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Engineering
Research & Development Methodology

Research Design & Methodology

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Research Design & Methodology

Research Design
Statistical Design
 Sampling Techniques
Scientific Research Methods
 Theoretical
 Empirical
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Research Design

Research design is the overall plan or blueprint for

conducting a research study. It outlines how data will be
collected, analyzed, and interpreted to answer the
research questions or test hypotheses.
The ideal design collects a maximum amount of
information with a minimal expenditure of
time & resources.
T h e a ppro a c h s e l e c t e d b y t h e r e s e a r c h e r
depends on the purpose of the study & how
much money is available to conduct the
analysis.
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Research Design(2)

Depending on the circumstances, a design

may be brief or very complicated
 there is no specific guidelines concerning the
amount of detail required for a design. However,
all designs incorporate the steps in the process of
collecting & analyzing the data.
Researchers must determine how the data
will be collected & analyzed before
beginning a research project.
 Attempting to force a study to follow a particular
approach or statistic after the data have been
gathered only invites error.
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Example

Design Type: Analytical + Experimental

Data sources: MSI and Soil properties
Methodologies used:
1. Observation (of crop health symptoms)
2. Tracking (disease progression over time)
3. Testing (machine learning models)
4. Proof (to validate model logic and performance)
5. Analogy (to communicate system logic to stakeholders)
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Research Design

Theoverall research design can be divided

into:
 Sampling design: method of selecting
items to be
observed for the given study;
 Observational design: conditions under which
the observations are to be made;
 Statistical design : the question of how many items
 Operational
are to design: Developing research instruments
(questionnaires,
be observed & interview guides,
how data observation
gathered checklists)
are to be analyzed;
&
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Sampling Design
Sampling:
 A process of selecting units from a population
 A process of selecting a sample to determine
certain
characteristics of a population
Sampling Frame:
 A list of population elements (people, companies,
houses, cities, etc.) from which units to be
sampled can be selected.
 Sample frame error occurs when certain elements
of the population are accidentally omitted or not
included on the list.
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Sampling Design
Why Sample
 Economy
 Timeliness
 The large size of many populations
 Inaccessibility of some of the population
 Destructiveness of the observation – accuracy
 In most cases, census is unnecessary!
The goal is to use the results obtained from
the sample to answer questions about the
population
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Sampling Design
Sampling Design: Sample vs. Census

Conditions Favoring the Use of

Type of Study Sample Census

1. Budget Small Large

2. Time available Short Long

3. Population size Large Small

4. Variance in the characteristic Small Large

5. Cost of sampling errors Low High

6. Nature of measurement Destructive Nondestructive

7. Attention to individual cases Yes No

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Classification of Sampling Techniques 0

Probability sampling : everybody that you

are interested in, your population, has
an
equal chance of participating in your study.
Nonprobability Sampling : sample that may
not be representative of the population as a
whole. Among the greatest problems with
technique is non sampling error.
 This problem occurs when people who should be
included in a sample are not. It will result in we
don’t know to whom the survey results apply.
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Classification of Sampling Techniques

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Convenience Sampling

Nonprobability
Judgmental Sampling

Quota Sampling

Snowball Sampling
Techniques
Sampling

Simple Random Sampling

Probability

Systematic Sampling

Stratified Sampling

Cluster Sampling
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Convenience Sampling 2

Convenience sampling - often respondents

are selected because they happen to be in
the right place at the right time.
Use: when you are unable to access a wider
population, for example due to time or cost
constraints.
Method : just use people who are available.
Use people in the street, people you know,
people who work with you, customers & so
on.
Example :A group of students in a high school do
a study about teacher attitudes. They interview
teachers at the school, a couple of teachers in
the family & few others who are known to their
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Judgmental Sampling 3

Judgmental sampling is a form of

convenience sampling in which the
population elements are selected based
on the judgment of the researcher.
Use : when you want a quick sample &
y o u believe y o u a r e a b l e t o s e l e c t a
sufficiently representative sample for
your purposes.
Method : Use your own judgment to select
what seems like an appropriate sample.
Example: expert witnesses used in court
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Quota Sampling
Set a specific number:
 Example : We will call 50 Democrats & 50
Republicans
First come basis & once quota is met, we stop
─ If we reach 50 Republicans, we then continue
to dial for Democrats until we obtain the 50
quota.
Use : when you know that the proportions of
particular sub-groups within a population &
you want to ensure each group is
proportionately represented.
Method : Decide how many people you need to
sample & then use whatever methods you can
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Snowball Sampling
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Also called chain or referral sampling

 An initial group of respondents is selected,
usually random ra
 After being interviewed, these respondents are
asked toidentify others who belong to the target
population.
 Subsequent respondents are selected based on
the referrals.
Usefultool for building networks &
increasingthe number of participants.
However, the successof this
technique depends greatly on the initial
contacts & connections made.
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Simple Random 6

Sampling
Each element in the population has a known &
equal
probability of selection.
Method : Create the sample by selecting
randomly from the sample frame or
population. This can be done using a paper list
of random numbers, although these days a
computer is often used.
Use : Use in simple experiments that require a
single s a m p l e t o b e t a k e n f r o m a g i v e n
population or a representative sample frame.
The people in the sample frame must all be
accessible & available. Use when the target
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Systematic Sampling 7

The sample is chosen by selecting a random starting

point & then picking every ith element in succession
from the sampling frame.
The sampling interval, i, is determined by dividing the
population
size N by the sample size n & rounding to the nearest
integer.
When the ordering of the elements is related to the
characteristic of interest, systematic sampling increases
the representativeness of the sample.
If the ordering of the elements produces a cyclical pattern,
systematic sampling may decrease the representativeness
of the sample.
Example, there are 100,000 elements in the population
& a sample of 1,000 is desired. In this case the sampling
interval, i, is 100. A random number between 1 & 100
is selected. If, for example, this number is 23, the
sample consists of elements 23, 123, 223, 323, 423,
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Stratified Sampling 8

A two-step process in which the population is

partitioned into subpopulations, or strata.
The strata should be mutually exclusive & collectively
exhaustive in that every population element should be
assigned to one & only one stratum & no population
elements should be omitted.
Next, elements are selected from each stratum by a
random
procedure, usually SRS.
A major objective of stratified sampling is to increase
precision without increasing cost.
The elements within a stratum should be as
homogeneous as possible, but the elements in different
strata should be as heterogeneous as possible.
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The target population is first divided into mutually

exclusive & collectively exhaustive subpopulations, or
clusters. Then a random sample of clusters is
selected, based on a probability sampling technique
such as SRS.
For each selected cluster, either all the elements are
included in the sample (one-stage) or a sample of
elements is drawn probabilistically (two-stage).
Elements within a cluster should be as
heterogeneous as possible, but clusters themselves
should be as homogeneous as possible. Ideally, each
cluster should be a small-scale representation of
the population.
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Research Methods 0

Research methods
 Research methods are the specific techniques and
procedures used to collect, analyze, and interpret
data to answer research questions or test
hypotheses.
 include theoretical procedures, experimental studies,
numerical schemes, statistical approaches, etc.
 call for explanations based on collected facts,
measurements & observations & not on reasoning
alone.
 Can be categorized as
─ quantitative & qualitative methods or
─ theoretical & empirical methods
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Methods of Scientific Research 1

Theoretical Methods Empirical Methods

Analysis Document Analysis
Synthesis Observation
Comparison (Oral/Written)Inquiry
Abstracting Testing
Concretizing Methods of object tracking
Generalization Methods of Object Transformation
Formalization Methods of Object Analysis in the course of time
Induction
Deduction
Analogy
Modeling
Proof
Theoretical
Methods
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Theoretical methods 3

Analysis
 Decomposing a studied object into several
parts
 Identifying specific attributes & qualities of a
phenomenon
 Relations among phenomena & processes
 The comprehensive analysis of a phenomenon
leads to the detailed examination.
 The same phenomenon can be analyzed in
many aspects.
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Theoretical methods 4

Synthesis
 Synthesis is the theoretical method of integrating
abstract ideas with concrete realities to form a
more complete and dynamic understanding of a
phenomenon.
 Uniting different elements of an object into the
whole system
 the opposite to analysis but, both are inseparably
linked
─ Any process of defining a notion is based on the unity
of
analysis & synthesis processes.
 Empirical data obtained in a certain research is
synthesized at the stage of its theoretical
generalization.
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Theoretical methods 5

Comparison
 Judgements regarding similarity or difference of
objects
─ to identify the characteristics of objects, to classify,
order &
assess them
 makes sense only within the set of homogeneous
objects forming a class.
 an integral part of comparison lies in analysis
─ any comparison requires separating the
corresponding attributes of the phenomena being
compared
 establishing certain relations among phenomena for
any comparison requires synthesis.
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Theoretical 6

methods
Abstracting
 The process of moving from specific, concrete
experiences or observations to general, universal ideas
or concepts.
 Starting from specific, grounded observations (roots
in reality), and moving upward into broad,
theoretical ideas
 A basic mental operation, enabling mental
separation ofsides, properties or states of an object
 Used in separating the common properties of a
certain set of objects
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Theoretical methods 7

Concretizing
 Applying abstract concepts to specific cases to
interpret or understand reality more deeply.
 the opposite process to abstracting;
 it means identifying the whole, interconnected,
versatile &
complex entities.
 First, an investigator makes different abstractions;
subsequently, by concretizing them reproduces the
integrity (the mental concrete) at a higher
qualitative level of cognition.
 Purpose: To validate, illustrate, or operationalize
theories
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Theoretical methods 8

Generalization
 identification & fixation of relatively stable
invariant (remains unchanged) properties of objects &
their relations
 allows for reflecting the properties & relations of
the objects irrespective of particular & random
conditions of their observation
 using a specific viewpoint to compare objects
belonging to a certain group, identifies & denotes
their identical (common) properties; the latter may
form the content of the notion about this group or
class of objects
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Theoretical methods 9

Generalization
 The process of extending findings or theoretical
insights from a specific context to broader
contexts.
 s e p a r a t i n g t h e c om m on prop e r t i e s f r o m t h e
particular ones & denoting them enables
─ covering the complete variety of objects in a compact form;
─ operating the notions without a direct reference to
separate objects (via abstractions)
 It involves identifying common patterns, rules, or
principles that are applicable beyond the original
cases studied.
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Theoretical methods 0

Formalization
 The opposite to intuitive thinking
─ intuitive notions are of little use for science
 In mathematics & formal logic, formalization
means the reflection of a conceptual knowledge in
the form of signs or by a formalized language
 In scientific research, posing a problem is often
impossible
without refining the structure of relevant notions
─ True science proceeds from abstract thinking,
successive reasoning of a researcher in the logical
linguistic form (notions, judgements & conclusions)
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Theoretical methods 1

Formalization
 Scientific judgements assist in establishing the
connections among objects, phenomena, or their
attributes.
 In scientific conclusions, a certain judgement is
based on another; the existing conclusions lead to
a new one.
 There are two primary types of conclusions –
inductive (induction) & deductive (deduction) ones.
─ Induction is an inference from particular objects,
phenomena to a common conclusion, from separate
facts to their generalizations.
─ Deduction is an inference from the common to the
particular,
from general judgements to particular conclusions.
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Theoretical methods 2

Analogy
 Understanding or explaining an unfamiliar or complex
phenomenon by comparing it to something more familiar or
better understood.
 Analogy is a mental operation such that
knowledge is transferred to a less studied or less
available (less visual) object called a prototype
─ a researcher opens up the feasibility of transferring
data from a model to a corresponding prototype by
analogy
─ Example : the operation of a computer presents an
interesting analogy to the working of the brain ; the
models show by analogy how matter is built up
 This is the essence of a special theoretical method,
with modeling (building & analyzing models)
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Theoretical methods 3

Model
 A model is a simplified representation or abstraction of
reality that helps explain, predict, or understand a
phenomenon.
 Models can be mathematical, statistical, computational,
or conceptual. They allow researchers to simulate
complex systems and test hypotheses.
 Type of models:
─ Physical modeling takes place for a model which
reproduces certain geometric, dynamic or functional
characteristics of the object being modeled (the
prototype).
─ Sign (informational) simulation- the models are schemes,
drawings, formulas, etc. ex: mathematical modeling .
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Theoretical methods 4

Proof
 In theoretical research, proof ensures that
conclusions are not only observed but necessarily
true within the given framework or assumptions.
 The logical demonstration that a certain
proposition, hypothesis, or model is valid based on a
series of deductive steps or formal reasoning.
 Any proof consists of three parts, notably, a thesis,
reasons (arguments) & demonstration.
 The classification based on the form of inferences
include : inductive & deductive proofs.
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Theoretical methods 5

The two methods of constructing scientific theories

are :
 Deductive method (axiomatic method) is the way of
constructing a scientific theory based on certain
initial a priori true statements – axioms
(postulates)
─ other statements of a given theory (theorems) are
deduced from axioms by a logical proof
─ theory construction by the axiomatic method is called
deductive construction
─ this method is used to construct theories in
mathematics, mathematical logic, & theoretical
physics
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Theoretical methods 6

Inductive deductive method:

 Accumulate an empirical basis to build
theoretical generalizations– induction
 Then, the obtained generalizations can be
extended to an objects & phenomena
described by a given theory- deduction
 The inductive-deductive method is
employed for most theories describing
nature, society, & human beings.
Empirical
Methods
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Empirical methods 8

The analysis of publications, documents &

results of activity.
 focus on the issues of scientific literature survey.
 In fact, this is not just a method of research, but
it is invariable procedural component of any
scientific work.
 Moreover, the actual material for any research
includes various documentation.
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Empirical methods 9

Observation
 Observation is a systematic process of watching, recording, and
analyzing phenomena as they naturally occur.
 Scientific observation- purposeful & organized
perception of objects & phenomena of the reality,
being related to solution of a specific problem.
 Scientific observations imply obtaining some
information for further theoretical understanding
& interpretation, for confirmation or rejection of
a certain hypothesis.
 It is a foundational method in empirical research,
providing real-world data that supports or
challenges theoretical assumptions
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Empirical methods 0

Procedures of scientific observation consists :

 defining the goal of observation
─ why or what for should one observe?
 choosing an object, a process, a situation
─ what should one observe?
 choosing the way & frequency of observation
─ how should one observe?
 choosing the ways of detecting the observed object
or phenomenon
─ how should one fix the obtained information?
 processing & interpreting the obtained information
─ what should be the result of observation?
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Empirical methods 1

The situations under observation are classified

as:
 natural & artificial;
 the situations being controlled by an observer &
being not;
 spontaneous & organized;
 standard & nonstandard;
 normal & extreme.
Depending on the organization type, we single
out
 open & hidden observations,
 field & laboratory observations.
As a rule, observations are accompanied by another
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Empirical methods 2

Inquiry- is used mainly in social sciences; there

are oral & written inquiries.
 Oral inquiry (conversation, interview).
─ an interviewer is in personal contact with an
interviewee
─ If necessary, an observer may ask additional questions
to acquire supplementary data for uncovered issues.
 Written inquiry – questioning.
─ It is based on a prepared questionnaire; the answers
of respondents form the required empirical
information.
─ The quality of empirical information obtained depends
on several factors: question formulation; qualification
level, experience, honesty, the situation, beliefs, the
attitude towards questioning, & so on.
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Empirical methods 3

Testing
 Testing is an empirical method used to evaluate
hypotheses, models, or interventions by applying
them under controlled or real-world conditions and
measuring their performance or outcomes.
Example: Test fertilizer impact on disease progression.
 Testing helps determine whether theoretical
expectations align with actual results.
 It allows researchers to move from theory to
practice by validating assumptions with real or
simulated data.
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Empirical methods 4

Classes of Method Descriptions Specific Methods

Methods of object methods of object investigation,
tracking analysis without its monitoring,
transformation experience study &
generalization.

Methods of object connected with an This class includes a

transformation active transformation of trial & an experiment.
a studied object by a
researcher
Methods of examining examining the object’s in the past
the state of an object state with the course of (retrospection) & in
time the future
(forecasting).
Methods of object
tracking
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Empirical methods 6

Tracking
 Tracking refers to the continuous or periodic observation
and recording of changes in a phenomenon, system, or
subject over time.
 tracking is widely used when the goal of
research lies in studying the natural
functioning of an object

 This method helps researchers identify trends, monitor

progress, and evaluate interventions by comparing current
states with previous records.
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Empirical methods 7

Investigation
 A special case of an observation is studying an
object in a certain level of depth & detail
depending on the goals.
 Is basically an initial study of an object, which
serves for getting acquainted with its state,
functions, structure, etc.
 Involve observations, the analysis of documentation,
oral & written inquiries, expert evaluation, etc.
 Comprises certain assessment criteria for the
phenomena & processes to-be-studied.
 The necessary stages are: data acquisition, results
generalization, summing-up & preparation of
reports.
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Empirical methods 8

Monitoring
 This is permanent control, regular
tracking of the object’s state or
parameters for studying the dynamics of
running processes, forecasting certain
events & preventing undesirable
phenomena.
 For instance, take environmental
monitoring, weather monitoring, etc.
Methods of object
transformation
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Empirical methods 1

Trials & experiments

 The difference between them consists in the degree
of arbitrariness of actions chosen by a researcher.
 That is, a trial is a non rigorous research procedure,
where a scientist introduces changes in an object at
his/her own discretion (according to his/her own
considerations of reasonability).
 Discretion refers to the ability to make careful,
informed, and responsible decisions or judgments,
especially in situations that involve uncertainty,
sensitivity, or professional autonomy.
 In contrast, an experiment is an absolutely rigorous
procedure – a researcher must adhere to the
requirements of an experiment.
 Example: Thomas Edison inventions
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Empirical methods 2

Trials
 It is a method of scientific research under
the following conditions:
─ organized on the basis of scientifically
obtained data according to a theoretically
substantiated hypothesis;
─ accompanied by a deep analysis leading to
conclusions & theoretical generalizations.
 widely used in sciences to develop &
verify models & methods
 A trial involves observations, measurements,
the analysis of documents, expert evaluation,
etc.
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Empirical methods

Experiment
 empirical method of research which consists the
following:
─ phenomena & processes are studied in rigorously
controlled
conditions
─ The basic principle of any experiment is changing
only a certain single factor in each research
procedure (the rest factors are fixed & controlled)
 During an experiment, a researcher modifies the
pace of a process by introducing a new factor in it
─ A factor varied or introduced is said to be an
experimental
factor or independent variable.
─ Factors changed by the impact of an independent
Methods of studying state of an
object with course of
time
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Empirical methods 5

Retrospection
 is a look in the past, a review of the past
events
 aims to study the state of an object & its
development
trends historically
 involves the technique of retrospection analysis.
Forecasting
 special scientific study of concrete
development prospects of an object.