960s, in response to Sputnik and the space race, engineering curricula
developed a new, more heavily math and science-based approach. In
statics, those changes were reflected in the introduction of vectors and
vector algebra. The emergence of the hand-held calculator and personal
computers has also been a major part of those changes. More recently, the
development of computer software environments has also had a significant
impact. In MATLAB, for example, students and practicing engineers now
have access to a wide range of numerical and symbolic tools for solving the
statics problems of the past as well as new problems. In this course, we will
incorporate MATLAB into both how subjects are presented and how
problems are solved. These changes will be reflected in using matrices as
well as vectors, so it is important that you are familiar with the properties
of matrices and how to obtain matrix-vector solutions. Appendix A in this
book can give you much of the background that is needed. The matrix-
vector approach to statics using MATLAB found in this text is the latest
example of the evolution of statics over many, many years.
Traditionally, statics has only dealt with rigid bodies (bodies whose size
and shape are fixed) and examined the conditions under which a rigid body
remains at rest. Dynamics of rigid bodies, in contrast, studies their motion.
While the main emphasis in this book is on the statics of rigid bodies, we
will also examine the equilibrium of bodies that can deform. Normally, this
topic is left to later courses such as strength of materials, but we will show
you how we can use the conditions of equilibrium and the “flexibility” of a
deformable body to solve statics problems that are not able to be solved by
equilibrium conditions alone. We will see how even very small deforma-
tions that are present in a structure play a crucial role in the ability of an
engineer to analyze the statics of those structures. Thus, in this book, we will
give you a glimpse of how statics is applied in engineering practice to the
many complex structures and systems found in the world.

1.2 Quantities and Units

Statics is concerned with the conditions under which structures are at rest
(in “equilibrium”). The basic quantities we will deal with in statics are:

Scalar Quantities
lengths, angles

Vector Quantities
forces, moments and couples, positions, displacements
Introduction to Statics and the Concept of Force 3

Matrix Quantities
area moments, mass moments of inertia, equilibrium matrices, stiff-
ness matrices, flexibility matrices, compatibility matrices

The fundamental units of the quantities found in statics are normally

given either in the U.S. Customary System of Units or the International
System of Units (SI):

Length
U.S. Customary: foot (ft), inch (in.)
Metric (SI): meter (m), centimeter (cm), millimeter (mm)
where 1 in. = 25.4 mm, 1 m = 39.37 in. = 3.281 ft
Angle
Both systems: radian, degree
where 1 radian = 360/2π degrees = 57.3 degrees
Force
U.S. Customary: pound (lb)
Metric (SI): Newton (N)
where 1 lb = 4.448 N, 1 N = 0.2248 lb
Moment
U.S Customary: foot-pounds (ft-lb) or inch-pounds (in-lb)
Metric (SI): Newton-meters (N-m)

SI System: In the SI system, the fundamental unit of mass is the kilogram

(kg). The force, F, measured in newtons (N) is obtained from the mass
through Newton’s law F = ma, where a is an acceleration measured in
m/sec2 as follows:
Force = mass × acceleration

1 newton = (1 kg)(1 m/sec 2 )

The weight, W, of a body is a force given by W = mg, where m is the mass

in kg and g = 9.80665 m/sec2 is the acceleration of gravity on the surface
of the earth (usually used in engineering calculations as g = 9.807 or 9.81)

U.S. Customary System: In the U.S. Customary System, the fundamental

unit of force is the pound (lb). The mass in this system is called the slug,
where
Force = mass × acceleration

1 lb = (1 slug) (1 ft/sec 2 )
4 Engineering Statics with MATLAB®

On the surface of the earth, the acceleration of gravity g = 32.1740 ft/sec2

(usually used as g = 32.2 in engineering calculations).

Example 1.1
Suppose I have 454 grams of sugar. What is its weight in Newtons? In
pounds?
The weight is W = (0.454 kg) (9.81 m/s2) = 4.454 Newtons. In terms of
pounds, W = (4.454 N)(0.2248 lb/N) = 1.00 lb. [Note that is common to
say that one pound of sugar “weighs” 454 grams but grams is a measure
of mass and pounds is a measure of force, so we are really mixing two
different units.]

Example 1.2
Suppose I have a 100 lb sack of flour. What is its mass in slugs? In kg?
We have (100 lb) = (m slugs)(32.2 ft/sec2), so m = 100/32.2 = 3.11 slugs.
Since (100 lb) (4.448 N/lb) = 444.8 N, the mass is m = 444.8/9.807 = 45.4 kg.

1.3 Numerical Calculations

Numerical engineering calculations in statics are now routinely done with
pocket calculators and computers. This technology has made it possible
to evaluate results to many decimal places. In MATLAB, for example,
numerical calculations are done in floating point double precision, which
gives 15–17 decimal digits of precision. The accuracy of most engineering
calculations, however, is normally much less than this machine-based
precision and is reflected in the number of significant digits in the result. In
scientific notation (where a number is expressed in the form a × 10b, with
1 a < 10), the number of significant digits (or significant figures) is the
number of digits needed to express the value of a within a specified level of
accuracy. For example, for a value (5.123 ± 0.0004) × 10 3, four significant
figures would be sufficient. In this book, we will normally give answers to
problems done “by hand” (i.e., with the aid of a pocket calculator) to 3–4
significant figures, with more significant figures present in any interme-
diate calculations (to prevent roundoff errors from accumulating). In
solutions done with MATLAB, numerical answers are typically displayed
in a “short format” where four decimal places are present. We will leave
such answers in that format with the understanding that those MATLAB
answers may not reflect the actual significant figures present.
Introduction to Statics and the Concept of Force 5

1.4 Forces and Vectors

A force is a measure of a “push” or “pull” action exerted on a structure or
system. It is a vector quantity having both a magnitude and a direction
and satisfies the parallelogram law of addition (that we will define
shortly). In two dimensions, we can characterize a vector as a directed
arrow, having a length of a given dimension (called the magnitude), such
as the 10 lb magnitude of the force shown in Figure 1.1, and whose
direction can be specified by the two angles ( x , y ) that the arrow makes
with respect to a set of x- and y-rectangular (Cartesian) axes. These angles
are not independent since

cos2 x + cos2 y =1 (1.1)

In three dimensions, we can also characterize a vector by a directed

arrow having a length (magnitude) and whose direction is described by
the three angles ( x , y , z ) with respect to the x-, y-, and z-rectangular
(Cartesian) axes, such as the force of 10 lb magnitude shown in
Figure 1.2. These three angles are also not all independent since they
must satisfy

cos2 x + cos2 y + cos2 z =1 (1.2)

The cosines of the angles appearing in Eq. (1.1) and Eq. (1.2) are called
direction cosines. We will discuss them more shortly.

FIGURE 1.1
A vector 10 lb force in two dimensions.

FIGURE 1.2
A vector 10 lb force in three dimensions.
6 Engineering Statics with MATLAB®

FIGURE 1.3
(a) The parallelogram law of addition of vectors. (b) An oblique triangle.

Forces obey the parallelogram law of addition. The sum of two or more
forces is called the resultant force. Figure 1.3(a) shows the resultant, R, of
two forces, (F1, F2), which lies in the plane of those two forces. The
resultant R = F1 + F2 forms the diagonal of the parallelogram shown in
Figure 1.3(a), which is why this type of addition is called the parallelo-
gram law. Because the resultant and its constituent forces form an
oblique triangle (Figure 1.3(b)), we can use the law of sines and the law of
cosines to effectively solve force addition problems. For the oblique
triangle of Figure 1.3(b), we have

sin a sin b sin c

Law of sines = = (1.3a)
A B C

Law of cosines C 2 = A2 + B2 2AB cos c (1.3b)

where (A, B, C) are the sides of the triangle and (a, b, c) are the opposite
angles.

Example 1.3
For the two forces applied to the block shown in Figure 1.4(a), determine
the magnitude of the resultant force and the angle it makes from the x-axis.
The oblique force triangle is shown in Figure 1.4(b), where the unknowns
we seek are the magnitude of the resultant force, R, and the angle . From
the geometry, the angle α is given as α = 180 – 48 – 59 = 73o, so from the law
of cosines

R = 780 2 + 650 2 2(780)(650)cos 73 (1.4)

= 857 N
Introduction to Statics and the Concept of Force 7

FIGURE 1.4
(a) Forces acting on a block. (b) The geometry for finding the resultant, R.

From the law of sines

sin sin 73
= = 46.5 (1.5)
650 857

and from the geometry

+ = 59 = 12.5 (1.6)

This last example was straightforward, but we should realize that in a

force addition problem, there may be more than one possible solution, as
the next example shows.

Example 1.4
Determine the tension T and the angle for the forces acting on a support as
shown in Figure 1.5(a) so that the resultant force is 100 lb acting vertically.
From the force triangle of Figure 1.5(b) and the law of sines

sin sin 30
= = 65.4
100 55 (1.7)
= 180 30 = 84.6

and from the law of cosines

T = 100 2 + 552 2(100)(55)cos(84.6 ) (1.8)

= 109.5 lb
8 Engineering Statics with MATLAB®

FIGURE 1.5
(a) Forces acting on a support, generating a vertical 100 lb force. (b) The oblique force
triangle.

FIGURE 1.6
(a) One solution to the force addition problem of Figure 1.5. (b) A second solution.

which gives the solution shown in Figure 1.6(a). However, since

sin(180 ) = sin , = 114.6 is also a solution and in this case
= 180 30 = 35.4 . From the law of cosines

T = 100 2 + 552 2(100)(55)cos(35.4o) (1.9)

= 63.7 lb

and this solution is shown in Figure 1.6(b). Although either solution is

acceptable, this second solution is likely better since it requires a smaller
tension to produce the 100 lb force.

Even when we have multiple solutions to a force addition problem, we

may not be able to accept all the possible solutions, as this next example
shows.
Introduction to Statics and the Concept of Force 9

Example 1.5
Determine the magnitude of the force, F, and the angle, , in Figure 1.7(a)
so that the sum of the two forces shown has a magnitude of 20 lb and is
directed horizontally to the left.
The oblique force triangle is shown in Figure 1.7(b). From the law of cosines

F= 20 2 + 100 2 2(20)(100)cos 70o (1.10)

F = 95 lb

If we use the law of sines

sin sin 70o

=
100 95 (1.11)
= 81.41o or = 98.59o

but also from the law of sines

sin sin 70o

=
20 95 (1.12)
= 11.41o or = 168.59o

The angle = 168.59o is clearly not possible since the sum of the
interior angles of the triangle would be greater than 180°, so we must
have = 11.41o. This in turn requires that = 98.59o and not = 81.41o
so there is only one acceptable answer. The interesting thing
about this problem is that if you use a calculator or any software
program (including MATLAB) to calculate the angle from the law

FIGURE 1.7
(a) Two forces applied to a block, generating a 20 lb force acting to the left. (b) The force
triangle.
10 Engineering Statics with MATLAB®

of sines, as done above, you will always get the wrong answer of
= 81.41o! This is because the solution to the inverse sine function
is typically given as a “principal angle”, which lies between –90° and
+90°, and we must choose a value outside that range to solve this problem.

1.5 Scalars, Vectors, and Matrices

Before proceeding with our discussion of forces, in this section, we want
to say a few words about notation for the quantities appearing in this
text. Most statics texts describe the magnitude of a vector by an un-
bolded lower-case or upper-case symbol such as a or A, while the vector
itself is given in boldface letters such as a or A. Occasionally, vectors are
also written as a symbol (or symbols) with an arrow overhead, such as
AB , for example., The magnitude of a vector is described by a numerical
value (usually with some dimension) and is called a scalar quantity while
a vector quantity, as already discussed, has both a magnitude and a
direction. In the following chapters, we will also use matrices and matrix
algebra to formulate and solve statics problems. Appendix A gives an
overview of the properties of matrices that should provide sufficient
background for the topics found in this book. The components of
matrices will be expressed as a square or rectangular array of numbers
(or symbols) arranged in a series of rows and columns such as

1 3 6
3 6 4
, 1 3 5 , 9 2 2
6 2 1
4 4 2 4 3 5
4 2 5
3 5 7

As shown in Appendix A, vectors can also be considered as special cases

of matrices called row or column matrices. For example, we can write a
three-dimensional force vector, F, in terms of its Cartesian components
(which we will discuss shortly) in either of the two matrix forms:

F1
F = [F1 F2 F3], F= F2
F3

where the first form is a row matrix representation of the vector and the
second form is a column matrix representation of the same vector and
Introduction to Statics and the Concept of Force 11

these two forms are related through the matrix transpose (T) operation
discussed in Appendix A, i.e.,

T
F1 F1
F2 = [F1 F2 F3]T , [F1 F2 F3] = F2
F3 F3

In MATLAB, these vectors can be directly entered (and echoed) in either

of these forms as, for example,

F = [2 1 4] F = [2; 1; 4]
F= or F=2
2 1 4 1
4

where a semi-colon is used to start a new row. The transpose can

always be used to convert one form to the other with the MATLAB
symbol “ .ꞌ ”. For vectors or matrices composed of real numbers or real
symbolic variables, the symbol “ ꞌ ” can be used instead (i.e., without
the “dot”) but for matrices or vectors composed of complex numbers
or symbolic variables, the use of “ ꞌ ” gives the complex conjugate as
well as the transpose, as described in Appendix A. In statics, we do not
deal with complex numerical values but we will deal with symbolic
values and symbolic vectors and matrices, so we either need to declare
any symbolic variables as real variables (see Appendix A) or always
use the “ .ꞌ ” for the transpose. We will see examples that use these
choices shortly.
If F is the row vector just given, for example, the transpose gives us the
same vector as a column vector:

F.
F=2
1
4

To explicitly indicate a vector quantity is in a column format (without

showing the individual components), we will use a “curly” bracket
notation and write a column vector as, for example, {F}, and its
corresponding row vector form as {F}T. Matrices will almost always
be written in this book as upper-case symbols in square brackets such
as [A], but they are also commonly written in other texts as A or A,
depending on the context. These notations and basic matrix algebra can
12 Engineering Statics with MATLAB®

be found in Appendix A. MATLAB is a software package that uses

matrices as its fundamental data type so it is especially useful, as we
will see, for defining and manipulating matrices and vectors and it will
be used throughout this book. Appendix A also describes many of the
matrix operations we will use in MATLAB. You are strongly encour-
aged to read Appendix A to become familiar with matrix notation and
matrix algebra.

1.6 Unit Vectors and Cartesian (Rectangular) Components

A unit vector is simply a dimensionless vector with a magnitude of one.
Given any vector A whose magnitude is A, a unit vector, eA, in the
direction of A is given by

eA = A / A (1.13)

(see Figure 1.8). Three unit vectors of particular significance are the unit
vectors (i, j, k) acting along the x-, y-, and z-axes of a Cartesian
(rectangular) coordinate system, as shown in Figure 1.9. Statics texts
will sometimes write these unit vectors as either (ex , e y , ez) or (î , ĵ , k̂),
where the caret is used to explicitly denote that these are unit vectors.
These coordinate unit vectors are fundamental in the representation of a
vector in terms of its Cartesian coordinates. Consider, for example, the
vector F shown in Figure 1.10. The origin of a Cartesian coordinate

FIGURE 1.8
A vector, A, having a magnitude A and a unit
vector, eA , in the direction of A.

FIGURE 1.9
A Cartesian coordinate system with unit vectors (i, j, k) acting in
the x-, y-, and z-directions.
Introduction to Statics and the Concept of Force 13

FIGURE 1.10
A vector F represented in terms of its components (Fx , Fy , Fz) in a Cartesian coordinate system.

system is placed at the start of this vector and a box is drawn with
the vector as the main diagonal of that box. By the vector law of addition,
the vector can then be represented as the sum of the directed line
segments (OR , RS, SP ) as

F = OP = OR + RS + SP (1.14)

If the lengths of the sides of the box are labeled as (Fx , Fy , Fz), then
combining these with the unit vectors (i , j, k), Eq. (1.14) can be written as

F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k
(1.15)
= Fx + Fy + Fz

where (Fx , Fy , Fz) are called the Cartesian (rectangular) scalar components
of F and (Fx , Fy , Fz) are called the vector Cartesian (rectangular) compo-
nents of F. It follows that the magnitude of F, F F , satisfies:

F 2 = |F|2 = | OP |2 = | OR |2 + | RS |2 + | SP |2
(1.16)
= Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2

so that

F= F = Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2 (1.17)

14 Engineering Statics with MATLAB®

and the unit vector in the direction of F, eF , is:

F Fx Fy Fz
eF = = i+ j+ k (1.18)
F Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2 Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2 Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2

When adding vectors, it is generally more useful to use Cartesian

components rather than dealing with the parallelogram law of addition
since with Cartesian components we need to only add the components
themselves. Thus, instead of using geometry and trigonometry, we can
use algebra, which is highly suited to calculator-based or computer-
based solutions. For two-dimensional problems, we will often show
solutions based on both Cartesian components and the parallelogram law
of addition so that you can see both types of approaches. Three-
dimensional problems will be solved with Cartesian components.

As an example of using Cartesian components, consider the addition of

two forces (F1, F2) in a two-dimensional problem, as shown in Figure 1.11,
to find the resultant R. If we identify the Cartesian components of all
these vectors, then it follows from Figure 1.11 that
Rx = F1x + F2x
(1.19a)
R y = F1y + F2y

and the same result is true in the more general three-dimensional case as
well, where we would find:
Rx = F1x + F2x
R y = F1y + F2y (1.19b)
Rz = F1z + F2z

FIGURE 1.11
Vector addition by Cartesian components.
Introduction to Statics and the Concept of Force 15

In MATLAB, where vectors can be written as row or column matrices,

vector addition is done exactly in this manner with the Cartesian
components written as [Fx Fy Fz] or [Fx: Fy; Fz]. For example, consider
two three-dimensional force row vectors F1 = [3 4 5], F2 = [1 1 1]. Then,
adding these forces in MATLAB gives:

F1 = [3 4 5];
F2 = [1 1 1];
R = F1 + F2
R = 456

or, if we want to use column vectors:

F1 = [3; 4; 5];
F2 = [1; 1; 1];
R = F1 + F2
R=4
5
6

However, the use of MATLAB also gives us a way to do vector addition

with the use of the magnitudes and unit vectors. For example, suppose
we have two forces (F1, F2) whose magnitudes are (F1, F2) in the
directions defined by the unit vectors (e1, e2), respectively. Then, we
can add those two vectors in MATLAB in this form as well. Here is an
illustration.
Consider two unit vectors in MATLAB:

e1 = [1 1 1]/sqrt(3);
e2 = [3 4 12]/13;

You can verify these are unit vectors with the norm function, which
computes the magnitude of a vector. Consider, for example, e2:

norm(e2)
ans = 1

Now, suppose the magnitude of a vector force, F1, in the direction of e1

is 100 lb and the magnitude of a vector force F2 in the direction of e2 is
16 Engineering Statics with MATLAB®

200 lb. Then, we can sum these forces to obtain the resultant vector
force, R, by simply adding these two vectors in this form and showing
the result:

F1 = 100*e1;
F2 = 200*2;
R = F1 + F2
R = 103.8889 119.2735 242.3504

In statics, we often deal with forces whose direction is given but

whose magnitude is unknown. In MATLAB, we can compute
the resultant of these forces by writing them in symbolic form.
Consider adding two forces of magnitudes (T1, T2) in the directions
defined by the same unit vectors (e1, e2) just defined. Then, in
MATLAB, the vector resultant R = T1 e1 + T2 e2 can be computed
symbolically as:

syms T1 T2 real % define T1 and T2 as real symbolic variables

Rs = T1*e1 + T2*e2; % the symbolic resultant vector

It is more convenient to display this resultant vector as a column vector

rather than as a row vector, which we can do by taking the transpose
with “ ꞌ ” since the unit vectors are real numerical vectors and we have
declared the symbolic variables as real also. For symbolic vectors or
matrices that are defined without declaring them as real, we must use
the form “ .ꞌ ” to obtain the transpose, as discussed earlier. Here we can
use “ ꞌ ”:

Rs
ans = (3*T2)/13 + (3^(1/2)*T1)/3
(4*T2)/13 + (3^(1/2)*T1)/3
(12*T2)/13 + (3^(1/2)*T1)/3

which gives us the three rectangular components symbolically. We can

substitute numerical values for T1 and T2 to get a specific value for the
resultant force. Let us use the previous values of T1 = 100 lb and T2 =
200 lb. We can substitute these values with the MATLAB subs function
where we place the symbolic variables for which we want to make
replacements within curly brackets (this is called a cell vector) and the
Introduction to Statics and the Concept of Force 17

values we want to substitute in a row vector (see Appendix A for more

details)

Rn = subs(Rs, {T1 T2}, [100 200])

Rn = (100*3^(1/2))/3 + 600/13
(100*3^(1/2))/3 + 800/13
(100*3^(1/2))/3 + 2400/13

The vector Rn, however, is still a vector in symbolic form (you can verify
this by examining the properties given for this vector in the MATLAB
workspace). We can convert it to a numerical vector with the double
function:

double(Rn)
ans = 103.8889
119.2735
242.3504

which gives us the same resultant as before, but now written as a column
vector.
Now, consider a vector addition problem with Cartesian components.

Example 1.6
Determine the resultant of the two forces shown in Figure 1.12(a) by
giving the magnitude of the resultant and the angle it makes with respect
to the positive x-axis.
First, we must use the geometry to determine the Cartesian components
of the forces:
12
F1x = (210) = 193.85 N
13
5
F1y = (210) = 80.77 N
13
2 (1.20)
F2x = (170) = 63.14N
29
5
F2y = (170) = 157.84 N
29

Then, we must add those components and compute the magnitude of the
resultant
18 Engineering Statics with MATLAB®

FIGURE 1.12
(a) Two forces, where (b) the resultant force is shown.

Rx = F1x + F2x = 130.71

R y = F1y + F2y = 77.07 (1.21)
R= Rx2 + R y2 = 151.7 N

and finally, we obtain the angle:

1 77.07
= tan = 30.5 (1.22)
130.71

The result is shown in Figure 1.12(b). Doing this in MATLAB instead:

e1 = [12 5]/13; % define unit vectors in the direction of the forces

e2 = [ 2 5]/sqrt(29);
F1 = 210*e1; % form up forces from their unit vectors and magnitudes
F2 = 170*e2;
R = F1 + F2; % compute the resultant force
magR = norm(R) % and its magnitude, in Newtons
magR = 151.7402
angR = atand(R(2)/R(1)) % determine the angle in degrees
angR = 30.5253

1.7 Oblique Components

In contrast to obtaining the Cartesian scalar components (Rx , R y ) of a
resultant R, as shown in Figure 1.13(a), if we ask to find the magnitude of
the two scalar components, A and B, along the oblique lines a-a and b-b,
as shown in Figure 1.13(b), these are oblique components. There are several
Introduction to Statics and the Concept of Force 19

FIGURE 1.13
(a) The Cartesian components of a force R. (b) The oblique components along lines a-a
and b-b.

ways to solve the problem, either using the parallelogram law or

Cartesian components. MATLAB can still be used effectively in all these
ways, as we will now show with an example.

Example 1.7
A 250 N force is to be resolved into two oblique components whose
magnitudes are A and B, acting along lines a-a and b-b, respectively
(Figure 1.14(a)). If A is 160 N, determine the scalar component B along
b-b and the angle .
From the law of sines (Figure 1.14(b)), we can develop two relations

sin(110) sin(180 110 )

=
250 160 (1.23)
sin(70 ) = 160 sin(110)/250

FIGURE 1.14
(a) Resolving a 250 N force into oblique components along a-a and b-b. (b) The force
triangle.
20 Engineering Statics with MATLAB®

sin(110) sin
=
250 B (1.24)
B = 250 sin / sin(110)

which we will solve sequentially in MATLAB by letting 70 – = α. Then

alpha = asind(160*sind(110)/250) % solve the first equation in terms of alpha

alpha = 36.9705
beta = 70 alpha % then the angle beta in degrees is obtained
beta = 33.0295
B = 250*sind(beta)/sind(110) % solve the second equation for B in Newtons
B = 145.0132

Even though we used MATLAB, we could have solved this problem just
as easily by hand with a calculator.
Now, let us examine this problem using Cartesian components. From
Figure 1.15(a), we could equate the x- and y-components of the resultant
250 N force to the sum of the x- and y-components of the components of
A and B. We find:

Rx = Ax + Bx 250 cos = 160 + B cos(70o)

(1.25)
R y = A y + By 250 sin = B sin(70 o)

It is possible to solve these equations by squaring them and using

sin2 + cos2 = 1 to eliminate so we can solve for B. Once B is found

FIGURE 1.15
(a) Obtaining oblique components of a force using rectangular components. (b) One
possible solution. (c) A second solution.
Introduction to Statics and the Concept of Force 21

then we can find . This is more complicated than using Eq. (1.23) and Eq.
(1.24) directly from the parallelogram law of addition. Thus, most statics
texts will only describe our first solution procedure. MATLAB, how-
ever, has powerful symbolic equation-solving abilities that we
can employ that make the solution of Eq. (1.25) relatively simple.
First, we define our unknowns B and as symbolic MATLAB variables
B and beta:

syms B beta

Next, we define the two equations in Eq. (1.25) as two symbolic

expressions in a symbolic vector Eq which has two components:

Eq(1) = 250*sind(beta) B*sind(70) == 0;

Eq(2) = 160 + B*cosd(70) 250*cosd(beta) == 0;

A solution of these equations can be obtained with the MATLAB function

solve as:
S = solve (Eq)
S = struct with fields:
B: [2×1 sym]
beta: [2×1 sym]

S here is a MATLAB data structure that contains our answers for B and
beta in the fields S.B and S.beta. MATLAB tells us that there are two
answers for both B and beta which are placed in (2×1) column vectors
(two rows and one column). The values for B and beta, however, are not
displayed. We can access the answers for B, for example, by typing S.B
but the answer will be in a symbolic form that is difficult to read. We can
change it to a numerical double precision form by using the MATLAB
function double. For example:

double(S.B)
ans = 145.0132
254.4596

Look at MATLAB documentation, which is easily found on the web, if

you want to learn more about MATLAB structures. We will use the
MATLAB function solve in many later problems. Both answers in S.B
and S.beta are in a symbolic form, so let us now change all of them to a
numerical form through the MATLAB function double. The argument
22 Engineering Statics with MATLAB®

of the function double here is a row vector that contains the values in
the fields of the structure S we want to convert to numerical values:

double([S.B S.beta])
ans = 145.0132 33.0295
254.4596 73.0295

We see in the first row of results the previous values of B and that we
obtained (Figure 1.15(b)). However, we also see another solution in the
second row. This is also a legitimate solution, as shown in Figure 1.15(c).
It is not necessary to place the symbolic equals zero “== 0” in these
equations to use the MATLAB function solve. We need only place all the
non-zero terms on the left side of a set of equations we want to be equal to
zero in a symbolic vector Eq and then solve them with solve (Eq):

Eq(1) = 250*sind(beta) B*sind(70);

Eq(2) = 160 + B*cosd(70) 250*cosd(beta);
S = solve(Eq);
double([S.B S.beta])
ans = 145.0132 33.0295
254.4596 73.0295

Finally, there is a closely related way to solve for oblique components

with the symbolic capabilities of MATLAB that is a different way of
looking at the solutions we just obtained. In oblique component problems
in two dimensions, we are asking to decompose a resultant vector R, as
R = Fu eu + Fv ev , where (Fu , Fv ) are the magnitudes of the oblique compo-
nents along the directions defined by the unit vectors (eu , ev). We can
obtain three-dimensional oblique components R = Fu eu + Fv ev + Fw ew in
the same fashion. Consider the problem of Figure 1.14 again. Unit vectors
along a-a and b-b are easy to write down, as is the resultant:

ea = [1, 0];
eb = [cosd(70) sind(70)];
R = [250*cosd(beta) 250*sind(beta)];

Then, we can pose the resultant problem as determining when the

resultant vector minus the oblique component vectors equals zero. Thus,
we find the set of equations, which we place in the vector Eq2:
Eq2 = R 160*ea B*eb;
Introduction to Statics and the Concept of Force 23

which we then solve for B and beta and convert to numerical form

S = solve(Eq2);
double([S.B S.beta])
ans = 145.0132 33.0295
254.4596 73.0295

which gives the same solution as before. This solution was performed in
purely vector form and we never had to explicitly write down the
Cartesian components of Eq2.

A MATLAB symbolic solution is a powerful method that we will use often

in this book. By simply writing a system of equations in symbolic form
(almost identical to how we write them on paper in the first place) or
forming those equations vectorially, as shown in the last example, we can
then solve those equations symbolically. In most cases our equations will be
systems of linear equations which can also be solved numerically in
MATLAB, so we will often show both the numerical and symbolic solutions,
but you will likely find symbolic solutions to be easier to set up. In the
problem just examined, the equations are not linear but can be solved
algebraically. More complex non-linear problems can be solved numerically,
if not symbolically, in MATLAB.

To further illustrate the value of this use of MATLAB, let us return to

Example 1.5 and find the solution to that problem in vector form with the
function solve. We will take the x-direction as positive to the left and the
y-direction as positive upward.

syms F theta % the unknown force F magnitude and angle theta

eR = [1 0]; % unit vector in the 20 lb resultant direction
eP = [cosd(70) sind(70)]; % unit vector in the 100 lb force direction
eF = [cosd(theta) sind(theta)]; % unit vector for the force of magnitude F
Eq = F*eF + 100*eP 20*eR; % form up the vectors which sum to zero
S = solve(Eq); % solve for F and the angle theta
double([S.F S.theta]) % convert to numerical
ans = 95.0364 81.4057
95.0364 98.5943

In the second row of the answer, we see the solution we obtained earlier.
The first row also is a legitimate answer if we allow F and theta to be
negative. When we used the parallelogram law, we drew F and theta as if
24 Engineering Statics with MATLAB®

they were positive, so we never saw this second solution. The MATLAB
function solve obtained this “hidden” solution.

1.8 The Dot Product and Direction Cosines

1.8.1 The Dot Product
Determining the Cartesian components of a vector is closely related to a
way to multiply two vectors together called the scalar or dot product. As
its name implies, the result of this multiplication is a scalar quantity. The
dot product is defined as follows:
Let A and B be two vectors and let be the smallest positive angle
between them (Figure 1.16). Then, the scalar (dot) product of A and B is
written as A B, where

A B = AB cos (1.25)

and where A and B are the magnitudes of A and B.

There are a few important properties of dot products that we will use
often:

1. The order in which we take the product is immaterial, i.e.

A B=B A (1.26)

2. The dot vectors of the unit-vectors along a set of Cartesian axes

are given as

i i=j j=k k=1

(1.27)
i j=i k=j k=0

3. If the dot product A B = 0, then either A = 0, or B = 0 (or both),

or else A B (A is perpendicular to B)

FIGURE 1.16
Two vectors separated by the angle θ. Their dot product is ABcosθ.
Introduction to Statics and the Concept of Force 25

4. The dot product of any two unit vectors is the cosine of the angle,
, between them:

eA eB = cos (1.28)

which is obviously true just by placing A = B = 1 in Eq. (1.25)

5. The dot product can be written simply as the sum of the products
of the Cartesian components of A and B, i.e.

A B = Ax Bx + A y By + Az Bz (1.29)

This very important result simply follows from Eq. (1.28) and Eq.
(1.27) and the definition of the dot product since recall:

Ax Ay A Bx By B
eA = i+ j + z k, eB = i+ j + zk
A A A B B B

so, carrying out the dot products of the unit vectors along the
Cartesian axes

Ax Bx A y By A B
eA eB = + + z z = cos
AB AB AB

and we have

Ax Bx + A y By + Az Bz = AB cos =A B

6. If we have a vector A and we want to find the scalar Cartesian

component of A along a line L whose direction is defined by a
unit vector eL , then that component, AL, is

AL = A eL (1.30a)

The vector Cartesian component is

AL = (A eL) eL (1.30b)

Example 1.8
Determine the scalar and vector Cartesian components of the 300 lb force
shown in Figure 1.17 which are parallel to the inclined plane AB.
26 Engineering Statics with MATLAB®

FIGURE 1.17
A force acting on a block.

The vector 300 lb force and a unit vector along AB are given by

F = 300 sin 60oi + 300 cos 60oj

AB (1.31)
eAB = = (24i + 7j)/25
| AB |

The scalar component along AB is

FAB = F eAB = 300 sin 60o ( ) + 300 cos 60 ( )

24
25
o 7
25 (1.32)
FAB = 291.4 lb

The vector component is

FAB = 291.4eAB = 279.8i + 81.6j lb (1.33)

The solution in MATLAB, writing all the vectors in two dimensions,

is:

F = [300*sind(60) 300*cosd(60)]; % the force F

AB = [24 7];
eAB = AB/norm(AB); % the unit vector along AB
FAB = dot(F, eAB) % the scalar component of F along AB
FAB = 291.4153
FV = FAB*eAB % the vector component of F along AB
FV = 279.7587 81.5963

Here, we used the built-in MATLAB function dot to obtain the dot
product. There are two other ways we could do the dot product in
Introduction to Statics and the Concept of Force 27

MATLAB. The first way multiplies the row vector F by a column vector,
e’, where “ ꞌ ” ’ here indicates the transpose of a row vector (for a real
vector). The matrix multiplication rules for this product (see Appendix A)
give the dot product.

FAB = F*eAB
FAB = 291.4153

A third way is to use the following approach:

FAB = sum(F.*eAB)
FAB = 291.4153

This method uses element-by-element multiplication of the row vectors

F and eAB, denoted by the special multiplication operator .*. For
vectors F = [Fx Fy] and [ex ey], this element-by-element multiplication
gives a vector [Fx*ex Fy*ey] containing the products of the elements
and applying the sum function adds up these components to give Fx*ex
+ Fy*ey, which is the dot product in Cartesian component form for this
problem. Note that we must use element-wise multiplication here. If we
try to use the matrix multiplication of two row vectors, we get an error,
as shown below. MATLAB tells us we cannot multiply the two matrices
(vectors in this case) with the multiplication operator “ * ” because
our matrices do not satisfy the requirements for matrix multiplication
(see Appendix A):

F*eAB
Error using *

Incorrect dimensions for matrix multiplication. Check that the number of

columns in the first matrix matches the number of rows in the second
matrix. To perform element-wise multiplication, use “ .* ”.
The choice of which of the three MATLAB methods you use to perform
the dot product is up to you. The use of the dot function is nice
in that it doesn’t require the vectors in its argument to be of the same
type (row or column vectors). It does require, however, that they have
the same number of elements. Of course, you can always do the dot
product by hand using the sum of the products of the Cartesian
components.
28 Engineering Statics with MATLAB®

1.8.2 Direction Cosines

Let’s return to the Cartesian component representation of a vector
(Figure 1.18(a)) and the unit vector that defines its direction
(Figure 1.18(b)). The direction of a vector, F, and its associated unit
vector, eF , can be defined by the angles ( x , y , z ) with respect to the
Cartesian axes. We have
F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k = F eF
(1.34)
F= Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2

and
F i = Fx = F eF i = F cos x
F j = Fy = F eF j = F cos y (1.35)
F k = Fz = F eF k = F cos z

so that

F
eF = = cos xi + cos yj + cos zk (1.36)
F

where the direction cosines are

Fx Fy Fz
cos x = , cos y = , cos z = (1.37)
F F F

FIGURE 1.18
(a) The rectangular components of a vector, F. (b) The unit vector in the direction of F and
the angles that the vector makes with the x-, y-, and z-axes.
Introduction to Statics and the Concept of Force 29

and we can obtain the angles with the inverse cosine function

1 Fx 1
Fy 1 Fz
x = cos , y = cos , z = cos (1.38)
F F F

Note: unlike computing the inverse sine function, there is never any
problem in using the inverse cosine since the angles with respect to the
axes always are given as “principal” values between 0° and 180° which is
precisely the range needed to describe these angles.

Example 1.9
For the force shown in Figure 1.19(a),

a. determine the (x, y, z) scalar components of the force,

b. express the force in Cartesian vector form,
c. determine the direction cosine angles of the force.

a. We get the Cartesian components of the force by first breaking it

into Cartesian components along the u- and z-directions and
then breaking the u-component (in the x-y plane) into its x- and
y-components. Here are the u- and z-components:

Fu = 1000 cos 25o = 906.3 lb

(1.39)
Fz = 1000 sin 25o = 422.6 lb

and here the x-, y-, and z-components:

FIGURE 1.19
A force and the angles it makes in a Cartesian coordinate system. (b) Breaking the force into
u- and z-components.
30 Engineering Statics with MATLAB®

Fx = Fu sin 40o = 582.6 lb

Fy = Fu cos 40 o = 694.3 lb (1.40)
Fz = 1000 sin 25o = 422.6 lb

b. The vector Cartesian expression for F is thus:

F= 582.6i + 694.3j + 422.6k lb (1.41)

c. The angles are obtained from the direction cosines:

582.6 694.2 422.6

cos x = = 0.5826, cos y = = 0.6942, cos z =
1000 1000 1000
= 0.4226 (1.42)

as

1 Fx Fy Fz
x = cos = 125.6o , y = cos 1 = 46.0o , z = cos 1 = 65.0o
F F F
(1.43)

The MATLAB solution is:

magF = 1000; % magnitude of the force in lb

eu = [ sind(40) cosd(40) 0]; % unit vector in the u direction
ez = [0 0 1]; % unit vector in the z direction
% Now write the force as F = Fu*eu + Fz*ez in three dimensions
F = magF*cosd(25)*eu + magF*sind(25)*ez
F = 582.5634 694.2720 422.6183
% Force divided by its magnitude gives a vector of direction cosines
% so taking the inverse cosine gives a vector of the angles in degrees
angs = acosd(F/magF)
angs = 125.6310 46.0308 65.0000

In MATLAB, functions such as acosd can take vectors or matrices in their

arguments and return a vector or matrix of values. This is a capability
which is very useful, for example, in plotting results and it does not
require one to program loops over the different values, as found in other
computer languages.
Introduction to Statics and the Concept of Force 31

1.9 Position Vectors

We may know the magnitude of a force and the fact that its direction is
along a line between two points, as measured in a Cartesian coordinate
system (see Figure 1.20(a)). To obtain the Cartesian components of the
force, it is useful to use the concept of a position vector. By definition, a
position vector is a vector that locates one point relative to another point.
For example, the position vector of point A relative to the origin, O, of
the coordinate system in Figure 1.20(b) is rOA = xA i + yA j + zA k , where
(xA , yA , zA) are the coordinates of point A. This position vector is a vector
going from O to A; hence, we label its subscript as OA. Similarly, the
position vector of point B relative to the origin O is rOB = xB i + yB j + zB k .
The force of magnitude F in Figure 1.20(a) acts along the line from A to B.
The position vector going from A to B is rAB and from Figure 1.20(b):

rOA + rAB = rOB (1.44)

or, solving for rAB we have

rAB = rOB rOA

= (xB xA) i + (yB yA) j + (zB zA) k (1.45)

We could also write this position vector as

rAB = xAB i + yAB j + zAB k (1.46)

where (xAB, yAB, zAB) are the coordinates of point B relative to point A, as
shown in Figure 1.21. We can also use a notation where the position
vectors are written directly as vector line segments such as rOA = OA and

FIGURE 1.20
(a) A force acting along a line AB. (b) Geometry for defining the position vector from A to B.
32 Engineering Statics with MATLAB®

FIGURE 1.21
The components of a position vector.

rOB = OB . We have occasionally used this notation previously when

expressing vectors (see Eq. (1.14)). Then we have in place of Eq (1.44) and
Eq. (1.45):

OA + AB = OB (1.47a)

and, therefore,

AB = OB OA (1.47b)

This alternate notation makes it clear that there is nothing special about
using the origin O to calculate the position vectors of A and B. We could
also locate points A and B relative to any point P (see Figure 1.22) we
choose and write:

PA + AB = PB (1.48a)

and

AB = PB PA (1.48b)

FIGURE 1.22
Using position vectors from a general point P to define
the position vector from A to B.
Introduction to Statics and the Concept of Force 33

Since the force in Figure 1.20 acts along the line from A to B, its direction
is the same as the direction of the position vector rAB and the direction of
both of these vectors is defined by a unit vector, eAB, along the line from A
to B, so we have

eAB = rAB/ rAB = AB /| AB | (1.49)

and

F = F eAB = F rAB/ rAB = F AB /| AB | (1.50)

The components of the unit vector eAB are the direction cosines that
define the direction of both rAB and the force F.
In the next chapter, we will see that a position vector also plays an
important role in defining the concept of the moment of a force about a
point so it is essential that you can compute position vectors in various
setups. Consider, for example, the following problem.

Example 1.10
A platform is held in the horizontal x-z plane by a cable that is attached
to a vertical wall at point P with coordinates (2, 3, 0) ft. and to the
platform at point R whose coordinates are (3.5, 0, 2.6) ft., as shown in
Figure 1.23. The tension in the cable is 55 lb. Determine the vector force
in the cable in terms of its Cartesian components. The coordinates are
all measured in feet.
To get the direction of the force, we want a unit vector acting along RP.
We have

OR = 3.5i + 0j + 2.6k ft
OP = 2i + 3j + 0k ft

FIGURE 1.23
A platform supported by a cable.
34 Engineering Statics with MATLAB®

so that

OR + RP = OP
RP = OP OR

Placing the coordinates into the position vectors we find:

RP = (2 3.5) i + (3 0) j + (0 2.6) k
= 1.5i + 3j 2.6k ft

and it follows that

| RP | = ( 1.5)2 + (3)2 + ( 2.6)2 = 4.2438 ft

eRP = RP /| RP | = 0.353i + 0.707j 0.613k
F = 55eRP
F = 19.4i + 38.9j 33.7k lb

In MATLAB, we have the same steps:

OR = [3.5 0 2.6]; % position vectors from O to R and from O to P

OP = [2 3 0];
RP = OP OR; % position vector from R to P
eRP = RP/norm(RP); % unit vector along RP
F = 55*eRP % force = magnitude*direction (in lb)
F = 19.4400 38.8801 33.6961

1.10 Problems
P1.0 The mass density of water is one gram per cubic centimeter. Determine
the weight of a volume V = 1 m3 of water (in newtons).
Choices (in N):

1. 9.81
2. 98.1
3. 981
4. 9810
5. 98100
Introduction to Statics and the Concept of Force 35

P.1.1 A force of magnitude F = 150 lb acting along a bar (see Fig. P1.1) and
a tensile horizontal spring force S produce a resultant force R acting in
the negative x- and y-directions, with an angle = 75o as measured from
the positive x-axis. Determine the magnitude of the spring force.

Choices (in lb):

1. 40.1
2. 51.7
3. 63.4
4. 77.6
5. 81.5
6. 90.0

P1.2 Cables AB and AC help support a tower (Fig. P1.2). The tension in
cable AC is TAC = 100 lb. Determine the tension in cable AB if the resultant
of the two cable forces is a force acting downwards (in the y-direction) at A.

Choices (in lb):

1. 71.0
2. 58.0
3. 112.0
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 OCTOBER

FIRST YEAR

FIRST WEEK

Monday
What is the name of this month? What was last month called?
What month follows October? What season is this? What season
follows autumn? What are the four seasons? How do you know that
it is autumn? How is the weather different from what it was in July?
What are the birds doing this month? What is happening to the
leaves on the trees? What flowers are in blossom this month?

Tuesday
A little verse to learn:

Work, and make the world sweet,

That’s the best for you.

Wednesday
Read this little poem to the children:
 LITTLE MISS CHESTNUT

Little Miss Chestnut lived in a tree,

She and her sisters; one, two, three.
Their house was covered with prickles green,
To keep the squirrels away, I ween.

Soon Jack Frost knocked, just for fun;

Out jumped the chestnuts, every one.

Elsie and Fred, on their walk next day,

Found the nuts and took them away.
On winter evenings, cold and long,
They’ll roast the nuts. Here ends my song.

—Selected

Have ready, but out of sight, a chestnut burr, if possible containing

some of the nuts. If you cannot get the burr, at least have some of
the nuts enough so that each child may have one to eat, after the
lesson is over.
Show the children how the prickly burr protects the nuts from
squirrels, and from boys and girls, until the nuts are ripe. Then Jack
Frost comes along and opens the burr, and the nuts fall out.
Explain how the nut itself is the seed of the chestnut tree, and
how, if allowed to lie under the snow all winter, a new little chestnut
tree will start up in the spring.

Thursday
Teach this little rhyme to the children:
 When we have a pleasant day,
We like to stroll along the way;
And as we walk upon the street,
The folks we know we always greet.

Use the rhyme as a means of teaching the children the proper

method of salutation on the street. Let the girls wear their hats, and
the boys have their caps at their seats with them. Allow a boy and a
girl, with hats on, to go to the front of the room, and from opposite
sides of the room walk towards each other. As they start, the
children—all except the two at the front—repeat the rhyme. When
the two children at the front meet, the girl nods her head politely,
and the boy lifts his hat. After the simple ceremony the two children
return to their seats, and their places are taken by other boys and
girls, in turn, until all can perform the act easily and gracefully.

Friday
Ask each child to bring a penny to school. See how many things
are to be found on the penny—as a head, date, etc.

SECOND WEEK

Monday
Tell the children that October was the month when America was
discovered. We live in the United States, and the United States is in
America. Tell the story of Columbus and the discovery of the new
continent. If well told, the story is quite as fascinating as a fairy tale.

Tuesday
 Have the children tell back to you the story of Columbus and the
discovery of America.

Wednesday
A poem dramatized.
This poem, acted out as indicated, can be used effectively as a
rest exercise. As all the children will be moving, the windows can be
thrown open, and the room aired while the game is being played.
The poem is to be recited by the teacher. Allow plenty of time
between lines, for each part to be acted.
Children representing Sunshine, Miss Weather and Professor Wind
are first chosen. They take their places in the front of the room.
Then the other children are separated, by rows of desks, into Ashes,
Oaks, Maples, and Chestnuts.

October gave a party;

The leaves by hundreds came—

The Ashes, Oaks, Maples, and Chestnuts come skipping, tiptoe, up

the aisles, helter-skelter, to represent flying leaves.

The Ashes, Oaks, and Maples,

And those of every name.

The skipping is continued, until all the leaves stand in a group at

one side of the room.

Miss Sunshine spread a carpet,

And everything was grand.
 As these two lines are being recited Miss Sunshine pretends to
spread a carpet over the entire open space at the front of the room.
She may take plenty of time. The poem is not to be recited
continuously.

Miss Weather led the dancing,

As this line is recited, Miss Weather skips alone across the front of
the room, from one side to the other.

Professor Wind, the band.

Professor Wind marches pompously across the room, tooting a

real or an imaginary horn.

The Chestnuts came in yellow,

The Chestnuts skip lightly, by couples, from one side of the room
to the side where Miss Weather stands. They bow to Miss Weather
by twos, turn, and skip back again.

The Oaks in crimson dressed;

The lovely Misses Maple
In scarlet looked their best.

The Oaks, then the Maples, followed by the Ashes, skip across the
room by twos, bowing to Miss Weather, and returning to their
places, after the fashion of the Chestnuts.
 And balanced all their partners,
And gaily fluttered by;
The sight was like a rainbow
Now fallen from the sky.

While the teacher is reciting the four lines given above, all the
children are still, but at its close, all skip about partners, holding
their clasped hands high above the head, skipping tiptoe, as before,
and very light and gay.

Then in the rustic hollows,

At “hide-and-seek” they played,
The party closed at sundown,
And everybody stayed.

All remain quiet while the four lines given above are recited, then
partners separate, and everybody apparently hides somewhere.

Professor Wind played louder;

They flew along the ground;
And then the party ended
In jolly hands around.

As Professor Wind blows his hardest, all gather from their hiding
places, take hold of hands and circle round, and the game ends.
—Selected and adapted

Thursday
Play the October game.
Friday
Play the October game.

THIRD WEEK

Monday
Read this poem to the children, for them to guess who is meant:
 WHO’S THE ROGUE?

A roguish old fellow is prowling about

In field and in garden; you can’t keep him out.
No matter how tall
You build up your wall,
He’ll find a way over, in spite of it all.

On the glass of the window his pictures you’ll see,

A grand exhibition (admission is free);
He works hard at night
While the stars glitter bright;
But when the sun rises he keeps out of sight.

He’ll sketch you a snow-covered mountain or tree;

A torrent all frozen, a ship out at sea.
He draws very fast,
But his work does not last:
It fades when the chill of the night-time is past.

Before the sun rises, while hardly ’tis light,

He feels of the fruit and takes a sly bite;
He has a fine taste,
Though a great deal he’ll waste,
Then off he will go in very great haste.

Now, who do you think this old fellow may be,

The bright, sparkling work of whose fingers we see?
All winter he’ll stay,
What more shall I say?
Only this, that his first name begins with a J.

—Selected

Tuesday
 On this, or some rainy morning of the week, talk about the
weather. Why did you all come to school this morning with rubbers
and umbrellas? Why is an umbrella shaped as it is? Why does the
rain sometimes fall straight down, and sometimes slanting? How
does the rain tell us which way the wind blows? Why do rubbers
keep our feet dry, when shoes do not? What else is made of rubber?

Wednesday
Teach the children this memory gem:

All that’s great and good is done

Just by patient trying.

Thursday
What does Jack Frost do to the windows? What does he do to the
nuts? What does he do to the apples? What does he do to the
grass? What are some other things that Jack Frost does?

Friday
Play the October game, described under the preceding week.

FOURTH WEEK

Monday
An October Pumpkin Story. (To be told to the children.)
One afternoon in late October, father went down to the field to get a pumpkin.
The children went along too. They wanted to see that father picked out a large
pumpkin. They wanted to help bring it back to the house.
Although it was October, there were still some pumpkins to be found in the field.
 Father led the way. The children came trooping after.
The pumpkins grew down in the cornfield. Their long, coarse stems lay
sprawling on the ground. Their big, rough leaves looked like green umbrellas.
The boys saw a very large pumpkin. They were just going to pick it, but father
said, “Not that one.”
Father looked around until he found a deep, yellow pumpkin. He told the
children that deep, yellow pumpkins make the best pies.
The children soon found another pumpkin, somewhat smoother than the others.
They picked that to use for a Jack-o’-lantern.
Then they went back to the house, carrying the huge yellow fruit with them.
The girls went into the house, to see mother make pumpkin pies.
Mother cut open the yellow pumpkin. Oh, how thick the meat was! Oh, how the
fat, white seeds came tumbling out! Mother said the flesh was good because it
had a nice fine grain.
Mother cut the flesh into small pieces, after she had peeled off the thick rind.
Then she put the pieces into a large iron pot to boil.
When the girls had seen the pieces disappear into the pot they went to see
what the boys were doing.
Out by the barn they found the boys with a jack-knife, working away at the
other pumpkin. The boys were making a Jack-o’-lantern.
They had cut a round hole in the top of the pumpkin, so as to leave the stem for
a handle. In this way they could lift out the round piece like a cover. They dug out
all the seeds with their hands, to make it hollow.
Then they cut a small hole, shaped like a triangle, in the side of the pumpkin.
They bored two round holes, one each side of the triangle. Below it they cut a
funny hole shaped like a new moon.
It looked like a huge grinning face. When the boys had finished it, they put the
pumpkin away in the barn.
Then they all remembered about the pumpkin that was cooking in the kitchen,
so they ran back to the house as fast as they could.
By this time the pumpkin in the pot was done, and mother took it from the
stove. She poured off the water, and then put the cooked pumpkin into a colander.
While mother was rubbing the soft pumpkin through the colander, the boys ran
off to hunt for eggs. When they came back, mother took eight of the eggs, and
about three pints of the soft pumpkin. She stirred it very fast, while the children
stood around and watched, with open eyes and mouths. Then she put in milk, and
spice, and brown sugar.
Oh, didn’t it look good! The children smacked their lips as each separate thing
went in. Mother gave it all such a beating with her big spoon that the children said
it would be good ever after.
Next came the pie tins lined with soft crust, and last of all the pies went into the
oven.
That night as father and mother sat in front of the fire-place talking, a strange
noise was heard. What could it be? Was it a groan? Was somebody hurt? There it
was again, again, and again! It came from the front porch.
Father went to the window and drew aside the curtain. Then they saw
something that made the smaller children shiver, but the older girls only laughed.
The boys were not in the house.
There at the window, staring in and grinning horribly—was—well, what do you
suppose? Yes it was the Jack-o’-lantern.
—Selected

Tuesday
Talk about Jack-o’-lanterns. If possible, make one in school, or
show the children one.

Wednesday
Talk about Hallowe’en, and how the Jack-o’-lantern is used for
decoration at that time.

Thursday
Talk about Hallowe’en tricks.

Friday
Play some of the Hallowe’en tricks in school.
 SECOND YEAR

FIRST WEEK

Monday
To be copied and memorized by the pupils:
THE WORLD’S MUSIC

The world’s a very happy place,

Where every child should dance and sing,
And always have a smiling face,
And never sulk for anything.

The world is such a happy place,

That children, whether big or small,
Should always have a shining face,
And never, never sulk at all.
—Selected

Tuesday
Have the children write answers, as complete sentences, to the
following questions about “The World’s Music”:
What kind of place is the world?
What should every child have?
What should a child do?
What should a child never do?

Wednesday
 Bring sufficient hickory nuts to the class so that each child can
have one. If possible, have the nuts in the hulls. Ask the following
questions, for the children to answer:
How many hulls on each nut?
What are the hulls for? (To protect the nut.)
What takes off the hulls when they are quite ripe? (The frost.)
Which is the blossom end of the nut, and which is the stem
end?
Crack a hickory nut. What is there inside the shell?
Explain how the nut grows, to start a new tree.

Thursday
Copy these sentences, filling the blank spaces with is, or are:
A gray squirrel —— in the tree.
The squirrel —— fond of nuts.
The tree —— once the squirrel’s home.
Hickory nuts —— the squirrel’s food.

Friday
For dictation:
I am round.
I am red.
I am just a bit sour.
Would you like to eat me?

SECOND WEEK

Monday
Poem to be memorized.
 Commit the first stanza of the poem to memory:
THE WONDERFUL WORLD

Great, wide, wonderful, beautiful world,

With the wonderful water around you curled,
And the wonderful grass upon your breast—
World, you are beautifully dressed!

The wonderful air is over me,

And the wonderful wind is shaking the tree;
It walks on the water and whirls the mills,
And talks to itself on the tops of the hills.

You friendly Earth, how far do you go,

With wheat fields that nod, and rivers that flow,
With cities and gardens, and oceans and isles,
And people upon you for thousands of miles?

Ah, you are so great and I am so small,

I hardly can think of you, World, at all;
And yet, when I said my prayers to-day,
My mother kissed me, and said, quite gay:

“If the wonderful World is great to you,

And great to father and mother, too,
You are more than the Earth, though you are such a dot,
You can love and think, and the Earth cannot!”
—William Brighty Rands

Tuesday
Commit to memory the second stanza of the poem.

Wednesday
 Commit to memory the third stanza of the poem.

Thursday
Commit to memory the fourth stanza of the poem.

Friday
Finish learning the poem, and recite it all.

THIRD WEEK

Monday
The Post-Office.—What is a post-office? Who has charge of the
post-office? Where is the post-office nearest your home? What do
you see when you go to the post-office? How do you get your mail?
Why do people write letters? How do letters go from one place to
another? What is the stamp on a letter for? How much does it cost
to send a letter? Who pays for sending a letter?

Tuesday
For dictation:
It is cold in the fall.
The wind blows hard.
The trees are bare.
The birds are gone.
I like fall, for I can play out-of-doors.

Wednesday
Write a letter to a friend, telling what Jack Frost does in the fall.
Send the letter to your friend, directing the envelope properly, and
putting the stamp in the right place.
Thursday
Bring to the class cards, each having on it the name of some
animal, as cow, horse, elephant, dog, etc. Give a card to each pupil,
and have him describe the animal named on his card, allowing the
other children to guess what animal he is describing. For example: “I
am not very large. I have a bushy tail. I live among the trees. I like
to eat nuts. What am I?”

Friday
For dictation:

One day as Mr. Squirrel went up his tree to bed,

A very large hickory nut fell on his head.
“Although I am fond of nuts,” Mr. Squirrel then did say,
“I would very much rather they did not come that way.”

FOURTH WEEK

Monday
Tell this story to the children:
JACK FROST AND THE NUTS
Little Miss Chestnut and her two sisters lived up in a tree in a prickly green
house. The house was as soft as velvet inside, but sharp spikes on the outside
kept away the squirrels, who would have torn down the house if they could.
But soon Jack Frost came along. Jack does not mind fences, so he knocked at
the door of the Chestnut house.
“Little Miss Chestnut,” he called, “are you ready to come out?”
But little Miss Chestnut replied, “I am not quite ready yet, Mr. Jack.”
So Jack went off to the house where Miss Hickory Nut lived. Miss Hickory Nut
lived all alone in a round green cottage.
 “Miss Hickory Nut,” he called “are you ready to come out?”
But Miss Hickory Nut replied, “I am not quite ready yet, Mr. Jack.”
So Jack went off to the low bush where Miss Hazel Nut lived in a soft green
tent. Miss Hazel Nut was already peeping out.
“Miss Hazel Nut,” he called, “are you ready to come out?”
And little Miss Hazel Nut replied, “I am quite ready, Mr. Jack.”
So she dropped down and waited below the bush, while Jack went back after
the other nuts.
Jack knocked once more at the chestnut house. Little Miss Chestnut opened the
door so quickly that she and her sisters fell to the ground.
Then Jack knocked once more at the hickory house.
Miss Hickory Nut opened the door so quickly that her house fell apart.
And all the other nut houses opened, and all the nuts came out to see what was
the matter.
The next day the children went for a walk. As they walked in the woods they
spied the nuts.
“See,” they said, “the frost has opened the chestnut burrs, and all the other nuts
must be out of the shucks.”

Tuesday
Have the children tell back to you the story of Jack Frost and the
nuts.

Wednesday
Write five sentences about nuts.

Thursday
Write answers to the following questions:
What does Jack Frost do?
Where does he paint pictures? (On the window-pane.)
What colors does he paint the maple leaves?
 What colors does he paint the hickory leaves?

Friday
Talk with the children about the way seeds are scattered. Bring to
school various kinds of seeds, if these are available. How are
dandelion seeds scattered? How are milkweed seeds scattered? How
are burdock seeds scattered?

THIRD YEAR

FIRST WEEK

Monday
Read to the children the following poem:
 MRS. RED SQUIRREL

Mrs. Red Squirrel sat on the top of a tree;

“I believe in the habit of saving,” said she;
“If it were not for that, in the cold winter weather
I should starve, and my young ones, I know, altogether;
But I am teaching my children to run and lay up
Every acorn as soon as it drops from its cup,
And to get out the corn from the shocks in the field—
There’s a nice hollow tree where I keep it concealed.

“We have laid up some wheat, and some barley and rye,
And some very nice pumpkin seeds I have put by;
Best of all, we have gathered in all that we could
Of beechnuts and butternuts grown in the wood;
For cold days and hard times winter surely will bring,
And a habit of saving’s an excellent thing.

“But my children—you know how young squirrels like play,

‘We have plenty, great plenty, already,’ they say;
‘We are tired of bringing in food for our store;
Let us all have a frolic, and gather no more!’
But I tell them it’s pleasant when winter is rough,
If we feel both to use and to give we’ve enough;
And they’ll find, ere the butternuts bloom in the spring,
That a habit of saving’s an excellent thing.”
—Selected

Tuesday
Have the pupils tell back to you, the story of “Mrs. Red Squirrel.”

Wednesday
 Write five sentences about Mrs. Red Squirrel, and the habit of
saving.

Thursday
For dictation:
I am small and nearly round. I have a hard, brown shell. Inside,
my meat is brown, too. You like to eat me with a little salt. You get
my meat by breaking my shell. What am I?

Friday
Write a story similar to the one given in the lesson for yesterday,
for the other pupils to guess. You can write about an apple or some
other fruit; about a dog or some other animal; or about a flower.

SECOND WEEK

Monday
Have the children copy the following:
 HIAWATHA’S CHILDHOOD

At the door on summer evenings

Sat the little Hiawatha;
Heard the whispering of the pine trees,
Heard the lapping of the water,
Sounds of music, words of wonder;
“Minne-wawa!” said the pine trees,
“Mudway-aushka!” said the water.
Saw the firefly, Wah-wah-taysee,
Flitting through the dusk of evening,
With the twinkle of its candle
Lighting up the brakes and bushes,
And he sang the song of children,
Sang the song Nokomis taught him:
“Wah-wah-taysee, little firefly,
Little, flitting, white-fire insect,
Little, dancing, white-fire creature,
Light me with your little candle,
Ere upon my bed I lay me,
Ere in sleep I close my eyelids!”

Tuesday
Have the children copy the following:
 Forth into the forest straightway
All alone walked Hiawatha
Proudly, with his bow and arrows;
And the birds sang round him, o’er him,
“Do not shoot us, Hiawatha!”
Sang the robin, the Opechee,
Sang the bluebird, the Owaissa,
“Do not shoot us, Hiawatha!”
Up the oak tree, close beside him,
Sprang the squirrel, Adjidaumo,
In and out among the branches,
Coughed and chattered from the oak tree,
Laughed, and said between his laughing,
“Do not shoot me, Hiawatha!”

Wednesday
Tell the children the story of Hiawatha. If possible, read the whole
part of the poem relating to Hiawatha’s childhood. Have the children
read the portion of the poem quoted here.

Thursday
What sounds did Hiawatha like to hear on summer evenings?
What did he think the pine tree said? The water? What did he call
the firefly? What is the firefly’s candle? Who taught Hiawatha the
song about the firefly?
What did Hiawatha learn from the birds? Who taught him their
names? How did he discover their secrets? What secrets are
mentioned? What did he call the birds?

Friday
 What did Hiawatha call the firefly? Why did he call the firefly,
“Little, dancing, white-fire creature”?
What is the difference between “brakes” and “bushes”?
What did Hiawatha call the robin? The bluebird? The squirrel?
What words show the sound of the pine tree? The sound of the
water? The motion of the firefly? The sound made by the squirrel?
Tell how Hiawatha spent his evenings.
Describe the little hunter as he went into the forest.

THIRD WEEK

Monday
Write five sentences about the things that Hiawatha heard at the
door on summer evenings?

Tuesday
Write five sentences about what happened when Hiawatha went
into the forest.

Wednesday
Write what Hiawatha learned of the birds.

Thursday
Write about what Hiawatha learned of the animals.

Friday
Let the children play Hiawatha.
 FOURTH WEEK

Spend this entire week on the poem Hiawatha. Let the children
dramatize it in their own way, but under your guidance. Let those
who have Indian costumes wear them to school. Talk Hiawatha and
live Hiawatha, for the entire week. Use the language of the poem
yourself, and encourage the children to do so.

FOURTH YEAR

FIRST WEEK

Monday
Poem to be committed to memory:
 THE VILLAGE BLACKSMITH

Under a spreading chestnut tree,

The village smithy stands;
The smith, a mighty man is he,
With large and sinewy hands;
And the muscles of his brawny arms
Are strong as iron bands.

His hair is crisp, and black, and long,

His face is like the tan;
His brow is wet with honest sweat,
He earns whate’er he can,
And looks the whole world in the face,
For he owes not any man.

Week in, week out, from morn till night,

You can hear his bellows blow;
You can hear him swing his heavy sledge,
With measured beat and slow,
Like a sexton ringing the village bell,
When the evening sun is low.

The children coming home from school

Look in at the open door;
They love to see the flaming forge,
And hear the bellows roar,
And catch the burning sparks that fly
Like chaff from a threshing floor.

He goes on Sunday to the church,

And sits among his boys;
He hears the parson pray and preach,
He hears his daughter’s voice,
Singing in the village choir,
And it makes his heart rejoice.
 It sounds to him like her mother’s voice,
Singing in Paradise!
He needs must think of her once more,
How in the grave she lies;
And with his hard, rough hand he wipes
A tear out of his eyes.

Toiling—rejoicing—sorrowing,
Onward through life he goes;
Each morning sees some task begun,
Each evening sees it close;
Something attempted, something done,
Has earned a night’s repose.

Thanks, thanks to thee, my worthy friend,

For the lesson thou hast taught!
Thus at the flaming forge of life
Our fortunes must be wrought;
Thus on its sounding anvil shaped
Each burning deed and thought!
—Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

Have the entire poem copied.

Spend the rest of the week in having the poem committed to
memory.

SECOND WEEK

Monday
Write answers to the following:
Where does the village smithy stand?
Describe the smith.
Write another word whose meaning is similar to “bravery.”
 What is meant by “crisp” hair?
Why should the smith’s face be brown, as though tanned?
Why is sweat called “honest”?
By doing what kinds of work does a smith earn his living?
Why should the smith be able to look the whole world in the
face because he owes no one anything?
Has the world a face? What, then, is meant by “looking the
whole world in the face”?

Tuesday
Describe the bellows used by the blacksmith.
What is the sledge used by the blacksmith?
Why is the sledge made heavy? Why is it swung slowly?
What is meant by “measured” beat? What is a musical
measure?
What is a sexton? Where was the village bell hung, then?
Why was it called the “village” bell?
When is the evening sun low?
What is a “forge”?
Why do bellows “roar”?
What is “chaff”? What is a threshing floor? How is grain
threshed now-a-days? How was it usually threshed when this poem
was written?

Wednesday
What members of the smith’s family are mentioned in the
poem? What is a parson?
What is a “choir”?
Write a word whose meaning is similar to that of “rejoice.”
Why is the smith’s hand “hard and rough”?
 Write a list of the adjectives used in the poem which are used
to describe the smith.

Thursday
Write a word that might have been used in place of “toiling.”
Which is the more poetic word?
What is a “task”?
What is meant by a “night’s repose”? Write another word
meaning repose.
Why does something done earn repose?
What is the lesson which the smith teaches?

Friday
Write ten sentences, describing the smith.

THIRD WEEK

Monday
Conversation on signs of the coming of winter.

Tuesday
For dictation:

You cannot change yesterday, that is clear,

Or begin tomorrow until it is here.
So the only thing left, for you and for me,
Is to make to-day as sweet as can be.

Wednesday
 Have pupils write about Columbus and the discovery of America.

Thursday
Write an invitation to Hallowe’en exercises to be held at the
school.

Friday
Write an answer to the invitation written the day before, accepting
the invitation.

FOURTH WEEK

Monday
Write ten sentences containing the word red.

Tuesday
Write five sentences, each sentence to end with a word rhyming
with hat.

Wednesday
Write a description of some Hallowe’en trick.

Thursday
Play the game of “Who am I?” Each pupil play he is some object in
the room. He must describe himself so that the rest can guess his
name. Each pupil begins his description: “I am not myself. See if you
can guess my name.” Then follows the description. The pupil who
first guesses the object from the description, describes himself next.

Friday
Have a spelling match.
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