UNIT 2 PART 1

Research Methodology and Statistics

Research: Meaning, Purpose, and Dimensions.

Research problems, Variables and Operational Definitions, Hypothesis,
Sampling.
Ethics in conducting and reporting research.

Research:
• Research refers to the systematic investigation and study of phenomena to establish facts,
theories, or principles.
• It involves gathering, analyzing, and interpreting information to answer questions or solve
problems.

Meaning:
• Research is a process of inquiry aimed at discovering, interpreting, and revising facts, events,
behaviors, or theories.
• It seeks to contribute new knowledge or understanding to a particular field or discipline.

Purpose:
• The purpose of research is to advance knowledge, solve problems, or make informed decisions.
• It can be exploratory, descriptive, explanatory, or evaluative in nature, depending on the
research goals.

Dimensions:
• Research can be qualitative or quantitative, depending on the methods used for data collection
and analysis.
• Qualitative research focuses on understanding behavior and experiences through methods such
as interviews, observations, and content analysis.
• Quantitative research involves measuring variables and analyzing numerical data using
statistical techniques.

Research Problems:
• Research problems are specific questions or issues that researchers aim to address through their
study.
• They should be clearly defined, feasible, and relevant to the field of study.

Validity and Reliability:

• Validity refers to the accuracy and appropriateness of the research findings in relation to the
research questions or objectives.
• Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of the research results over time and across
different conditions.

Variables:
• Variables are characteristics or conditions that can vary or change during a research study.
• They can be independent variables (IVs), which are manipulated or controlled by the
researcher, and dependent variables (DVs), which are measured or observed as outcomes.

Types of Variables and Operational Definitions:

• Independent variables (IVs) are factors that researchers manipulate or control to observe their
effects on dependent variables (DVs).
• Dependent variables (DVs) are outcomes or responses that are measured or observed in
response to changes in independent variables (IVs).
• Operational definitions specify how variables will be measured or manipulated in a research
study.

Hypothesis:
• A hypothesis is a testable prediction or statement that proposes a relationship between
variables.
• It serves as a tentative explanation for observed phenomena and guides the research process.

Types of Hypothesis:
• Null Hypothesis (H0): States that there is no significant difference or relationship between
variables.
• Alternative Hypothesis (H1 or Ha): Proposes that there is a significant difference or
relationship between variables.

Sampling:
• Sampling involves selecting a subset of individuals or units from a larger population to study.
• It is essential for making inferences about the population based on the characteristics of the
sample.

Types of Sampling:
• Probability Sampling: Involves random selection of participants, ensuring that every member of
the population has an equal chance of being included.
• Non-Probability Sampling: Involves selecting participants based on convenience or judgment,
rather than random selection.

Ethics in Conducting and Reporting Research:

• Ethical considerations involve ensuring the rights, well-being, and dignity of research
participants.
• Researchers must obtain informed consent, maintain confidentiality, and minimize risks to
participants.
• They should also report their findings accurately and honestly, avoiding fabrication,
falsification, or plagiarism.

Types of Sampling

Random Sampling:
• Involves selecting a sample from a population in such a way that each member of the
population has an equal chance of being selected.
• It eliminates bias and ensures representativeness of the sample if properly conducted.
• Random sampling methods include simple random sampling, systematic random sampling, and
stratified random sampling.

Stratified Sampling:
• Divides the population into subgroups or strata based on certain characteristics.
• Samples are then randomly selected from each stratum.
• Ensures representation from each subgroup, which can be useful when certain groups are
underrepresented in the population.

Systematic Sampling:
• Involves selecting every nth member from a list of the population.
• The starting point is chosen randomly, and then every nth individual is selected until the desired
sample size is reached.
• It is relatively easy to conduct and can be more efficient than simple random sampling when
there is a list of the population readily available.

Cluster Sampling:
• Divides the population into clusters or groups.
• Randomly selects some of these clusters and includes all members of the selected clusters in
the sample.
• Particularly useful when it is difficult to create a complete list of the population but relatively
easy to identify clusters.

Convenience Sampling:
• Involves selecting participants who are readily available and accessible.
• Commonly used in exploratory research or when other sampling methods are not feasible.
• Prone to bias as it may not represent the population accurately.
Purposive Sampling:
• Involves selecting participants based on specific criteria or characteristics.
• Useful when researchers want to study a particular subgroup within the population.
• May lack generalizability, as the sample may not represent the broader population.

Snowball Sampling:
• Utilized when members of the population are difficult to locate or access.
• Participants are asked to refer others who meet the criteria, leading to a chain referral process.
• Often used in studies involving rare or stigmatized populations.

Quota Sampling:
• Similar to stratified sampling but does not involve random selection.
• Researchers purposefully select individuals from different subgroups until the predetermined
quotas for each subgroup are filled.
• Used when it is challenging to obtain a random sample but still important to ensure
representation from different groups.

Paradigms of research: Quantitative, Qualitative, Mixed methods approach.

Quantitative Research:
Quantitative research involves the collection and analysis of numerical data to answer research
questions or test hypotheses. It emphasizes measurement, statistical analysis, and objectivity.
This approach aims to identify patterns, relationships, or cause-and-effect relationships among
variables. It typically uses structured instruments such as surveys, questionnaires, and
experiments to gather data. Quantitative research often employs statistical methods to analyze
data and draw conclusions. Its strengths include the ability to generalize findings to larger
populations, establish causal relationships, and provide precise measurements. However, it may
overlook context and fail to capture the depth of human experiences.

Qualitative Research:
Qualitative research focuses on understanding human behavior from the perspective of the
individuals involved. It involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as words,
images, and observations. This approach aims to explore meanings, perceptions, and
experiences, often in naturalistic settings. Qualitative research methods include interviews, focus
groups, participant observation, and content analysis. Researchers immerse themselves in the
data to identify themes, patterns, and insights. Its strengths lie in its ability to capture rich,
detailed descriptions of phenomena, explore complex social processes, and generate new
theories. However, qualitative research may be subjective, time-consuming, and challenging to
generalize findings.

Mixed Methods Approach:

The mixed methods approach combines elements of both quantitative and qualitative research in
a single study. It involves collecting and analyzing both numerical and non-numerical data to
gain a comprehensive understanding of the research topic. Researchers use a variety of methods
to triangulate findings, corroborate evidence, and enrich understanding. Mixed methods research
can take different forms, such as sequential explanatory, sequential exploratory, and concurrent
designs. This approach offers the benefits of both quantitative and qualitative research, allowing
researchers to address research questions from multiple perspectives, enhance validity, and
provide a more nuanced understanding of phenomena. However, it requires careful planning,
integration of diverse methods, and expertise in both quantitative and qualitative techniques.

In summary, the paradigms of research in psychology encompass quantitative, qualitative, and

mixed methods approaches, each with its own strengths and limitations. Researchers select the
most appropriate approach based on their research questions, theoretical framework, and
methodological preferences, aiming to generate valid and reliable knowledge about human
behavior and mental processes.

Methods of research:
Observation, Survey [Interview, Questionnaires],
Experimental, Quasi-experimental, Field studies, Cross-Cultural Studies, Phenomenology,
Grounded theory, Focus groups, Narratives, Case studies, Ethnography.

Observation:
Observation involves systematically watching and recording behaviors, events, or phenomena as
they occur in natural or controlled settings. Researchers can use structured or unstructured
observation methods to collect data. Observational research allows for the direct study of
behavior without relying on self-report, making it useful for studying behavior in its natural
context. It can provide valuable insights into social interactions, environmental influences, and
developmental processes.

Survey (Interview, Questionnaires):

Surveys involve gathering information from a sample of individuals through structured
questionnaires or interviews. Questionnaires consist of standardized sets of questions
administered to participants, while interviews involve direct interaction between the researcher
and the participant. Surveys are versatile and can be used to collect data on attitudes, opinions,
behaviors, and demographics. They allow for the efficient collection of data from large samples
and can be easily replicated. However, survey responses may be influenced by social desirability
bias or response bias.

Experimental:
Experimental research involves manipulating one or more variables to observe the effect on
another variable while controlling for extraneous factors. It aims to establish cause-and-effect
relationships between variables. Experimental designs typically involve random assignment of
participants to experimental and control groups to ensure internal validity. Experiments allow
researchers to make causal inferences and test theoretical predictions rigorously. They are
well-suited for testing hypotheses and determining the effectiveness of interventions.

Quasi-experimental:
Quasi-experimental research shares similarities with experimental research but lacks random
assignment to groups. Instead, participants are assigned to groups based on pre-existing
characteristics or conditions. Quasi-experimental designs are often used in situations where
random assignment is not feasible or ethical. While they provide valuable insights into
real-world settings and allow for the study of naturally occurring phenomena, quasi-experimental
designs may be susceptible to confounding variables and threats to internal validity.

Field Studies:
Field studies involve conducting research in naturalistic settings outside of the laboratory.
Researchers observe and collect data on behaviors, interactions, and processes as they naturally
occur in real-world environments. Field studies offer high ecological validity and allow for the
study of complex social phenomena in their natural context. However, they may be more
challenging to control and replicate compared to laboratory experiments.

Cross-Cultural Studies:
Cross-cultural studies compare behaviors, beliefs, or phenomena across different cultures or
cultural groups. They aim to identify cultural similarities and differences and understand the
influence of culture on human behavior. Cross-cultural research often involves collecting data
from multiple cultural groups using standardized measures or culturally sensitive methods. It
provides insights into cultural variations in cognition, emotion, social norms, and values.

Phenomenology:
Phenomenology is a qualitative research approach that focuses on understanding the lived
experiences of individuals. It involves exploring subjective perceptions, meanings, and
interpretations of phenomena without imposing preconceived theories or frameworks.
Phenomenological research aims to uncover the essence or underlying structure of experiences
through in-depth interviews, reflective analysis, and interpretation. It is particularly useful for
exploring complex or ambiguous phenomena from the perspective of those directly involved.

Grounded Theory:
Grounded theory is a qualitative research method used to develop theories or conceptual
frameworks based on empirical data. It involves systematically analyzing qualitative data to
generate concepts, categories, and hypotheses grounded in the data itself. Grounded theory
research typically follows a cyclical process of data collection, coding, categorization, and theory
development. It aims to uncover patterns, relationships, and processes within the data and
generate new theoretical insights.

Focus Groups:
Focus groups involve bringing together a small group of participants to discuss specific topics,
issues, or products under the guidance of a moderator. Focus groups allow researchers to explore
attitudes, perceptions, and opinions in a social context and elicit rich, detailed insights through
group interaction. They are useful for generating ideas, exploring diversity of perspectives, and
gathering qualitative data on complex topics.

Narratives:
Narrative research involves collecting and analyzing individuals’ personal stories, accounts, or
experiences. It focuses on understanding the meaning and significance of these narratives within
the context of people’s lives. Narrative methods include life histories, autobiographies, and
storytelling techniques. Narrative research allows for the exploration of identity,
meaning-making, and subjective experiences over time.

Case Studies:
Case studies involve in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or phenomenon within
its real-life context. Researchers gather detailed information through multiple sources such as
interviews, observations, and documents to provide a comprehensive understanding of the case.
Case studies are valuable for exploring rare or unique phenomena, illustrating theoretical
concepts, and generating hypotheses for further research. However, they may lack
generalizability and be susceptible to researcher bias.

Ethnography:
Ethnography is a qualitative research method used to study cultures, communities, or social
groups from an insider’s perspective. Researchers immerse themselves in the culture or
community being studied, participating in daily activities, and observing social interactions.
Ethnographic research involves prolonged engagement, fieldwork, and in-depth interviews to
understand cultural norms, values, and practices. It aims to provide rich, contextualized
descriptions of social phenomena and uncover underlying cultural patterns and meanings.

In summary, methods of research in psychology encompass a wide range of approaches, each

with its own strengths and limitations. Researchers select methods based on their research
questions, theoretical frameworks, and methodological preferences, aiming to generate valid and
reliable knowledge about human behavior and mental processes.

Statistics in Psychology: Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion. Normal Probability

Curve. Parametric (t-test) and Non-parametric tests (Sign Test, Wilcoxon Signed rank test,
Mann-Whitney test, Kruskal-Wallis test, Friedman).

Statistics play a crucial role in psychology research, aiding in the analysis and interpretation of
data. Here’s an overview of key concepts and tests commonly used in psychological research:

Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion:

– Measures of central tendency, such as the mean, median, and mode, provide insight into the
central or typical value of a dataset.
– Measures of dispersion, including the range, variance, and standard deviation, indicate the
spread or variability of data points around the central value.

Normal Probability Curve:

– The normal probability curve, also known as the bell curve or Gaussian distribution, is a
symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that represents the distribution of many naturally occurring
phenomena.
– It is characterized by its mean (µ) and standard deviation (σ), and it describes how data points
are distributed around the mean.

Parametric Tests (t-test):

– Parametric tests are statistical tests that make certain assumptions about the population
distribution, such as normality and homogeneity of variance.
– The t-test is a parametric test used to compare the means of two independent groups or to
determine if the mean of a single group differs significantly from a known value.

Non-parametric Tests (Sign Test, Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test, Mann-Whitney Test,
Kruskal-Wallis Test, Friedman Test):
– Non-parametric tests are used when the data do not meet the assumptions of parametric tests,
such as when the data are not normally distributed or when the sample size is small.
– The Sign Test is used to determine if the median of a single sample differs significantly from a
known value.
– The Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test is used to compare the medians of two related groups or to
determine if the median of a single group differs significantly from a known value.
– The Mann-Whitney Test is used to compare the medians of two independent groups.
– The Kruskal-Wallis Test is a non-parametric alternative to the one-way ANOVA and is used
to compare the medians of three or more independent groups.
– The Friedman Test is a non-parametric alternative to the repeated measures ANOVA and is
used to compare the medians of three or more related groups.

Understanding these statistical concepts and tests is essential for conducting rigorous and valid
research in psychology, enabling researchers to draw meaningful conclusions from their data.

PART 2
Research Methodology and Statistics
Power analysis. Effect size.
Correlational Analysis: Correlation [Product Moment, Rank Order], Partial correlation,
multiple correlation.

Power Analysis
Power analysis is a statistical method used to determine the sample size needed for a study to
detect a significant effect, given a specified level of significance and desired statistical power.
Statistical power refers to the probability of correctly rejecting a false null hypothesis, or the
probability of detecting an effect when it truly exists. Power analysis involves several
components, including effect size, significance level (alpha), and power (1 – beta).

Effect Size
Effect size is a measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables or the
magnitude of a treatment effect. It provides information about the practical significance of a
finding. Common effect size measures include Cohen’s d for comparing means, Pearson’s r for
correlation, and eta-squared (η²) for explaining variance in ANOVA.

Correlational Analysis
Correlational analysis examines the relationship between two or more variables without
manipulating any variables. It aims to determine the strength and direction of the association
between variables. Common correlational techniques include:
1. Correlation (Product Moment, Rank Order): Product moment correlation, also known as
Pearson correlation, measures the linear relationship between two continuous variables. It ranges
from -1 to 1, where -1 indicates a perfect negative correlation, 0 indicates no correlation, and 1
indicates a perfect positive correlation. Rank order correlation, such as Spearman’s rho or
Kendall’s tau, assesses the strength and direction of association between ordinal or ranked data.

2. Partial Correlation: Partial correlation assesses the relationship between two variables while
controlling for the influence of one or more additional variables. It helps to determine the unique
association between two variables after removing the effects of other variables.

3. Multiple Correlation: Multiple correlation examines the relationship between one dependent
variable and two or more independent variables simultaneously. It assesses how well the
independent variables predict the dependent variable collectively. Multiple correlation is often
used in regression analysis to model complex relationships among variables.

Correlational analysis is valuable in psychology for exploring associations between variables,

identifying patterns of behavior, and making predictions. However, it cannot establish causality,
as it does not involve manipulation of variables. Therefore, caution should be exercised when
interpreting correlational findings.

Special Correlation Methods

Biserial Correlation:
– Biserial correlation measures the relationship between a continuous variable and a
dichotomous variable.
– It assumes that the continuous variable is normally distributed and that the dichotomous
variable follows a Bernoulli distribution.
– It ranges from -1 to 1, where -1 indicates a perfect negative relationship, 0 indicates no
relationship, and 1 indicates a perfect positive relationship.

Point Biserial Correlation:

– Point biserial correlation is similar to biserial correlation but is used when one variable is
dichotomous and the other is continuous.
– It is calculated using Pearson correlation coefficient between the dichotomous variable and the
continuous variable.
– Its interpretation is similar to Pearson correlation coefficient.

Tetrachoric Correlation:
– Tetrachoric correlation is used when both variables in the correlation are dichotomous.
– It estimates the correlation coefficient between two latent continuous variables that underlie the
observed dichotomous variables.
– It is calculated using maximum likelihood estimation techniques.

Phi Coefficient:
– Phi coefficient is used to measure the association between two dichotomous variables.
– It is similar to Pearson correlation coefficient but is specifically designed for dichotomous
variables.
– It ranges from -1 to 1, with 0 indicating no relationship and -1 or 1 indicating a perfect
relationship.

Regression

Simple Linear Regression:

– Simple linear regression is used to establish the relationship between two continuous variables,
where one variable (predictor) is used to predict the other (outcome).
– It assumes a linear relationship between the predictor and the outcome variable.
– The regression equation is of the form: Y = a + bX, where Y is the predicted variable, X is the
predictor variable, a is the intercept, and b is the slope of the regression line.

Multiple Regression:
– Multiple regression is an extension of simple linear regression where more than one predictor
variable is used to predict the outcome variable.
– It allows for the examination of the unique contribution of each predictor variable while
controlling for the effects of other predictors.
– The regression equation is of the form: Y = a + b1X1 + b2X2 + … + bkXk, where Y is the
predicted variable, X1, X2, …, Xk are the predictor variables, a is the intercept, and b1, b2, …,
bk are the slopes of the regression lines for each predictor.

Factor analysis: Assumptions, Methods, Rotation and Interpretation.

Factor Analysis:
Factor analysis is a statistical technique used to identify patterns in the relationships among
variables. It aims to uncover the underlying structure of a set of variables by identifying common
factors that explain the correlations among them. Here, we will discuss the assumptions,
methods, rotation, and interpretation associated with factor analysis.

Assumptions:

1. Multivariate Normality: The variables should follow a multivariate normal distribution.

2. Linearity: The relationships among variables should be linear.
3. No Perfect Multicollinearity: There should be no perfect linear relationships among
variables.
4. Adequate Sample Size: Factor analysis typically requires a sufficient sample size for accurate
estimation.
5. Factorability: The correlation matrix should be factorable, meaning that there should be a
sufficient amount of correlation among variables for factor analysis to be meaningful.

Methods:

1. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA): In EFA, the researcher does not have preconceived
ideas about the number of factors or which variables load on each factor. It is exploratory in
nature, aiming to uncover the underlying structure of the data.

2. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA): CFA is used when the researcher has a clear
hypothesis about the number of factors and the variables that load on each factor. It tests the fit
of the hypothesized model to the data.

Rotation:
Factor rotation is a technique used to simplify the interpretation of the factors obtained from
factor analysis. It aims to achieve a simpler structure by maximizing the variance of factor
loadings. There are two main types of rotation:

1. Orthogonal Rotation: In orthogonal rotation (e.g., Varimax, Quartimax), the factors are
rotated independently of each other. This results in factors that are uncorrelated with each other,
leading to a simpler and more interpretable factor structure.

2. Oblique Rotation: Oblique rotation (e.g., Promax, Oblimin) allows the factors to be
correlated with each other. This can better reflect the true underlying structure of the data,
especially when factors are expected to be correlated.

Interpretation:
Once the factors are extracted and rotated, the researcher interprets the meaning of each factor
based on the variables that load most strongly on it. This involves examining the pattern of factor
loadings and assigning labels or interpretations to each factor based on the variables it represents.
Interpretation may also involve examining the practical significance of the factors and their
implications for theory or practice in the relevant field, such as psychology.
Overall, factor analysis is a powerful tool for uncovering the underlying structure of a set of
variables, but careful consideration of its assumptions, methods, rotation techniques, and
interpretation is essential for meaningful results.

Experimental Designs:

ANOVA [One-way, Factorial], Randomized Block Designs, Repeated Measures Design,

Latin Square, Cohort studies, Time series, MANOVA, ANCOVA. Single-subject designs.

Experimental Designs:

ANOVA (Analysis of Variance):

– One-way ANOVA: Used when comparing the means of three or more groups on one
independent variable.
– Factorial ANOVA: Examines the effects of two or more independent variables (factors) on a
dependent variable, including interactions between factors.

Randomized Block Designs:

– Randomized Block Design is used to control for the effects of an extraneous variable by
grouping participants into blocks based on that variable before randomly assigning them to
conditions. It increases the precision of estimates by reducing variability.

Repeated Measures Design:

– Repeated Measures Design involves measuring the same participants under different conditions
or at different points in time. It reduces individual differences and increases statistical power.

Latin Square:
– Latin Square design is a method to control for order effects in experimental designs. It ensures
that each condition appears in each position of an experimental sequence an equal number of
times, minimizing order effects.

Cohort Studies:
– Cohort studies are longitudinal studies that follow a group of individuals over time to examine
how their characteristics or behaviors change. They are often used in epidemiology and
psychology to study the effects of exposure on outcomes.

Time Series:
– Time series design involves collecting data repeatedly over time to examine trends, patterns, or
changes in a variable of interest. It is useful for studying processes that unfold over time, such as
learning curves or developmental trajectories.

MANOVA (Multivariate Analysis of Variance):

– MANOVA is an extension of ANOVA that allows for the analysis of multiple dependent
variables simultaneously. It tests whether there are differences among groups across multiple
outcome variables.

ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance):

– ANCOVA is used to compare means of groups while statistically controlling for the effects of
one or more continuous covariates. It helps to reduce error variance and increase the sensitivity
of the analysis.

Single-Subject Designs:
– Single-subject designs, such as A-B designs or multiple baseline designs, are used to study the
effects of an intervention on an individual participant. They involve repeated measurements of
the dependent variable over time to assess changes in behavior