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 Microprocessor Importance.
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Module 1 – The Intel Microprocessor 8086 Architecture.
Q1 Explain 8086 Internal Architecture.
Ans.
The Intel 8086 is a 16-bit microprocessor that was introduced in 1978. It played a significant role in the development of
personal computers.
Overview Of The Internal Architecture Of The Intel 8086:
1. Registers:
• The 8086 has a set of sixteen 16-bit registers, divided into three groups: data registers, pointer registers, and index
registers.
• Data registers: AX, BX, CX, DX
• Pointer registers: SP (Stack Pointer), BP (Base Pointer)
• Index registers: SI (Source Index), DI (Destination Index)
2. ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit):
• The ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations. It supports operations like addition, subtraction, AND, OR,
XOR, and shift/rotate operations.
3. Flag Register:
• The Flag Register (FLAGS) contains various status flags that indicate the result of arithmetic and logic
operations. Flags include Zero flag (ZF), Sign flag (SF), Overflow flag (OF), Carry flag (CF), etc.
4. Control Unit:
• The Control Unit manages the execution of instructions. It decodes the instructions fetched from memory and
generates control signals to coordinate the operation of various components.
5. Instruction Queue:
• The 8086 has a 6-byte instruction queue that holds the upcoming instructions. This allows for pipelining and helps
in improving instruction execution speed.
6. Segment Registers:
• The 8086 uses segmentation to address more than 64 KB of memory. There are four segment registers: CS (Code
Segment), DS (Data Segment), SS (Stack Segment), and ES (Extra Segment).
7. Address Bus and Data Bus:
• The 8086 uses a 20-bit address bus, allowing it to address up to 1 MB of memory. The data bus is 16 bits wide,
facilitating the transfer of 16 bits of data at a time.
8. BIU (Bus Interface Unit) and EU (Execution Unit):
• The 8086 is divided into two main functional units: BIU and EU.
• BIU manages the bus operations and fetches the instructions from memory.
• EU executes the instructions fetched by BIU.
9. Interrupts:
• The 8086 supports a variety of interrupts, both hardware and software. It has an Interrupt Vector Table (IVT) to
handle different interrupt service routines.
10. Clock and Timing:
• The 8086 operates based on a clock signal. The timing and synchronization of operations are crucial for proper
execution.
11. External Bus Interface:
• The 8086 has an external bus interface that connects it to the system's memory and I/O devices.
Q2 Explain Programmers Model.
Ans.
The programmer's model, also known as the programming model or architectural model, provides an abstract
representation of a computer system's key components and their interactions from the perspective of a software developer
or programmer. It defines the set of registers, memory organization, instruction set, and addressing modes that
programmers use to write software for a particular architecture. The programmer's model abstracts the underlying
hardware details and allows software developers to focus on writing code without having to worry about the intricacies of
the actual hardware implementation.
1. Registers:
• Data Registers: AX, BX, CX, DX
• Pointer Registers: SP (Stack Pointer), BP (Base Pointer)
• Index Registers: SI (Source Index), DI (Destination Index)
• Segment Registers: CS (Code Segment), DS (Data Segment), SS (Stack Segment), ES (Extra Segment)
2. Flag Register:
• Contains various status flags such as Zero flag (ZF), Sign flag (SF), Overflow flag (OF), Carry flag (CF), etc.
3. Memory Organization:
• The 8086 uses a segmented memory model, dividing memory into segments. The segment registers (CS, DS, SS,
ES) hold the base addresses of the code, data, stack, and extra segments, respectively.
4. Instruction Set:
• The 8086 instruction set includes a variety of instructions for data manipulation, arithmetic and logic operations,
control flow, and more. Instructions are represented by mnemonics and operands, and they operate on the registers
and memory.
5. Addressing Modes:
• The addressing modes define how operands are specified in instructions. The 8086 supports various addressing
modes, including register addressing, immediate addressing, direct addressing, and indirect addressing.
6. Interrupts:
• The 8086 supports both hardware and software interrupts. The programmer's model includes interrupt-related
registers and mechanisms for handling interrupts.
7. Stack:
• The stack is an essential component for subroutine calls and managing data. The SP (Stack Pointer) register points
to the top of the stack, and the SS (Stack Segment) register holds the base address of the stack segment.

Q3 Explain 8086 Minimum & Maximum Modes.

Ans.
The Intel 8086 microprocessor can operate in two different modes: Minimum Mode and Maximum Mode. These modes
refer to the way the 8086 interacts with external devices and peripherals. The choice of mode depends on the complexity
of the system and the number of peripherals attached to the processor.
Minimum Mode:
1. Description:
• In Minimum Mode, the 8086 microprocessor operates as a single microprocessor without any external
coprocessors or support chips.
• It is suitable for simpler systems with limited external devices.
2. Key Characteristics:
• Only one 8086 processor is present in the system.
 • A single 8284 clock generator is used for clock generation.
• The 8288 bus controller is used to manage bus cycles.
• The 8289 bus arbiter is used for bus arbitration in a multiprocessor system.
• The 8087 math coprocessor is not present.
Maximum Mode:
1. Description:
• In Maximum Mode, the 8086 microprocessor can be part of a more complex system that includes coprocessors
and multiple processors.
• It supports a higher level of multiprocessing and is suitable for more sophisticated systems.
2. Key Characteristics:
• Multiple processors can be present in the system, typically up to three.
• Two 8284 clock generators are used for clock generation: one for the 8086 processor and another for the
coprocessors.
• The 8288 bus controller is used for bus cycles, and it may be expanded with additional bus controllers for
multiple processors.
• The 8289 bus arbiter handles bus arbitration in a multiprocessor system.
• The 8087 math coprocessor can be present to offload mathematical calculations.
• Additional support chips may be used, such as the 8228 clock generator, 8237 DMA controller, etc.

Q4 Explain Memory Banking In 8086.

Ans.
Memory banking in the context of the 8086 microprocessor refers to the use of memory segmentation and the associated
segment registers to access more than 64 KB of memory. The 8086 uses a segmented memory model, dividing memory
into segments of 64 KB each. To address a location in memory, the 8086 combines a 16-bit offset with a 16-bit segment
address.
The Four Segment Registers In The 8086 Are:
1. CS (Code Segment): Points to the segment containing the current program or code.
2. DS (Data Segment): Points to the segment containing data and variables.
3. SS (Stack Segment): Points to the segment containing the stack.
4. ES (Extra Segment): Can be used as an additional segment register for various purposes.
The 8086 Memory Banking concept allows the processor to access a theoretical maximum of 1 MB of memory (2^20
bytes), although the practical limit for addressing is often constrained by the system design and the specific hardware
implementation.
The addressing of memory in the 8086 is based on the formula:
Physical Address = (Segment Register × 16) + Offset

Q5 Explain IVT In Detail.

Ans.
IVT stands for Interrupt Vector Table, and it is a fundamental concept in microprocessor architecture. The Interrupt Vector
Table is a data structure that contains a list of interrupt vectors, each corresponding to a specific interrupt or exception
condition. The IVT is used to map interrupt or exception numbers to the addresses of the corresponding interrupt service
routines (ISRs).
Key Components And Functions Of The Interrupt Vector Table:
1. Interrupt Vector:
• An interrupt vector is a unique identifier or number associated with a specific interrupt or exception condition. It
serves as an index into the Interrupt Vector Table.
• When an interrupt occurs, the microprocessor uses the interrupt vector to locate the address of the corresponding
interrupt service routine.
2. Interrupt Vector Table (IVT):
• The IVT is a table stored in memory that contains entries for each possible interrupt or exception condition.
• Each entry in the IVT holds the address of the corresponding interrupt service routine.
• The size of the IVT depends on the number of interrupts supported by the microprocessor architecture.
3. Interrupt Service Routine (ISR):
• An Interrupt Service Routine is a piece of code or a subroutine that handles a specific interrupt or exception.
• When an interrupt occurs, the microprocessor transfers control to the ISR associated with that interrupt vector.
4. Initialization:
• During system initialization, the operating system or application software typically populates the entries in the
IVT with the addresses of the appropriate ISRs.
• This process is essential for setting up the system to respond correctly to interrupts.
5. Interrupt Handling Process:
• When an interrupt occurs, the microprocessor automatically looks up the interrupt vector in the IVT to find the
address of the corresponding ISR.
• It transfers control to the ISR, allowing the routine to execute and handle the interrupt condition.
• After the ISR completes its task, control is returned to the interrupted program.
6. Examples of Interrupts:
• Hardware Interrupts: Generated by external devices such as keyboards, timers, or I/O devices.
• Software Interrupts: Generated by software instructions (e.g., INT instruction).
• Exceptions: Events that disrupt normal program flow, such as divide-by-zero or invalid opcode.

Module 2 – Instruction Set & Programming.

Q1 Explain Addressing Mode.
Ans.
Addressing modes in microprocessor architecture define the methods used to specify operands for instructions. An
addressing mode specifies how the microprocessor interprets the operand of an instruction to obtain the effective address
in memory where the data is located. Different addressing modes provide flexibility in programming and allow for
efficient utilization of the available instruction set.
Common Addressing Modes In Microprocessor Architectures:
1. Immediate Addressing:
• The operand is specified directly within the instruction.
• Example (in assembly language): MOV AX, 5 (moves the immediate value 5 into register AX).
2. Register Addressing:
• The operand is the content of a register.
• Example: ADD AX, BX (adds the content of register BX to register AX).
3. Direct Addressing:
 • The operand is the memory address where the data is located.
• Example: MOV AX, [1000] (moves the content of memory address 1000 into register AX).
4. Indirect Addressing:
• The operand is a memory address stored in a register.
• Example: MOV AX, [BX] (moves the content of the memory address stored in register BX into register AX).
5. Register Indirect Addressing:
• The operand is the memory address contained in a register.
• Example: MOV [BX], AX (moves the content of register AX to the memory address stored in register BX).
6. Indexed Addressing:
• The operand is obtained by adding a constant value (index) to the content of a register.
• Example: MOV AX, [SI+10] (moves the content of the memory address calculated as SI + 10 into register AX).
7. Base-Register Addressing:
• The operand is the sum of a base register and a displacement value.
• Example: MOV AX, [BX+20] (moves the content of the memory address calculated as BX + 20 into register AX).
8. Relative Addressing:
• The operand is specified as a displacement from the current program counter (PC).
• Example: JMP Label (jumps to the instruction at the address specified by the label).
9. Auto-Increment and Auto-Decrement Addressing:
• The content of a register is used as an operand, and the register is automatically incremented or decremented after
the operation.
• Example: MOV AX, [SI+] (moves the content of the memory address pointed to by SI into register AX and
increments SI).

Q2 Explain Instruction Set.

Ans.
1. Data Movement Instructions:
• MOV: Moves data from one location to another (registers, memory, immediate values).
• LDR/STR: Load/Store instructions for moving data between registers and memory.
2. Arithmetic and Logic Instructions:
• ADD, SUB, MUL, DIV: Perform arithmetic operations.
• AND, OR, XOR, NOT: Perform bitwise logic operations.
• CMP: Compares two values without changing the operands.
3. Control Transfer Instructions:
• JMP, CALL, RET: Control the flow of program execution by jumping, calling subroutines, and returning from
subroutines.
• JZ, JNZ, JC, JNC, JS, JNS: Conditional jump instructions based on flags.
4. Conditional Branch Instructions:
• BEQ, BNE, BGT, BLT: Conditional branches based on the result of a comparison.
• BRA: Unconditional branch.
5. Stack Instructions:
• PUSH, POP: Push data onto the stack or pop data from the stack.
6. Bit Manipulation Instructions:
• BITSET, BITCLR, BITTEST: Set, clear, or test specific bits in a register or memory location.
7. Shift and Rotate Instructions:
• SHL/SHR: Shift left/right.
• ROL/ROR: Rotate left/right through carry.
8. I/O Instructions:
• IN, OUT: Input and output instructions for interacting with I/O devices.
9. String Manipulation Instructions:
• MOVS (Move String), CMPS (Compare Strings), SCAS (Scan String): Used for operations on strings in
memory.
10. Interrupt Instructions:
• INT, IRET: Generate software interrupts and return from interrupts.
11. Floating-Point Instructions (if the processor supports floating-point operations):
• FADD, FSUB, FMUL, FDIV: Floating-point arithmetic operations.
12. Special Instructions:
• NOP: No operation (used for padding or delays).
• HLT: Halt the processor.

Q3 Difference Between Macros Vs Procedures In Microprocessor.

Ans.
Micro Procedure
1 Macro Definition Contains A Set Of Instruction To 1 Procedure Contains A Set Of Instructions Which Can
Support Modular Programming. Be Called Repetitively Which Can Perform A Specific
Task.
2 It Is Used For Small Set Of Instructions Mostly Less 2 It Is Used For Large Set Of Instructions Mostly More
Than Ten Instructions. Than Ten Instructions.
3 In Case Of Macro Memory Requirement Is High. 3 In Case Of Procedure Memory Requirement Is Less.
4 CALL And RET Instruction/Statements Are Not 4 CALL And RET Instruction/Statements Are Required
Required In Macro. In Procedure.
5 Assembler Directive MACRO Is Used To Define 5 Assembler Directive PROC Is Used To Define
Macro And Assembler Directive ENDM Is Used To Procedure And Assembler Directive ENDP Is Used To
Indicate The Body Is Over. Indicate The Body Is Over.
6 Execution Time Of Macro Is Less As It Executes 6 Execution Time Of Procedures Is High As It Executes
Faster Than Procedure. Slower Than Macro.
7 Here Machine Code Is Created Multiple Times As 7 Here Machine Code Is Created Only Once, It Is
Each Time Machine Code Is Generated When Macro Generated Only Once When The Procedure Is
Is Called. Defined.

Module 3 – Memory & Peripheral Interfaces.

Q1 Explain Direct Memory Access Controller In 8257.
Ans.
The Intel 8257 is a Direct Memory Access (DMA) controller, which is a peripheral device used to automate the data
transfer between external devices and memory without the direct involvement of the central processing unit (CPU). The
8257 DMA controller is designed to enhance the efficiency of data transfer in a computer system by offloading the CPU
from managing the transfer process.
Key Features of the 8257 DMA Controller:
1. Channels:
• The 8257 has four independent channels (0 to 3) that can operate simultaneously. Each channel can be
programmed to perform a specific data transfer operation.
2. Operation Modes:
 • Each channel can operate in various modes, including:
• Memory-to-Memory (Memory Read or Memory Write): Data is transferred between two memory locations.
• I/O-to-Memory (I/O Read or I/O Write): Data is transferred between an I/O device and memory.
• Block Transfer Mode: A block of data is transferred in a burst.
3. Addressing Capability:
• The 8257 supports 16-bit addressing, allowing it to address up to 64 KB of memory.
4. Cascade Capability:
• Multiple 8257 controllers can be cascaded to provide additional DMA channels.
5. Interrupts:
• Each channel can be programmed to generate an interrupt upon completing a data transfer.
6. Control Words:
• The 8257 is programmed through control words written to its registers. These control words specify the mode of
operation, the source and destination addresses, the number of data bytes to transfer, and other parameters.
7. Interface with the CPU:
• The CPU initializes and programs the 8257 controller but is not involved in the actual data transfer. The DMA
controller takes control of the system bus during data transfer operations.
8. Handshaking Signals:
• The 8257 uses handshaking signals to coordinate data transfer with the external devices and memory.
Operation:
1. Initialization:
• The CPU initializes the 8257 by writing control words to its registers, specifying the transfer parameters, and
enabling the desired channels.
2. Data Transfer:
• When an external device or I/O operation requires data transfer, the DMA controller takes control of the system
bus.
• It reads or writes data between the source and destination specified in the control words.
3. Interrupts:
• The DMA controller can generate an interrupt upon completing a data transfer, allowing the CPU to resume
control.
4. Cascade Mode:
• In systems with multiple 8257 controllers, the controllers can be cascaded to provide additional DMA channels.

Q2 Explain Programmable Interrupt Controller In 8259.

Ans.
The 8259 Programmable Interrupt Controller (PIC) is a widely used device in computer systems to manage and prioritize
interrupt requests from various peripherals. The 8259 PIC is often used to expand the interrupt capabilities of
microprocessors, enabling them to handle multiple interrupt sources.
Key Features of the 8259 PIC:
1. Interrupt Prioritization:
• The 8259 supports up to eight interrupt request (IRQ) lines, which can be prioritized by assigning each line a
specific priority level (0 to 7). Lower-numbered priority levels have higher priority.
2. Daisy Chaining:
• Multiple 8259 PICs can be cascaded, allowing the handling of more than eight interrupt sources in a system. In a
cascaded configuration, one PIC serves as the master, and the others act as slaves.
3. Interrupt Masking:
 • Each interrupt line can be individually masked (disabled) to prevent the associated interrupt request from being
serviced. This allows for dynamic control over which interrupts are enabled or disabled.
4. Edge or Level Triggered Mode:
• The 8259 can be configured to operate in either edge-triggered or level-triggered mode for each interrupt line.
Edge-triggered mode responds to a specific edge transition (e.g., rising or falling edge), while level-triggered
mode responds as long as the interrupt signal is at a specific level.
5. Initialization Command Words:
• The 8259 is initialized and configured by writing command words to its control registers. Initialization includes
setting interrupt masks, specifying interrupt modes, and configuring the master and slave PICs in cascaded mode.
6. Cascaded Mode:
• In systems with more than eight interrupt sources, multiple 8259 PICs can be cascaded. In this configuration, the
INTR line of the master PIC is connected to the CAS0 (cascade input) line of the slave PIC.
7. Interrupt Acknowledge Cycle:
• When an interrupt is acknowledged by the CPU, the 8259 sends an interrupt acknowledge (INTA) signal to the
processor. This allows the PIC to determine the priority of the interrupt and assert the corresponding interrupt
vector.
8. End of Interrupt (EOI):
• After servicing an interrupt, the CPU sends an End of Interrupt (EOI) command to the 8259. The EOI command
informs the PIC that the interrupt has been processed and that the PIC can resume normal operation.
Basic Operation:
1. Initialization:
• During system initialization, the CPU writes initialization command words to the 8259 control registers to
configure interrupt priorities, modes, and other settings.
2. Interrupt Request:
• When a peripheral generates an interrupt request (IRQ), the associated interrupt line is asserted.
3. Interrupt Acknowledge:
• The CPU acknowledges the interrupt by initiating an interrupt acknowledge cycle.
4. Priority Resolution:
• The 8259 determines the highest-priority interrupt and sends the corresponding interrupt vector to the CPU.
5. Interrupt Servicing:
• The CPU services the interrupt by executing the appropriate interrupt service routine (ISR).
6. End of Interrupt:
• After completing the ISR, the CPU sends an EOI command to the 8259 to inform it that the interrupt has been
processed.

Q3 Explain Programmable Peripheral Interface In 8255.

Ans.
The 8255 Programmable Peripheral Interface (PPI) is an integrated circuit used to interface external devices with a
microprocessor. It provides parallel I/O ports that can be programmed for various modes of operation, making it versatile
for a wide range of applications. The 8255 is commonly used in embedded systems and other applications where
interfacing with external devices is necessary.
Key Features And Functions Of The 8255 PPI Include:
1. Three 8-Bit I/O Ports:
• The 8255 has three 8-bit I/O ports (Port A, Port B, and Port C).
• Port A (PA0 to PA7) and Port B (PB0 to PB7) are general-purpose bidirectional I/O ports.
 • Port C (PC0 to PC7) can be used in different modes (as individual bits, as a single 8-bit port, or as two 4-bit
ports).
2. Modes of Operation:
• The 8255 can operate in different modes, determined by the control words written to its control register. The
modes include:
o Mode 0 (Basic Input/Output): Ports A and B operate as simple input or output ports.
o Mode 1 (Strobed Input/Output): Port A works as a simple input or output port, while Port B is used for handshake
signals.
o Mode 2 (Bidirectional Bus): Ports A and B together form a bidirectional 8-bit bus, and Port C acts as control lines.
o Mode 3 (Bit Set/Reset): Individual bits in Port C can be set or reset.
3. Handshake and Strobing:
• The 8255 supports handshake signals (STB - Strobe, and ACK - Acknowledge) in Mode 1, which can be used for
synchronization in I/O operations.
4. Bit Set/Reset Operation:
• In Mode 3, individual bits in Port C can be set or reset by writing specific control words to the control register.
5. Group B Mode:
• Port B can be used as two independent 4-bit ports (mode 0 or mode 1) or as an 8-bit port (mode 2).
6. Bit Configuration:
• The control words allow configuration of each bit in Port C as either an input or output.
7. Read/Write Control Register:
• The control register (CR) is used to configure the operating mode, direction, and other parameters for the ports.
8. Interface with Microprocessor:
• The 8255 is interfaced with the microprocessor through its I/O ports and control register. Control words are
written to the control register to configure the modes of operation.
Basic Operation:
1. Initialization:
• The microprocessor initializes the 8255 by writing appropriate control words to its control register, setting the
desired operating modes for the I/O ports.
2. Data Transfer:
• Data is transferred between the microprocessor and external devices through the I/O ports.
3. Handshaking (Optional):
• In Mode 1, if handshake signals are used, external devices signal the 8255 using the STB and ACK lines to
indicate readiness for data transfer.
4. Bit Set/Reset (Optional):
• In Mode 3, individual bits in Port C can be set or reset by writing control words to the control register.

Q4 Explain Absolute Memory Decoding.

Ans.
Absolute memory decoding is a memory addressing scheme used in computer systems to access specific locations in the
memory address space directly. In this scheme, the address lines generated by the microprocessor directly represent the
physical memory addresses, allowing for a straightforward and efficient memory access method. Each unique address
corresponds to a unique memory location.
Key Points Regarding Absolute Memory Decoding:
1. Direct Addressing:
 • In absolute memory decoding, the memory address lines directly represent the address of the desired memory
location.
• For example, in a system with a 16-bit address bus, there can be 216 (64 KB) unique memory locations, and each
address uniquely identifies a specific byte in memory.
2. Single Memory Space:
• The entire memory address space is treated as a single, continuous block of memory.
• The memory addressing scheme is straightforward, with no segmentation or paging involved.
3. Memory Devices:
• Absolute memory decoding is commonly used when interfacing with memory devices such as RAM (Random
Access Memory), ROM (Read-Only Memory), and memory-mapped I/O (Input/Output) devices.
4. Simple Address Calculation:
• The memory address lines from the microprocessor directly connect to the address inputs of the memory devices.
• The calculation of the physical memory address is a simple mapping from the address lines to the memory device.
5. Example:
• Let's consider a system with a 16-bit address bus. The microprocessor generates 16 address lines (A0 to A15).
• The memory locations are addressed from 0x0000 to 0xFFFF (0 to 65535 in decimal).
• Each address corresponds to a unique byte in the memory address space.
6. Memory Access:
• The microprocessor can directly read or write to any memory location by specifying the corresponding absolute
memory address.
• For example, to read from address 0x1234, the microprocessor places 0x1234 on the address lines and initiates a
read operation.
7. Limited Scalability:
• While absolute memory decoding is simple and efficient for small-scale systems, it can become less scalable as
the size of the memory address space increases.
• Large memory spaces may require complex address decoding logic, which could lead to additional circuitry and
increased costs.

Module 4 – Intel 80386DX Processor.

Q1 Explain Memory Management In Protected Mode.
Ans.
Memory management in protected mode is a feature of x86 processors that allows for more advanced and flexible
memory protection and multitasking capabilities compared to the real mode. The x86 protected mode is part of the
memory addressing modes supported by the Intel 80386 and later processors.
Key Aspects Of Memory Management In Protected Mode:
1. Address Space:
• In protected mode, the processor provides a 32-bit address space, allowing access to up to 4 GB of memory. This
is a significant expansion compared to the 1 MB address space in real mode.
2. Segmentation:
• Protected mode retains the concept of segmentation, but with significant enhancements. Segmentation is used to
divide the address space into segments, and each segment has a base address and a limit. Segments can be up to 4
GB in size.
• Segmentation in protected mode allows for better memory protection and isolation between different parts of the
operating system and applications.
3. Descriptor Tables:
 • Protected mode uses descriptor tables to define segment properties. The Global Descriptor Table (GDT) contains
segment descriptors for the entire system, while the Local Descriptor Table (LDT) can be used for specific tasks
or processes.
• Each segment descriptor includes information about the segment's base address, limit, access rights, and other
attributes.
4. Paging:
• Paging is a crucial feature in protected mode that enables virtual memory and facilitates better memory
management and protection. Paging involves dividing physical memory into fixed-size blocks called pages and
virtual memory into corresponding pages.
• The Page Directory and Page Tables are used to map virtual addresses to physical addresses. This allows the
operating system to implement demand paging, swap pages in and out of physical memory, and provide a larger
virtual address space than physical memory.
5. Memory Protection:
• Protected mode supports more fine-grained memory protection features. Each segment descriptor includes access
rights that define the type of access allowed (read, write, execute) and privilege level (ring 0 to ring 3) required
for access.
• Privilege levels (also known as protection rings) help in implementing a more secure and controlled environment.
Ring 0 is the most privileged level (kernel mode), while Ring 3 is the least privileged (user mode).
6. Task Switching:
• Protected mode facilitates multitasking by supporting task switching. Different tasks or processes can be assigned
to different segments and privilege levels. The Task State Segment (TSS) is used to store information about each
task, including register values, segment selectors, and control flags.
7. Control Registers:
• Protected mode introduces new control registers, such as CR0 and CR3, which are used to control various aspects
of memory management and paging. These registers allow the operating system to enable or disable features like
paging and write protection.
8. Memory Access Rights:
• In protected mode, memory access is controlled by the combination of segment descriptors and the privilege
levels of the current task. This helps prevent unauthorized access to critical system areas and enhances security.

Q2 Explain Real, Protected And Virtual 8086 Mode Of 80386.

Ans.
The Intel 80386 processor introduced three distinct operating modes that provide different levels of functionality and
capabilities. These modes are Real Mode, Protected Mode, and Virtual 8086 Mode. Each mode serves specific purposes
and is used in different contexts.
1. Real Mode:
• Purpose: Real mode is designed to provide backward compatibility with earlier x86 processors, such as the 8086
and 80286. It emulates the behavior of these processors to run legacy software.
• Memory Addressing: Real mode uses a 20-bit segmented addressing scheme, allowing direct access to a
maximum of 1 MB of physical memory. Addresses are calculated using a segment and an offset.
• Limitations:
o Limited memory addressing (1 MB).
o No memory protection or multitasking features.
o No support for virtual memory.
• Initialization: When the 80386 powers up or is reset, it starts in Real Mode.
2. Protected Mode:
• Purpose: Protected mode is the primary operating mode of the 80386 and subsequent x86 processors. It provides
advanced features such as memory protection, virtual memory, and multitasking support.
• Memory Addressing: Protected mode supports a 32-bit flat address space, allowing direct access to up to 4 GB
of physical memory. Segmentation is still used but in a more flexible way with segment descriptors and paging.
• Features:
o Memory protection with privilege levels (ring 0 to ring 3).
o Virtual memory support through paging.
o Enhanced multitasking capabilities.
o Extended 32-bit registers and instructions.
• Initialization: To enter protected mode, the operating system loads the Global Descriptor Table (GDT) with
segment descriptors and sets the PE (Protection Enable) flag in the CR0 control register.

3. Virtual 8086 Mode:

• Purpose: Virtual 8086 Mode allows the execution of multiple real mode 8086 tasks within the protected mode
environment. It is particularly useful for running legacy 8086-based applications in a multitasking environment.
• Memory Addressing: Each virtual 8086 task has its own 1 MB address space in real mode.
• Features:
o Each virtual 8086 task runs independently.
o Real mode segmentation is emulated, allowing direct execution of 8086 code.
o Allows 8086 software to run concurrently with protected mode applications.
• Use Case: Virtual 8086 Mode is commonly used in 32-bit operating systems to run DOS-based applications
without having to switch the entire system into real mode.
• Initialization: To enter Virtual 8086 Mode, the operating system sets up Virtual Machine Control Structure
(VMCS) and uses the VME (Virtual 8086 Mode Extensions) flag in the CR4 control register.

Module 5 – Pentium Processor.

Q1 Explain MESI Protocol.
Ans.
The MESI protocol is a widely used cache coherence protocol in multiprocessor systems. The acronym MESI stands for
Modified, Exclusive, Shared, and Invalid, which represent the different states that a cache line can be in with respect to
the main memory. The MESI protocol is designed to maintain consistency between multiple caches that are caching
copies of the same data.
Four States In The MESI Protocol:
1. Modified (M):
• This state indicates that the cache line is present in the cache, and the data has been modified. The data in the
cache is different from the data in the main memory. To ensure consistency, the modified data must be written
back to the main memory or shared with other caches if needed.
2. Exclusive (E):
• In this state, the cache line is present in the cache exclusively. The data in the cache matches the data in the main
memory, but no other caches in the system have a copy of this data. The cache has exclusive access to the data.
3. Shared (S):
 • The shared state indicates that the cache line is present in multiple caches, and the data is consistent across all
these caches and in the main memory. No cache has made any modifications to the data. The data can be read by
any cache that needs it.
4. Invalid (I):
• The invalid state means that the cache line is not valid or contains stale data. It may be that the data in the cache
has been modified elsewhere, or the cache line has not been loaded yet. In this state, the cache must check with
the main memory or other caches for the latest data.
Basic Operations in MESI Protocol:
1. Read Operation:
• When a processor reads data, it checks the MESI state of the corresponding cache line.
• If the line is in the Exclusive or Shared state, the processor can proceed with the read.
• If the line is in the Modified state, the processor can read from its own cache but must eventually write back the
modified data to the main memory.
2. Write Operation:
• When a processor writes data, it sets the MESI state to Modified if it was previously in the Exclusive state.
• If the line is in the Shared state, the processor must broadcast an invalidation request to other caches, changing the
state to Invalid.
• If the line is in the Modified state, the processor can proceed with the write and eventually write the modified data
back to the main memory.
3. Invalidation Operation:
• When a processor modifies a line, it broadcasts an invalidation request to other caches that may have a copy of the
same line. This ensures that other caches invalidate their copies to maintain data consistency.

Q2 Explain Cache Organization in Pentium.

Ans.
The Pentium microprocessor, first introduced by Intel in 1993, features a complex cache organization that includes
multiple levels of cache. The original Pentium processor and subsequent Pentium architectures have evolved, each
introducing improvements to cache design.
Original Pentium (P5):
1. Level 1 (L1) Cache:
• The original Pentium had separate instruction and data caches, each with 8 KB capacity.
• The instruction cache (L1-I) stored machine code instructions, while the data cache (L1-D) stored data operands.
• Each of the two caches was 4-way set-associative.
2. Level 2 (L2) Cache:
• The L2 cache was unified, meaning it held both instructions and data.
• The original Pentium had two versions with different L2 cache configurations: one with a 256 KB L2 cache and
another with a 512 KB L2 cache.
• The L2 cache was typically implemented as a 4-way set-associative design.
Later Pentium Architectures:
Subsequent Pentium architectures introduced changes and improvements to the cache organization
1. Unified Level 2 (L2) Cache:
• In later Pentium processors, the L2 cache became integrated onto the same die as the processor cores, making it
closer to the core and faster to access.
 • The size of the L2 cache varied across different Pentium generations, ranging from 256 KB to several megabytes.
2. Advanced Transfer Cache (ATC):
• Some Pentium processors featured an Advanced Transfer Cache, which served as an additional level of cache
between the L1 and L2 caches.
• The ATC was designed to improve the efficiency of data transfer between the L1 and L2 caches.
3. Inclusion of Level 3 (L3) Cache:
• In more recent Pentium architectures, especially in multi-core processors, an additional level of cache, known as
L3 cache, was introduced.
• The L3 cache is shared among all processor cores and provides a larger pool of cached data that can be accessed
by any core.
4. Cache Associativity and Line Size:
• The associativity of the caches and the size of cache lines (also known as cache block size) varied across different
Pentium processors. Modern Pentium processors often feature higher associativity and larger cache line sizes to
improve cache efficiency.
5. Smart Cache Technology:
• Intel introduced Smart Cache technology in more recent Pentium processors, where a dynamically allocated
portion of the L3 cache can be dedicated as an inclusive L2 cache for one or more processor cores.

Q3 Explain Integer & Floating Point Pipelines Stages.

Ans.
Integer Pipeline Stages:
The integer pipeline processes instructions that involve integer arithmetic and logical operations. The stages in an integer
pipeline typically include:
1. Instruction Fetch (IF):
• Fetches the next instruction from memory.
2. Instruction Decode (ID):
• Decodes the instruction, determining the operation to be performed and the operands involved.
3. Execution (EX):
• Executes the operation specified by the instruction. For integer operations, this stage involves arithmetic or logical
calculations.
4. Memory Access (MEM):
• If the instruction involves memory access, this stage is responsible for accessing data from or storing data to
memory.
5. Write Back (WB):
• Writes the result of the operation back to the appropriate register.
The integer pipeline stages enable the parallel execution of multiple integer instructions, with each stage handling a
specific aspect of instruction processing.
Floating-Point Pipeline Stages:
The floating-point pipeline is dedicated to processing instructions involving floating-point arithmetic operations. The
stages in a floating-point pipeline typically include:
1. Floating-Point Instruction Fetch (FIF):
• Fetches the next floating-point instruction from memory.
2. Floating-Point Instruction Decode (FID):
 • Decodes the floating-point instruction, determining the operation to be performed and the floating-point operands
involved.
3. Floating-Point Execution (FEX):
• Executes the floating-point operation, involving arithmetic or mathematical calculations with floating-point
numbers.
4. Floating-Point Memory Access (FMEM):
• If the instruction involves memory access, this stage is responsible for accessing data from or storing data to
memory for floating-point operands.
5. Floating-Point Write Back (FWB):
• Writes the result of the floating-point operation back to the appropriate register.
Similar to the integer pipeline, the floating-point pipeline stages enable the parallel execution of multiple floating-point
instructions, with each stage handling a specific aspect of instruction processing.

Q4 Explain Branch Prediction Logic.

Ans.
Branch prediction logic is a mechanism employed in modern microprocessors to improve instruction execution
performance, especially in the presence of conditional branch instructions. Conditional branches are instructions that alter
the program flow based on a certain condition (e.g., if statements in high-level programming languages). Since the
outcome of the branch depends on a condition that is determined at runtime, predicting the direction of the branch (taken
or not taken) in advance can significantly impact the efficiency of instruction execution.
Overview Of How Branch Prediction Logic Works:
1. Branch Instruction Execution:
• When a branch instruction is encountered during instruction execution, the processor needs to decide whether to
take the branch or continue with the next sequential instruction.
• The decision depends on the evaluation of a condition, which may involve testing a flag or a comparison between
two values.
2. Static Branch Prediction:
• In the absence of branch prediction logic, a static approach might be used where the branch is predicted to be
taken or not taken based on historical information or heuristics.
• For example, always predicting that a branch is not taken or always taken.
3. Dynamic Branch Prediction:
• Modern processors use dynamic branch prediction, which involves using runtime information to make predictions
based on the behavior of the program.
• A table, known as the Branch History Table (BHT) or Branch Target Buffer (BTB), is used to store information
about the recent behavior of branch instructions.
4. Branch History Table (BHT) or Branch Target Buffer (BTB):
• The BHT or BTB is a table that maintains a record of recent branch instructions and their outcomes.
• Each entry in the table corresponds to a particular branch instruction and contains information such as the branch
address, the prediction outcome, and possibly other metadata.
5. Two-Level Adaptive Branch Prediction:
• Many modern processors use a two-level adaptive branch prediction approach.
• The first level involves using global history, where the past behavior of branches across the entire program is
considered.
• The second level involves using local history, where the past behavior of a specific branch instruction is
considered.
6. Prediction Outcomes:
• The branch prediction logic typically predicts one of two outcomes: taken or not taken.
• If the prediction is correct, the processor continues fetching and executing instructions based on the predicted
outcome.
• If the prediction is incorrect, a pipeline flush occurs, and the processor re-fetches and re-executes the correct
instructions.
7. Update Mechanism:
• The branch prediction logic needs to update the prediction information based on the actual outcome observed
during execution.
• Updates to the BHT or BTB occur to improve the accuracy of future predictions.
8. Advanced Techniques:
• Some advanced techniques include using neural network-based predictors, tournament predictors that combine
multiple prediction strategies, and perceptron-based predictors.

Module 6 – Pentium 4.
Q1 Explain Hyper Threading Technology And Its Uses In Pentium 4.
Ans.
Hyper-Threading Technology (HTT) is a technology developed by Intel that enables a single physical processor core to
execute multiple threads concurrently. Each thread is a separate sequence of instructions, and with Hyper-Threading, a
single physical core can handle the execution of multiple threads in parallel. Hyper-Threading is designed to improve
overall processor efficiency and performance by better utilizing available resources.
Overview Of Hyper-Threading Technology And Its Uses In Pentium 4 Processors:
1. Basic Concept of Hyper-Threading:
• Hyper-Threading allows a single physical processor core to present itself as two logical processors to the
operating system.
• Each logical processor (or thread) has its set of architectural registers and execution pipelines, enabling it to
execute its own set of instructions.
2. Execution Pipelines:
• A traditional processor core has a set of execution pipelines that can handle different stages of instruction
execution (fetch, decode, execute, etc.).
• Hyper-Threading adds a second set of architectural registers and allows the core to handle the execution of
instructions from two threads simultaneously.
3. Improved Resource Utilization:
• Hyper-Threading helps improve resource utilization within the processor. While one thread is waiting for data or
is stalled for some reason, the other thread can make use of the available execution resources.
• This results in more efficient use of the processor, leading to potentially better overall performance.
4. Parallelism and Multitasking:
• Hyper-Threading is particularly beneficial in scenarios where there is a mix of single-threaded and multithreaded
workloads.
• In multitasking environments, multiple threads can be executed simultaneously, providing a smoother user
experience.
5. Uses in Pentium 4 Processors:
• Intel introduced Hyper-Threading Technology in some of its Pentium 4 processors.
• Pentium 4 processors with Hyper-Threading had two logical processors per physical core.
6. Performance Impact:
 • The impact of Hyper-Threading on performance can vary depending on the nature of the workload. Applications
that are optimized for multithreading can see significant performance improvements.
• However, single-threaded applications may not benefit as much, and in some cases, there might be a slight
performance decrease due to the overhead introduced by Hyper-Threading.
7. Operating System Support:
• For optimal utilization of Hyper-Threading, the operating system needs to support it. Modern operating systems
are generally capable of recognizing and taking advantage of Hyper-Threading.
8. Later Generations:
• Hyper-Threading continued to be a feature in subsequent generations of Intel processors beyond Pentium 4,
including Core processors.

Q2 Explain Pentium 4 Net Burst Micro Architecture.

Ans.
The Pentium 4 NetBurst microarchitecture was introduced by Intel in the early 2000s as a successor to the P6
microarchitecture, which was used in processors like the Pentium Pro, Pentium II, and Pentium III. NetBurst represented a
departure from the P6 design philosophy and aimed to achieve higher clock frequencies and better performance for
multimedia and high-bandwidth applications. The Pentium 4 processors based on the NetBurst microarchitecture were
characterized by longer pipelines, high clock speeds, and advanced features for multimedia processing.
Key Features And Characteristics Of The Pentium 4 Netburst Microarchitecture:
1. Long Pipeline:
• One of the defining features of NetBurst was its long pipeline. The pipeline consisted of 20 or more stages, which
allowed for high clock frequencies.
• The longer pipeline was intended to enable higher clock speeds by breaking down instruction execution into
smaller stages.
2. Rapid Execution Engine:
• The NetBurst microarchitecture introduced the Rapid Execution Engine, which included a deeper pipeline and
increased execution units to enhance parallelism and instruction throughput.
3. Hyper-Threading Technology:
• Some Pentium 4 processors based on NetBurst featured Hyper-Threading Technology, which allowed a single
physical processor core to execute two threads simultaneously. This technology aimed to improve overall
processor efficiency by better utilizing available resources.
4. Advanced Dynamic Execution:
• NetBurst included Advanced Dynamic Execution capabilities, which involved advanced branch prediction, out-
of-order execution, and speculative execution to improve instruction throughput.
5. NetBurst Microarchitecture Versions:
• The NetBurst microarchitecture went through several revisions during the Pentium 4 era, including versions based
on the Willamette and Northwood cores.
• Later versions of NetBurst introduced features like the Hyper-Threading Technology, larger L2 caches, and
improvements in power management.
6. Single Instruction Multiple Data (SIMD) Extensions:
• NetBurst included SIMD extensions, such as SSE (Streaming SIMD Extensions), to accelerate multimedia and
floating-point operations.
7. Increased Front Side Bus (FSB) Speeds:
• NetBurst processors often featured higher Front Side Bus speeds compared to previous architectures, allowing for
faster communication between the processor and other system components.
8. Northwood and Prescott Cores:
 • The Pentium 4 with the Northwood core featured improvements over the initial Willamette core, including a
smaller manufacturing process and larger L2 caches.
• The Prescott core introduced further enhancements, such as a higher clock speed and increased L2 cache size.
9. Performance and Controversies:
• The Pentium 4 NetBurst microarchitecture achieved notable success in terms of clock speeds and was able to
deliver competitive performance in certain applications.
• However, it also faced criticism for its longer pipeline, which sometimes led to inefficient use of resources and
increased power consumption.
10. Transition to Core Microarchitecture:
• The NetBurst microarchitecture eventually reached its limits in terms of clock speed and power efficiency. Intel
transitioned to the Core microarchitecture with the introduction of processors like the Intel Core 2 Duo, which
marked a shift towards improved performance per clock cycle and better energy efficiency.