UNIT-3

RURAL SOCIOLOGY IN VETERINARY EXTENSION

Concept of sociology and rural sociology in animal husbandry extension.

Sociology:

Man does not ordinarily live in isolation; he lives in physical and social proximity to
other human beings. Man identifies himself to some human beings more than others. This
exhibits a feeling of belonging, both with them and with the geographical area, within which
all reside.
Thus human relationship and human interaction are the central core of the field of
sociology. Around them are built social groups, organisations, institutions and other
components of the structure of society. Yet another key word in understanding sociology is
"groups". Man interacts with groups from birth. He is constantly subjected to influence them
to varying extents. Group relations are the chief foci of the field of sociology.
Sociology the youngest of the social science is the study of society, that is, the web of
human interactions and interrelationship. It joined the family of social sciences when it was
recognized that the other social sciences failed to fully explain man’s social behaviour.
August Comte, the French philosopher, commonly regarded the father of sociology,
in 1839, named the field of sociology from two words, Latin word ‘Socious’ meaning
companion and Greek word ‘logos’ meaning word, speech, reasoning or calculation.
Sociology is the scientific study of mans behavior in relationship to other groups
and individuals with whom he interacts. Thus sociology is the science of human
relationships. Sociology seeks to deepen our understanding of human relationships by
unraveling new truths about them. It helps in removing ignorance about human relationships.
The essential principles of sociology are a prerequisite in any study of human relationships
and in any proposed solution to a social problem.
Rural sociology
Rural sociology is a specialized field of sociology. It involves the study of human
relationships in rural situations. The rural location of mans residence and its consequences
being the distinction that demarcates this specialized field of rural sociology. Rural area is the
area where population is less than 5000.
Rural society is changing. In most countries this change is rapid. In developing
countries programmes of rural development are inflecting both tempo and direction of
change. People working for rural development should have a clear idea of what they want
rural society in future and may wish to bend efforts to move most effectively towards that
end. To achieve this requires a thorough knowledge of the science of rural sociology and
without which we cannot do it.
Why rural sociology?
Rural society is changing rapidly, it is especially true in developing countries through
various developmental programmes. This change influences both the tempo and the direction
of change. Adequate knowledge of rural society is lacking. We do not have a clear idea of
rural society as it really is today. To achieve the expected development or growth, a thorough
knowledge of the science of rural sociology and its application to all programmes in rural
areas is essential. .
The world's population is more rural than urban. Rural society invests more on
agricultural population. Hence in various forms rural sociologists will continue to be in
demand.
Why study rural sociology?
1. To develop greater understanding of the behaviour of rural people and their society
2. Sociology is a part of students general education. All people must live in society and all
have social roles irrespective of their occupation or profession they follow. Hence of value to
the learner.
3. It helps the individual to understand himself and his social nature, his relation to other
people in society.
4. Helps to develop scientific attitude of thinking, critically and objectively with precision.
5. Professional training as a rural sociologist for more academic interest teacher or researcher.
6. As a consultant of change agent and rural life analyst in programmes promoting rural
community development
7. It helps to understand social groups.
8. It helps to understand religious beliefs and the strength of these beliefs in the area
9. It provides an understanding of social and economic implications of the materials
necessary for the social groups.
10. It helps to understand the involvement of formal and informal groups or institutions,
which are necessary for promotion of rural development.
Its significance for extension worker
 Extension aims at bringing about development of the people. It is of importance to
know the people before inducing changes in them.
  It also helps to make correct diagnosis of social, technological and economic
problems of the villagers.
 It helps the extension worker to understand the social values, mores, taboos,
convictions etc., which would eventually direct the extension worker to diffuse
technology
Relationship between Sociology and Veterinary Extension

 Rural sociology is the scientific study of rural man’s behaviour in relationship to other
groups and individuals with whom he interacts. Veterinary extension is a non-formal
education for livestock farmers (rural people) with a view to develop rural society on
desirable lines.
 Rural sociology studies the attitude and behaviour of rural people whereas veterinary
extension seeks to modify or change the attitude and behaviour of livestock farmers.
 Rural sociology studies the needs and interests of rural society and veterinary
extension helps livestock farmers to discover their needs and problems and build
educational programmes based on these needs and wants.
 Rural sociology analyses rural social relationship or group or organisation and leaders
in rural areas. Veterinary extension utilises the knowledge pertaining to groups,
organisations and leaders to achieve the objective of veterinary development.
 Rural sociology studies social situations and collects social facts of rural society.
Veterinary extension makes uses of such social data as basis for building up extension
programmes for livestock farmers.
 Rural sociology investigates the social, cultural, political and religious problems of
rural society. Veterinary extension also studies these problems with special reference
to their impact on veterinary extension work in the village.
From the above interrelationship between the rural sociology and veterinary extension,
one could understand that rural sociology will help the extension agent to identify problems
of farmers and develop an extension programme to help in solving the problems of farmers.
Thus it can be concluded that both sciences are closely related and benefited with each other
by sharing the knowledge of each other.

Basic sociological concepts

 Concepts are abstract ideas which provide precise meaning of the terms/words
used in a particular discipline.They are of paticular importance in Rural Sociology and other
social sciences because the same words may have other meanings in common speech also,
e.g.,words such as community, culture, society. They are intellectual tools for analysing
social situation in rural society.

Society may be defined as a group of people living in more or less permanent

association who are organised for their collective activities and also feel that they belong
together (A society may include many communities).
Members of the society to some extent have a common culture, live within it, modify
itand pass it on the next generation.
Community may be defined as a group of people living within a contiguous/
continuous geographical area, sharing common values and a feeling of belonging to the
group, who come together in the common concerns of daily life. (Community is a subdivision
of society).
A community has both a territorial diemension and a social dimension. Any area of
common life like village, town, district, country or even a wider area may be regarded as a
community
Group/ Social group is a unit of two or more people in reciprocal interaction or
communication with each other.

Association is a group of people organizing themselves for the purpose of fulfilling

common interests.There can be number of associations functioning within a community.

Institution is an organised system of social relationships which embodies certain

common values and procedures and meets certain basic needs of the society.

Organisation is a group of people organised to pursue a specific objectives.

Organisations operate within the Institution.

Category is a number of persons who can be thought of as a unit,whether or not they

are communicating or interacting with one another. Category is collection of items that have
at least one common characteristics that distinguish them from other items. E.g. urban &
rural, men & women

Aggregation is a collectivity of persons who are held together in physical sense other
than intercommunication. Aggregation is collection of individuals in physical proximity of
one another. Eg.Audience in cricket match

“All aggregations are categories but not all categories are aggregations”

Structure is the systematic arrangement characteristic of a society, the smaller parts

arrange to form a larger discernible unit. A society's structure is composed of such parts as
groups, institutions (e.g.,government and schools), neighbourhoods and communities,
organisations and collectives.
 Function is an aspect of the relationship between the structures of the society.

Socialisation is the process wherby an individual learns to behave in accordance with

social traditions and mores.
culture may be defined as the pattern of learned behaviour shared by the meembers of
the society
customs are socially prescriobed forms of behaviour, transmitted by tradition and
enforced by social disapproval of its vilation
Eg.Folkways,mores,taboos, rituals
Diffference between society and culture
The basic diffference between society and culture is that culture is a pattern of
behaviour, society is a group of people. Society is people. Culture is behaviour.

Difference between society and community

Society community
Society is wider.There can be more than one Communiity is smaler than society
community in a scoiety
A society does not denote definite Community always denotes a definite
geographical area geographical area
‘We feeling’ and ‘community sentiment’ ‘We feeling’ and ‘community sentiment’ are
may or may not be prsent in the scoiety essential elements of community
Common intersts and diverse interst are There is agreement of intersts and objectives
prsent in the society on the part of members.

Rural society: characteristics

Characteristics of Indian Rural Society

 1. Village is the fundamental unit of Rural society. It 's people carry on the business of
living together within a distintive framework of caste and social custom.
2. Caste is a dominant social institution permeating social and economic relations.
3. Caste and social customs are indispensable factors in rural areas.
4. Traditional caste occupations prevail even today.
5. Village as social and cultural unit possess a basically uniform structure and
organisation all over India.Many problems are common to the entire Indian country
side.
6. The ethnic,linguistic,religious and caste compositions of a village largely determine
its structure and character.
7. Women do not have full equality with men.
8. Indian rural society is based predominantly on agriculture.Possession of land carries
social/prestige value and economic asset.
9. Land is mostly distributed between two or more castes or among few families.
10. Landless labourers and tenants constitute a considerable part of the Indian rural
population.

Tribal Society

Tribe
A tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name,speaking a common
dialect,occupying a common territory and endogamous in nature.

Characteristics of Tribe

1. They live in a common territory.

2. They possess a sense of unity.
3. They speak a common language.
4. Endogamous ie. marrying within the group is practised.All of them are closely
related by blood.
5. Each tribe has its own political organisation.
6. The head/chief controls the group.
7. Religion is an important institution and they worship a common ancestor.
8. Superstitious beliefs are widely found in tribal areas.
9. The tribes worship the nature also.

Characteristics and differences among tribal, rural and urban communities.

S.No. Characteristics Rural Urban Tribal

1 Occupation Primarily Agriculture Various occupation Forest related-
oriented activities -Industry, hunting,collecting
Business, forest produce,
White collar jobs, bonded labourers &
Government etc. cultivation
2 Work Open air at field or Work in closed Open air,
environment farm,close to environment. Close to nature,
nature.Mostly related Away from nature Directly linked with
with soil,water,plant Mostly related to nature
& animal life,Direct trade, commerce,
 relationship with industry,office
nature work etc.
3 Family type Mostly joint family Nuclear family Joint family
4 Condition of Poor & dependent on Good & Poor & dependent
women others independent
5 Density of Low High Less
population
6 Social status Caste & family Economic/ Hereditary
based on occupation
7 Physical,racial & Relatively Heterogenous Homogenous only
psychological homogenous
traits
8 Social relations Direct,Primary, Indirect,secondary, Direct,Primary,Very
/contact Strong Weak strong
9 Social interaction Less/poor More/wide Poor
Personal Impersonal
10 Sense of Strong Weak Very strong
belonging,
Affection
11 Institutions Small,simple Large , Complex Less- ( Family is the
major institution)
12 Social mobility Less More Very less
13 Social Less More Less
stratification
14 Observing Strong Weak Rigidly followed
tradition,
custom,caste
system
15 Social life Static & stable Dynamic Static
16 Culture Sacred Secular Sacred
17 Level of living Simple Modern Primitive
18 Attitude Tradition oriented Scientific oriented Tradition oriented
19 Effect of natural More Less Very high
environment
20 Social change Occurs slowly Occurs rapidly Occurs very slow

21 Education More illiterates More literates More illiterates

Differences exist between rural and urban areas in the animal rearing patterns.
These differences stem from the purpose for which the animals are being reared.

S.No Particulars Rural Urban Tribal

1 Purpose Economic as well Primarily economic Way of life
as social / religious
2 Number of Less (2 to 3) More (>5) Less (<3)
animals /
household
3 Quality of Predominantly Predominantly cross Indigenous /
animals indigenous bred non-descript
4 Productivity of Low to medium Medium to high Very low
animals
5 Dry and wet ratio High Low High
6 Animal sheds Open yard Mostly pucca Open yard
7 Feeding Mostly grazing Mostly stall feeding Grazing
8 Type of feeds Dry, green fodder Dry fodder with little Green grasses
with little or no or no green feeding,
concentrate concentrate feeding
common
9 Management Less scientific To a greater extent Not scientific
scientific

10 Adoption of Low level Early adoption No adoption

technologies to of scientific
improve practices
productivity of
animal
11 Cost of Low High Meagre
production / kg.
of milk / meat
12 Occupation Traditional Entrepreneurial Traditional
13 Profit / unit of Marginal or nil High Marginal or nil
milk / meat sold
14 Sentimental Very much present Not to that extent as Very much
attachment with in rural areas present
animals
15 Person involved All members of the Specific person as full All members
in the family / part time time job of the family
maintenance of
animals
16 Marketing Own use / vendor / Private Own use
co-operative

Culture
 Man has been defined as a cultural animal or an animal which is endowed with the
attribute of culture. This attribute we do not find in animals. This distinguishes man from his
closest biological kin –the apes. Culture has enable man to become the most extraordinary
successful animal.
Sociologists use the term ‘culture’ to refer the ‘ways of life’ of the people or of
groups within a society. This way of life is expressed in group’s norms, customs and values
and in the shared expression (history) along with language. This is also reflected in the dress
pattern, way of cooking and eating, birth, marriage and funeral customs, family life, patterns
of work, religious ceremonies, festivals, leisure pursuits and so many other things.
Thus the culture of a society is the totality of its shared beliefs, norms, values, rituals,
language, history, knowledge and social character. In brief, culture is the totality of learned
socially transmitted behavior. It encompasses all the human phenomena that are not the
products of biological inheritance.
Culture is the continually changing pattern of learned behaviour which are
shared by transmitted and among the members of a society. In short culture is social
heritage.
Sub-culture
All societies are composed of many groups and communities. The ways of living and
behaving peculiar to a large segment or a group of a society are known as sub culture.
Organisational structure of culture
Culture is not simply an accumulation of behavior patters and isolated elements. It has
a structure that has various interrelated units. The terms used to describe the organisation of
culture are culture trait, culture complex and cultural pattern.
Culture trait
The smallest unit of culture is called culture trait. These traits are material and
immaterial both. A dhoti, a saree are all material traits of Indian village society.non material
traits within the same culture would include pressing the palms together and bowing the head
culture.
Culture complex
A culture complex is a group or cluster of related cluster units. Bats, gloves, stumps
rules, play ground are the traits to form the culture complex of cricket games.
Culture pattern
 A culture pattern is a group of culture complexes, formed in the same way to form a
culture complex. It reflects the rural structure of the society. While comparing one society
with another, this culture pattern is used.
Cultural universals
Often, a comparison of one culture to another will reveal obvious differences. But all
cultures share common elements. Cultural universals are patterns or traits that are globally
common to all societies. One example of a cultural universal is the family unit: every human
society recognizes a family structure that regulates sexual reproduction and the care of
children

Elements of culture
Culture exists anywhere humans exist, and no two cultures are exactly the same. The
important elements of culture are symbols, language, values, beliefs, norms rituals and
artifacts. These elements look different across cultures, and many change with time as a
society evolves.
Symbols
Every culture is filled with symbols, or things that stand for something else and that
often evokes various reactions and emotions. People who share a culture often attach a
specific meaning to an object, gesture, sound, or image. For example, Indian flag represents
our entire country. A red light at a traffic intersection is used to relay the message that you
need to stop your vehicle.
Language
Language is a system of words and symbols used to communicate with other people.
This includes full languages as we usually think of them, such as English, Spanish, French,
etc. But, it also includes body language, slang, and common phrases that are unique to certain
groups of people.
Values
Another cultural element is a system of values, which are culturally defined standards
for what is good or desirable. Members of the culture use the shared system of values to
decide what is good and what is bad. Values help shape a society by suggesting what is good
and bad, beautiful and ugly, sought or avoided. Values also vary from culture to culture. For
example, cultures differ in their values about what kinds of physical closeness are appropriate
in public.
Beliefs
 Beliefs are the tenets or convictions that people hold to be true. Individuals in a
society have specific beliefs, but they also share collective values.
Norms
The visible and invisible rules of conduct through which societies are structured are
called as norms. Norms define how to behave in accordance with what a society has defined
as good, right, and important, and most members of the society adhere to them.
Rituals
Different cultures also have different rituals, or established procedures and
ceremonies that often mark transitions in the life course. As such, rituals both reflect and
transmit a culture’s norms and other elements from one generation to the next. Initiation and
commencement ceremonies in colleges and universities are familiar examples of time-
honored rituals. In many societies, rituals help signify one’s gender identity. For example,
girls around the world undergo various types of initiation ceremonies to mark their transition
to adulthood.
Artifacts
The last element of culture is the artifacts, or material objects, that constitute a
society’s material culture. In the simplest societies, artifacts are largely limited to a few tools,
the huts people live in, and the clothing they wear. One of the most important inventions in
the evolution of society was the wheel.

Cultural change
Cultural change refers to the changes in the norms. Norms are often divided into two
types, formal norms and informal norms.
Cultural change in society has two major aspects.
a. cultural change by discovery and invention and
b. cultural change by diffusion and barrowing.
The first comes from within a society and culture, the second from another culture
outside the society. Cultural change is basic to extension as through extension efforts we seek
to introduce changes in the behaviour of livestock farmers. There are soft and hard points of
culture. For example a person may change patterns of dress more readily than food habits.
Beliefs, values etc. are more difficult to change. Cultural change is a never ending process.

Cultural lag occurs when some parts of people culture do not change at the same rate
as do other parts. It means that one or more phases of culture move ahead, while other lag
behind. An example for cultural lag is where people have increased production through
adoption of new technologies, but has failed to create appropriate organizations to ensure
profitable processing and marketing. Non material aspects of culture generally take more
time to change.
Ethnocentrism: Ethnocentrism refers to the preferential feeling we have for the way
we do things in our culture. We presume that ours is the best of all cultures and the way we
do things is the right way to do them. This is common characteristic we find among the
people of all cultures.
 Social control

Human beings have to adhere to certain norms (folkways, mores, rules and
regulations of the group) to satisfy their wants (needs and desire) without any clash. The
society through these various means bring its recalcitrant or unruly members back into line.
These norms act as means of social control.
Social control refers to the social process, techniques and strategies by which
behaviours of individual or a group are regulated. It refers both to the use of force to regulate
the behaviour of the individual and groups and also refers to the enforcing of values and
patterns for maintaining order in society.
Thus social control is the pattern of influence the society exerts on individuals
and group to maintain order and establish rules in the society.
Social control may be positive or negative, i.e., consisting of rewards or punishment
and repressive measures respectively. Similarly, social control planned (deliberate) or
unplanned (incidental). If it is planned, it may be formal (organized) or informal
(unorganized).Social control helps in maintenance of desired social values i.e. conformity
which makes modification in the existing behaviour difficult and slow.
Social control may vary in degree. From birth to death man is surrounded by social
control of which he may even unaware. In modern times social control is mostly exercised
through an appeal to reason.The aim of social control is always the welfare of the society. So
we can’t ignore its importance in modern society.
Informal and unplanned (deliberate control)
Informal social control `as the term implies is used by the people casually. Norms are
enforced through the informal sanctions. These norms include folkways, customs, mores,
values, conventions, fashions and public opinion, etc. Ritual and ceremony also act as
instruments of social control. Method and techniques of informal control are numerous and
vary greatly from one situation to another. They are positive and negative both.
The techniques of informal control are typically employed within primary groups
such as families. Individuals learn such techniques early in their childhood socialization to
cultural norms-folkways, mores, values etc. other than family these methods and techniques
are also exercised by personal friends, colleagues and co-workers at the workplace.
Formal and planned (deliberate) control
In secondary groups and mass society where relations between individuals are
impersonal, the primary controls are not so effective. Control is exercised through some
agencies and formal institutions such as state, law, education, government, courts, police,
military, administrators, corporate managers’ and bureaucrats, etc. These are formal control
of licensing board, professional organizations and trade unions also. As against the informal
social controls, which grow out of necessities of the group or the society and which are the
outcome of spontaneous growth, the formal social controls are deliberately created and
imposed by man themselves.

Means or Agencies of social control

There are many means of social control. They work either severally or simultaneously
to maintain social order. Bottommore (1962) has enlisted them as the agencies of social
control. The means of social control may be grouped in to two classes:
i.insitutional, and
ii.non-institutional

Institutional means
Following are the institutional means of social control
1. political institutions - state, law and government
2. Religion
3. Marriage, home and family
4. Education
5. Social classes

Non-institutional means
Following are the non-institutional means of social control
1. Ideologies, legends and myth
2. Beliefs, ceremonies and rituals
3. Art and literature
4. Folkways, customs, mores and taboos
5. Leadership
6. Violence and terror
7. Social suggestions-conventions, traditions, symbols, fashion, craze, public opinion

Folkways are the informal rules of behavior based on habit and tradition, mostly
found in usages. Violations of folkways are not seriously taken by the society. Persons who
do not conform may be subject to criticism or to be considered strange, but would not
necessarily be punished.
Eg: Enter a home after removal of shoes in Indian villages, Greeting others with
folded hands
Mores are socially acceptable ways of behavior that do involve moral standards. They
are group shared understandings about what to do and what not to do in a situation.
Variations from such behavior are rarely permitted and only by special sanction of the
decision making body.
Laws generally grow out of mores. AS the society becomes larger and more complex,
codification of some of the mores tend to take place. These are given the shape of law for
strict adherence and compliance. Simply enactment of law is not enough. People are to be
educated and motivated to obey the law.
Eg. Enforcement of laws prohibiting casteism, child labour, dowry etc.
Taboo refers to anything (food, place, activity) which is prohibited and forbidden.
Generally the term ‘more’ is used for the positive action or things that ought to be done but
the term ‘taboo’ is used for the negative action and for the things that one ought not to
do.The observance of a taboo has the social sequence of binding a social group together
behind common rituals and sentiments. The taboo is a symbol of group membership.
Eg: Total abstinence (self denial) of eating beef in a Hindu village (eating beef in
Hindu religion) and eating pork in Muslim religion. Marriages within family among Hindus.
 Social stratification

Social stratification refers to the existence of structured inequalities between

groups in society, in terms of their access to material or symbolic rewards. The division
of a population in to unequal layers or strata based on any of the following: Wealth, income,
gender, ethnicity, power, status, age, religion, or some other characteristic. Thus stratification
can most simply be defined as structural inequalities between different groupings of
people.
Often social stratification is compared to the geological layering of rock in the earth’s
surface. Society can be seen as consisting of ‘strata’ in a hierarchy, with the more favoured at
the top and the less privileged near the bottom.Social stratification thus divides society into
various sections. Some individuals are ranked higher than others on the basis of opportunities
and privileges which they enjoy. It may therefore be seen that inequality of status is the
distinguishing feature of social stratification.
Status is very important element in the concept of social stratification. It involves
some special combination of social privileges. Therefore privileges determine the standard of
living and the way of life of the members of each class. The upper class is thus accorded a
high status.
Caste system and class system represent basic forms of social stratification.

Caste system
The term caste was derived from the Portuguese word ‘casta’ meaning lineage or race.
The Sanskrit word for caste is ‘varna’ which means colour. The Hindu Caste system of
India is a striking illustration of stratification on the basis of caste. The caste system is
unique to India and deeply involved in Indian social structure.
Characteristics
1. It is the most rigid and clearly graded type of social stratification.
2. An individual is born in to the caste of his parent and can rise no further. The
membership of the caste is unchangeable, unacquirable
3. Personal qualities or ability have no part in determining the caste of an individual,
with lineage being only the criterion.
4. Each caste has its own customs, traditions, practices and rituals. It has its own
informal rules, regulations which cannot be violated by its members
 5. The caste system puts restrictions on the range of social relations. Caste is an
endogamous group where an individual has to marry with in his or her group.
6. In traditional society, occupations were very much associated with caste. Each
caste has its own specific occupation. Occupations were hereditary.
Changes in the caste system
During the last four decades caste system has undergone modifications. The
factors responsible for bringing flexibility in caste system are
1. Impact of social reform movements
2. Education and influence of western ideas
3. Influence of industrialization ad decline of caste based occupation
4. Influence of modern transport and communication system.
5. Social legislation acts and introduction of democratic institutions like panchayat raj.
Class system
Sharply contrasted with the caste system, the open class system can be placed at the
opposite end of a continuum. A social class has been defined as an abstract category of
persons arranged in levels according to the social system they posses. There are no firm lines
dividing one category from another. Movement of groups and individuals to other strata is
possible. Social class is not a lineal or familial inheritance, hence can be acquired and
changed according to ones achievement and efforts.
Characteristics
1. A class system is essentially a status group. This status is achieved by ability not by
birth. The social status separates the individuals from other groups physically and
mentally.
2. Caste system is not universal but class system is universal in nature.
3. A social class is differentiated from other classes by life style or mode of living.viz.
kind of house, mode of dress, means of recreation, mode of conveyance and
communication etc.
4. Both status and prestige are enjoyed by the rich classes in every society.
5. Classes are secular in nature
6. They are not formed on religious dogmas and selection of spouse is according to likes
and dislikes of individual.
 Social Institutions

Social Institutions have been created by human beings from social relationships in
society to basic needs such as stability, law and order and clearly defined roles of authority
and decision making. Five major institutions in rural society – political, education,
economic, family and religion have emerged because of such needs.

Family
The family is the basic social institution from which other institutions- political,
educational, economic and religious have grown as increasing cultural complexity made
necessary. It is the most multifunctional of all institutions in the society and is a system of
organised relationships involving workable and dependable ways of meeting basic social
needs. It is the institution that links the individual to the larger social structure and thus
performs the mediating function in the large society. Specifically family fulfils the following
tasks in society.
 Reproduction and perpetuation of the family and human race.
 Socialization.
 Economic maintenance and livelihood.
 Provision of love, affection and security to the individual and
 Provision of status to the individual of the family into which he / she has been
born.
Within the basic institution of the family are secondary Institutions such as
engagement, marriage, courtship and relationship with the family into which marriage has
taken place. The family has tremendous influence on the individual, his / her behaviour and
their actions for it moulds them from infancy and has significant influence on the
development of one’s personality.
Religion
Human beings have sought answers to questions concerning the mysteries of nature,
why accidents and incidents happen and questions about his own creation, his relationship to
the supernatural, a satisfying philosophy of life and life after death. In his quest he has
developed certain beliefs about the supernatural and also ceremonies and rituals for
appeasement and propitiation of the supernatural. These rituals based on beliefs, convictions,
and the ceremonies, and symbols accompanying prescribed roles and prescribed patterns of
behaviour together constitute religion.
Most religions of the world have the following elements.
  A set of beliefs regarding the ultimate power in the universe.
 A set of beliefs regarding the ideal and proper pattern of behaviour.
 A set of ceremonial way of expressing these beliefs.
Each of the above elements will vary in form, in observance, in the response they
evoke from individuals and in influence according to the culture concerned-altogether, these
prescribe specific lines of action, attitude and values desirable under varying conditions
according to which man is expected to behave.
A further function of religion is to provide a means whereby man can face the crises
and unpredictable changes of fortunes of life with strength and courage. Secondary
institutions within the major institution religion include rituals, forms of worship and
organised groups for propagating religion.
Government
Also referred to as political institutions, government administers the regulatory
functions of law and order and maintains security in society. It provides the means for
regulating the behaviour of individuals within society in accordance with required norms and
protection from external aggression.
The other function of government is providing formal education, physical protection
for home and health fixation for price and other necessities. But in general the scope of
functions of government is unlimited. Within the major institution government are secondary
institutions such as legal systems, military systems, police forces and diplomatic relationship
with other counties.
Economy or maintenance
Every society must provide some organized way for satisfying those material wants
meet - food, shelter and clothing and health care – without which life could not be sustained.
A society’s economic system provides for the production and distribution of all the
necessities, comforts and luxuries the society uses. Eg: The economic institutions of
production are Agriculture, Industry and the distribution, exchange and consumption of
commodities, goods and services necessary for human survival. Secondary institutions
included within Economic institutions are credit and banking systems, advertising,
Cooperatives etc.,
Education
Educational institutions are those which seek to socialise individuals in society or
introduce them in formal ways into their social and cultural world. Every new generation
must be prepared and trained to play a role in society. This process, referred to as the process
of socialisation, commences informally at home and then formally in an institution of
education.
Education as an institution in various parts of the world seeks to fulfil its functions of
transmission of cultural heritage, social integration of society by moulding the individual to
conform to norms, socialisation and personal development in various forms and in various
ways that are socially acceptable and culturally defined.
This major institution is of tremendous influence on the behaviour of rural people,
their interrelationship and the moulding of behaviour of people, their inter relationships and
moulding individuals as well as groups behaviour and personality of both.
Functions and structural elements

Institution Function Major roles Physical Symbolic

traits traits
Family Basic Social Institution Father, Mother, House, Wedding
providing for procreation, Child Furnishings ring, Will
upbringing and
socialization of the
children.
It provides for security,
love and affection to the
family members.
Economy Economic Institutions Employer, Factory, Merit,
provides basic physical Employee, Office, Store, Award,
needs for food, shelter, producer, godown Emblem
clothing and other consumer Trademark
necessary supply and
services. It
includes agriculture,
Industry, marketing,
credit and banking
system, cooperatives.
Political Political Institutions Administrators, Public Flags,
administers the regulatory Policy makers. Buildings, codes,
functions of law and Public work charters
order, and maintains
security in the society.
Religion Promoting cooperative Religious Temple , Bible,
attitudes, faith, hope, leaders Church, Bhagavat
charity. Religion provides Mosque Gita, Quran
a means by which
individual can face crises
and ups and downs in life
 with strengths and
fortitudes.
Education Educational Institutions Teacher, School, Degrees,
brings the Socialization. Student college, books Diploma
It helps to develop
knowledge, skill attitude
and understanding of the
people.
 Social groups
Society functions through different forms of human beings to fulfill needs and
purposes. Man functions in society through different forms of groups. Man is born is a social
group and his first association is with his mother. He associates with groups in some way or
other. Individual nowhere lives in isolation. This tendency to unite in groups is one of the
important characteristics of human beings.
Social groups are the units out of which society is constructed. Study of group is of
primary important in the study of society and also important as a part of the total structure of
society. Group is a medium through which we learn culture. The process of socialization
takes place in groups

Definitions of Group:

According to Chitambar a social group is a unit of two or more people in reciprocal (to and
fro) interaction and in communication with each other

Types of social groups

Types or classification of Social Groups: There are several classifications of Social groups,
depending mostly upon the chief interest or focus of attention in terms of which social groups
are classified.

Type of group/s Based on

1 Primary and Secondary groups : The type of relationship

2 Formal and Informal groups : Mode of organization and functioning
3 Voluntary and involuntary groups : Structure and type of membership
4 Horizontal and vertical groups : Social class
5 In and out groups : Personal feelings
6 Locality groups : Territory or locality
7 Small and large groups : Size
8 Delegate and reference group :

Primary and secondary group

 Primary groups are characterized by intimate face to face interaction, informal
personal relationships and a definite “we feeling” on the part of the member. Primary
groups have a sort of permanency, are small in size and have the responsibility to
socialize the individuals. Ex. Family.
 Secondary groups are characterized by formal, contractual, utilitarian and goal
oriented relationships. Secondary groups are large in size, have little face to face
 communication and maintain a more or less anonymous relationship. Ex. Political
party, cooperative society, club etc.
Formal and informal groups
 Formal groups are organised, have a membership roll, definite roles, rules or
procedures of operation and rigidity enforced behaviour of it’s members. Ex.
Panchayats, registered societies etc.
 Informal groups are not formally organised, and rules and procedures are no rigidly
enforced. Ex.. Friendship groups, play groups etc.
In group and out group
 Also referred as we group
 In group is one to which the persons feel they belong and with which they identify
themselves strongly. Matters of vital interest to the group are confined with the group.
 Out group is one with which other individuals cannot identify themselves. The
individuals feel themselves as outsiders to the group and the group also has a similar
reciprocal feeling towards the individuals. Matters of vital interest are not shared with
the out group members.
Involuntary and voluntary group
 Involuntary group is one, for the membership of which, an individual does not have
any choice or is not required to put any effort. Ex. Membership by birth or residence
such as family, neighbourhood, community etc.
 Voluntary group is one for the membership of which one has to have some
deliberate choice or put in some conscious effort. Ex. Co operative society, youth
clubs etc.,
Delegate and reference group
 Delegate groups: Members representative of and chosen by groups. Ex. United
Nations, federations.
 Reference group: An individual feels identified and may refer to in taking decision
and action.
 Leadership
Within the power structure of every society certain vital, integral individuals operate
within groups to promote, stimulate, guide or otherwise influence members to action. Such
activity has been called as leadership and the individuals have been referred as leaders.
The greek root of the term leader is associated with verbs ‘archein’ meaning to begin,
lead and rule and ‘pratein’ meaning to pass through, achieve and finish. This means that
leader is one who begins and work is finished by the followers.
Leadership is the process of influencing people to direct their efforts towards the
attainment of particular goal(s).
Leadership is a group phenomenon. Relative strength of the attraction or
interpersonal relationship of the members of a group determines leadership. The success of a
leader depends upon his ability to work with people and to get things done through people.
This involves the use of effective communication skills. To be effective, the leader
must have the ability to convey meanings to his people. Leaders must be both efficient and
effective. Efficiency is the ability to do things right whereas effectiveness is the ability to do
the right things. When leaders deal with efficiency they generally communicate in terms of
objectives such as cost, productivity and worker turn over. When they deal with
effectiveness, they often communicate in terms of demand, growth rate, return on investment
and other criteria that can be used in comparing the agencies performance with that of the
expected targets to be achieved. Successful leaders are interested in both efficiency and
effectiveness.
Functions of leader in a Group:

Groups are dependent on leaders. A leader is not only a member of group and also
is the focal point of activity of his group. He plays an important role in group's activity.
The important functions of the leader are as follows:
1. Group initiator: the most important role of leader is that he should take initiative to get
the group in to action
2. Group spokesman: if the group is to have outside relations it must be able to speak as a
unit and leader is its voice. Leader has the responsibility of speaking for the group and
representing the interests of the group
3. Group harmonizer: in all groups uniformities and differences are formed. A leader should
be able to resolve differences peacefully. The role of the group harmonizer is to promote
harmony in the group in line with basic purpose of the group
4. Group planner: generally it is assumed that the person chosen for leadership know a little
bit more about the problems which the group is facing and the possible solutions. So the
leader has to plan the way by which the group can satisfy its needs. The leader has to plan for
the group and with the group
5. Group executive: the leader is one who takes important role in conducting business of the
group and he is responsible for seeing that the business of the organization is carried on
according to democratic principles. It is the job of the leader that individuals of group accept
responsibility of their part of activities in any plan of action adopted by the group
6. Group educator or teacher: in most of the groups the leader will have more training and
experience. So the leader can teach according to the level of understanding of the members of
the group so that they can understand his views. In this capacity his chief function is to
develop and train other leaders so that group is not dependent completely on him
7. Group symbol or symbol of group ideas: all social groups have implicit (internal) or
explicit (external) norms or ideals. As a rule persons accepted as leaders are those who have
adopted these norms or ideals and live by them. The leader must make the members feel that
they need ideals and depend upon them for accomplishing what they desire to do, the leader
should be not be self interested
8. Group supervisor: the leader also acts as supervisor. A good leader supervises the work
of his peers and subordinates. Professional leaders such as Extension Officers, in addition to
serving as leaders of social groups also devote a portion of their time to working with lay
leaders and group organizations like youth clubs, cooperatives etc.

Types of rural leaders

i) Traditional leaders
- Emerge out of tradition and stick to tradition.
- Static type and do not accept change.
- Have vested interests.
Eg. Tribal chiefs
(ii) Caste leaders
- Followers belong to the same caste as that of leaders.
- Provide leadership in matters related to caste.
(iii) Religious leaders
- Become leader by preaching religious doctrines or performing religious acts or rituals.
- Advise followers on religious matters.
(iv) Political leaders
- Arise out of the political system.
(v) Functional leaders
- Recognized because of their specialized knowledge and function in the society.
Eg. Professionals like teachers, doctors etc.,
(vi) Opinion leaders
- These are the people to whom other people go for opinion or advice on certain issues.
- Also act as legitimizes and influence decision making of the followers.

IDENTIFICATION OF LOCAL LEADERS

Local leader (Lay leader / informal leader / prominent leader / opinion leader / natural leader /
key communicator) can be selected by following methods

Sociogram

This method is very useful to the extension worker in finding out the ‘local-informal’ leader
in the villages, who are the influential persons that help in the introduction and popularization
of new improved practices in their communities. An extension worker goes into a given area
and asks the farmers to indicate whom they ordinarily consult for advice on say dairy
farming. Usually, after a few interviews it becomes clear which farmer is the influential
person or natural leader.
Some other methods are

 Group observer method.

 Discussion method.
 Election method.
 Workshop method.
 Key informant technique.
 Self-designating technique.

Working with local leader

The extension worker should ensure that the trained persons are actually used for augmenting
extension work. For this purpose there should be regular follow up by the extension worker
by way of frequent contacts in person as well as by correspondence with the trained-leader.
Local leaders are not only to adopt improved practices in their own farm and home but also
they should consciously try to influence others to adopt the practices.The extension worker’s
own relationship with local leaders will be more important and he should always try to be
available to support and encourage their work. There are four main aspects of working with
local leaders, which the agent should keep in mind.

1. Inform the local leader(s) about his extension activities.

2. Visit the places of extension work.
3. Train the local leader as they need.
4. Encourage them to adopt new practices.
 Key communicators and their role in the animal husbandry extension

Key communicators or opinion leaders are persons in any social system who are
sought out for information and advice on general or specific topics. It is assumed that such
persons are respected persons in each social system to whom some people look for advice
and information and who through such consultations, influence their behaviour and actions.
Use of Key communicators
A good veterinary extension agent must always try to get the support of the key
communicator in his extension work. In any extension organization there will be a small
number of professional extension agents compared to the huge number of livestock owners to
be reached. It is not possible for the extension agent to contact each and every livestock
owner in his area of operation. This can be solved by engaging and encouraging the key
communicator in planning and implementing the extension programmes.

The Key communicators serve the following purposes:

1. Assume responsibility for certain activities in the absence of extension agent.
2. Help to organize local extension agents by mobilization of rural mass
3. Assist directly in the spread of new ideas and practices by demonstrating
them in their fields. The rate of social change will be rapid.
4. Serve as point of contact between the extension agent and the livestock farmers and
thus bridging gap between extension agent and the livestock farmers.
5. Working with key communicators also builds closer ties with local farmers, and
encourages livestock farmers confidence in the extension service
6. Information will reach large number of people in short period with less expenditure.
7. Proper selection of beneficiaries of development programmes.
 Social change
The concept of social change was introduced by August Comte. Later on, the concept
of social change was further refined and developed by Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx and a
number of other sociologists.
Social change occurs in all societies, slow, perhaps, in primitive and folk societies and
rapid in complex modern societies. Gradual or slow, or rapid and spectacular, social change
does occur irrespective of the type or location of human society in the world, for change in
the society is inevitable. The reason is that the factors which cause social change do not
remain uniform always. The population changes, expansion of science and technology,
ideologies and social values take on new forms, and as a result of that social structure, social
system, and social institutions change their functioning. The process of industrialization and
urbanization has changed the whole set of social relationships. It is quite visible that the
contemporary world is not changing uniformly and is also manifesting complexities in social
change.
Social change involves a change in the structure and function of societal forms.
Social change may be defined as the process in which is apparent significant alteration
in the structure and functioning of a particular social system.
Slow and simple forms of social change may intersect with quick and intricate forms
of social change. Migration of illiterate persons from remote rural areas to metropolitan cities
will effect the institutions of family life in it; add to stress and strain of daily living due to fast
pace of city life and new social values required for industrial and urban living.
Importance of Social Change

 Sociologist and anthropologists during the end of 19 th century were involved in

research pertaining to the formation of society from their original primitive form.
 The formation of colonialism in 17th and 18th century followed by democratic
institutions, industrialisation and emergence of democratic institutions in the 19 th
century made the sociologist to work on the onset of these changes.
 The First World War which took place in Europe, the tremendous communist
revolution in Russia, the Second World War (1939 - 1945) and the formation of new
states like India in 1947 saw the emergence of newer problems of social change and
development.
  Many colonies have become independent states and have accepted modern economic
organisations by industrialisation, so as to increase their standard of living. These
changes have included sociologist to engage in the study of social change.
 In India the task of changing from agriculture to industrial society, from colonial to
republican society and a society based on caste and class to a society which aims to be
casteless and classless with equal opportunity is looked upon. Hence it is necessary to
study how the transformation and analyse the nature of resistance, slowing down the
process of transformation.

Factors of Social Change

All societies are characterized both by continuity and change. Continuity is
maintained by social controls, particularly by the methods, which transmit the accumulated
social heritage to the new organisation. Eg:- Methods in child rearing, education etc., Many
factors influence social change. Each of these factors are discussed for the purpose of
understanding. However it must be made clear that each of these factor cannot influence
social change independently to other factors.
The following seven are the factors influencing the social change:
1. The demographic factor
2. Technological factor
3. The economic factor
4. The cultural factor
5. Legislation as a factor of social change
6. Planning as a factor of social change
7. Education as a factor of social change
Demographic factor
The change in the size and the composition of the population is an important factor
leading to social change. The expanding population brings about many changes in the
nation's economy. It is in a position to produce more, consume more and also engage in better
trade. Similarly as the composition of population changes rapidly social changes are likely to
occur. Eg:- Population of minority community increases compared to majority. Advances in
science and technology, indirectly boost world population by delaying death. Population
growth appears to pass through a series of three stages
 1. There is a period of high birth rate and high death rate leading to small increase in
population. This was characteristics of all parts of the world in the middle of 19th
century.
2. High birth rate with low death rate leading to population explosion. Characteristic
feature in all countries especially Europe and Asia.
3. Low birth rate and low death rate leading to population stabilization characteristic of
the existing nature in European and US.
The demographic trend accelerated the economic growth, increased industrial production;
however there has been no decrease in poverty. In other words the increase in population
trend has served as an inhibiting factor and has preserved social change in the country. Hence
small family norms have been advanced in all sections of the society. Also the value of late
marriage, which help to complete their education and training and earn enough to provide
reasonable standards of comfort, education etc., to their children. Thus in order to bring about
social change towards increased productivity and improvement in standard of living, family
limitation programmes is to be followed in a deliberate manner.
Technological factor
Many social thinkers have felt that technological invention is the primary factor in
explaining social and cultural change. The invention of wheel, the pot, the compass, the
printing press, the steam engine, the telephone, the motor car, radio, aeroplane, atom bomb,
computers etc., have brought many changes in the society. Similarly uses of new fuels like
gas and electricity have reduced the toiling of woman in the kitchen. Also technological
developments have brought about many changes in attitudes, beliefs and even in tradition.
The establishments of industry, railway, bus services, restaurant etc., have brought about
change with respect to caste and class behaviour. People of various caste works side by side
in the modern working atmosphere.
Technology has brought about mass production leading to lowering of costs. In the
field of agricultural technology there have been immense changes in the last 50 years. The
total food grains production in India itself has made spectacular advance in the last 50 years.
There is a significant change in social life to that of transportation and communication. There
has been a higher standard of living too due to advanced technology usage by common man.
However a rational outlook and an objective outlook are necessary for technological advance.
Economic factor
 The economic interpretation of social change is closely associated with Karl Marx. He
envisages that finding a classless society has to emerge in which no one owns anything and
everyone owns everything. In other words it is total abolition of the institution of poverty.
 For analytical purpose, we can distinguish five types of economy:
 Tribal economy: Over 20 million tribal people live in three broad regions of
our country.
 The peasant economy: Nearly 80 per cent of people live in villages.
Agriculture is the main stay of the rural economy and so the entire economic
and social structure revolves round it.
 The pre-industrial urban economy
 Industrial economy
 Corporate economy
Thus Indian economy should overcome poverty and have a balanced co-existence of all the
types of economy, with increased production, which would increase employment particularly
in the rural area.
Cultural factors
The main cause of social change is the cultural factors. Contacts with other cultures
bring about change such as assimilation, borrowing from other cultures, combining of
cultural factors into new forms - all of this interplay in the process of social change. The
changes in the conditions of life have also influence changes in values, attitudes, beliefs and
habits. An individual's status today is not determined by birth, the principle determinant of
status today is the possession of wealth and of power.
Legislation as a factor of social change
The function of law is to influence the groups and persons belonging to a society to confirm
to the group expectation. In olden days the king administered Dharmasatras. Law is an
instrument of social change.
 Example:
 Untouchability Act, 1955.
 Prohibition against alcohol.
 Sati or bury of widow on the funeral of the husband.
 Female infanticide prevention act, 1870.
Planning as a factor of social change
Planning involves deliberate thinking, deliberate action and evaluation to assess the
extent of changes in the society. Hence for effective planning we should understand the
present and in its relationship to the past and future trends. The five - year plans is bring
about economic development, which would distribute social change. For plans to be
successful peoples co-operation and basic needs has to be met with.
Education as a factor of social change
The aim of education is to transmit the knowledge, skill and attitude inherited from
the past. There is an urgent need to make the population total literate, making primary
education compulsory. Education also develops a favourable and receptive attitude towards
social change. The focus is on improvement on the social and personal living. It includes
teaching about health education, agriculture and other cottage industries for school dropout,
students, parents etc. Education is expected to bring about break-through.

References

Chitambar, JB (1990) Introduction to Rural Sociology. Wiley Eastern Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.
Dahama OP and Bhatnagar, OP (1987) Education and Communication for Development.
Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi.

Desai, AR (1978) Rural Sociology in India. Popular Prakashan, Bombay.

Ray, GL (2003) Extension Communication and Management. Kalyani Publishers. New
Delhi.
Rawat.H.K. Contemporary sociology. Rawat publications. Jaipur.

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