SURFACE FORCES THAT SHAPE THE EARTH

Concept of weathering

-Is the wearing away of rocks and soil by the action of the weather. Weathering affects the
shape and composition of rocks and soil. AGENTS OF WEATHERING: temperature & water

Physical weathering

-physical forces such as frost or temperature changes that break up rocks

FREEZE THAW ACTION- happens when water collects in cracks in rocks. When water freezes
it expands. Ice volume is about 9% larger than the same volume of water. Ice has higher volume
and pressure.

Over millions of years, freezing thawing can wear away huge areas of mountains.

EXFOLIATION- in dry areas. Big temperature jumps cause the outer layer to expand in the heat
and contract in cooler nights. The constant expansion and contracting weaken the outer layers
of rocks; large pieces can peel off the outer layer.

Chemical weathering
- chemical changes that weaken rocks/change the chemical composition of rocks

CARBONATION- rain contains CO2 that has dissolved in droplets of water turning rain into a
weak acid. CARBONIC ACID.
When the acidic water comes into contact with rocks that contain calcium carbonate such as
LIMESTONE, a chemical reaction starts.

The rain changes insoluble calcium carbonate into the soluble calcium bicarbonate.
It dissolves in rainwater and is washed away, this process is called carbonation. In cold
climates, rainwater dissolves more CO2 from the air. Carbonic acids from cold climates are
stronger in the warm environment. It causes rapid carbonation, in cold climates. It dissolves the
calcium carbonate, collapsing things.

OXIDATION
 - This happens to objects containing metal
- Rust
- Water forms iron oxide
- Changes in the chemical structure, make it weaker and easier to break

HYDROLYSIS

- It involves water, minerals called silicates

- Sandstone and granite
- Absorb water and turn it into clay
- Clays are soluble and easily washed out of rocs
- The rock becomes unstable and may crumble

Biological weathering
- the action of plants and animals which weaken the soul and expose rocks to other weathering
-as roots grow, they put pressure on the solid material and expand and break.
- Lichens (algae and fungi) penetrate in between grains of rocks, loosening the grains which fall
away
-Lichens produce an acid that breaks down minerals in rocks. One centimetre in 100 years,

Difference between weathering, erosion, and deposition

-They create natural resources. Weathering and erosion wear away the Earth’s surface.
Deposition builds up the Earth’s surface with some material produced by weathering and
erosion.

WEATHERING
-breaking down of rocks and soil by the action of weather.
- frost shattering
-exfoliation
-carbonation
-oxidation
-biological

EROSION
-movement of rock from broken rock
-ice erosion
-river erosion
-wind erosion

DEPOSITION
-dropping of sediment in a new place
- dunes
-beaches

RIVERS

Waterfalls-sudden drop in gradient

Gorges and canyons- deep-sided valleys formed by downward river erosion
Desertification: Land becoming desert-like.

Interlocking spurs: Alternating ridges in a river valley.

Ecosystem: Community of living and non-living things interacting.

Longshore drift: Movement of sand along the coast.

Delta: Landform where a river meets a sea or lake.

Deforestation: Cutting down forests.

Gradient: Slope or steepness.

Soil erosion: Loss of topsoil by wind or water.

Abrasion: Wearing down by friction.

Flood plain: Flat area around a river prone to flooding.

Carrying capacity: Maximum population an area can support.

Carbon footprint: Total greenhouse gases emitted by a person or group.

Land reclamation: Creating new land from water bodies.

Natural resources: Materials from nature used by humans.

Depletion: Using up resources.

Meanders -formed by both deposition and erosion. Flows faster on the outside bend. Erosion.
Deposition takes place inside the bend where the river flows slowly
Ox-bow lakes- erosion continues, it pushes the bend of the meander downstream. Narrows the
gap and forms the meander neck. A deposition will cut off the original meander, leaving the lake.

Levees and deltas- natural mounds on river banks, it is formed when a river floods and deposits
sand and slit on the river bank. Deltas form at the place where a river flows into the sea or lake.
Loses its energy when it meets another mass of water. Deposits the remainder of the load. The
river channel may be blocked by the river’s slit. As more sit is deposited, the delta grows
outwards, forming a D-shaped area.

Features of erosion associated with wave action

-oceans release a large amount of energy when they wash against the land. Waves
continuously erode the coast. Erosion is much greater when waves are larger.

HEADLANDS AND BAYS

-headlands are pieces of land that stick out at sea. Bays are curved areas in between
headlands.

CLIFFS
-steep wall of rock that is formed by wave erosion. Waves erode the base of the rocks on the
coast, causing the rocks above to collapse. The old base of the cliff remains as a rocky area
called a wave-cut platform

Caves, arches, and stacks:

Caves: Formed when waves erode weaknesses in coastal rock.

Arches: Created when a cave breaks through a headland.
Stacks: Isolated rock columns formed when an arch collapses.
Beaches:

Composed of sand, pebbles, or shingle.

Formed by the deposition of sediments along the shoreline.
Shaped by wave and tidal action.
Spits:

Narrow landforms that extend from the coast into the sea.
Formed by the deposition of sediments carried by longshore drift.
Often curved due to changes in wind and wave direction.

Bars
From when a spit grows across a bay and joins two headlands. A lagoon forms behind it.
Glacier- a mass of ice that moves slowly downhill
Abrasion-wearing away by friction-grinding and rubbing
An arete is a ridge on a mountain, which has been eroded by a series of glaciers on both sides.
Pointed-horn.
U-shaped: The glacier scours out and widens the normal V shape at the valley to a U

Human contributions to soil erosion through agriculture, construction, and mining

Soil erosion- a process of soil being removed from land

Agriculture- growing crops on the land or raising animals
Deforestation- removing trees from land

HOW AGRICULTURE CONTRIBUTES

-removing natural vegetation and ploughing the land weakens the soil making it more easily
washed or blown away. Animals break up the soil with their feet.

HOW CONSTRUCTION CONTRIBUTES

-Road building and construction require large areas of vegetation to be cleared, and the soil is
exposed to erosion.

MINING

-surface mining (open-cast) exposes the rocks for mining by removing all the vegetation and soil
from above the rocks.

Monoculture- growing one kind of crop in a field

Crop rotation- growing different crops in a sequence that benefits the soil.

Using machines: Farmers use the FFG kinds- ploughs, seed planters, crop sprayers, harvests
and weed machines. When farmers plough the land, they break up and loosen the soil. They
also create long channels called furrows. Water can wash down the soil furrows & deposit it at
the base of the slope.

Animals: Some farmers keep too many animals on their land. This is called overstocking. This
leads to over-grazing large areas of soil being exposed to erosion.Over-grazing is when
animals eat too much vegetation, damaging the land and preventing plants from growing back.

TERM 4

Resource use and sustainability

-Natural resources provide people with needs
Renewable resources are resources that can be easily replaced/ reusable and never run out
Non-renewable resources are resources that take millions of years to be replaced by the earth,
they cannot be used again.
Fossil fuels are fuels that contain carbon, deposited in Earth in the form of ancient remains of
decayed plants or animals.

Effects of the unwise use of resources

1. Causing soil erosion by using farming methods

2. Polluting resources such as water and air, with chemicals from farms, mines etc
3. Wasting resources
4. Not planting young trees to replace the trees that have been cut down
5. Using machinery that wastes resources or uses them inefficiently
6. Not controlling the rate at which resources are used

Overfishing the oceans

- Taking more fish than nature can replace. Reduces supply of the fish.

Causes:

- Modern fishing methods and fishing technology mean that it is easier to catch. Larger
fleets, factory ships, huge nets etc
- The population of the Earth doubled and there is a higher demand.
- There is a lack of international laws to control the quantity of fish

Effects:

- Over-fishing reduces the amount of food available

- Affects animals and plants that live in the sea
- A reduction in fish supply leads to unemployment and increased poverty.

Over-grazing

- Plants do not have enough time to grow

- Bare patches of soil appear
- Weeds and alien plants
- Soil is eroded by wind and water
- Dans fill up with soul
- Animals don't get enough
- Animals are less healthy
- Weak animals have fewer offspring
 - Produce less milk
- Young animals need more grass for milk

Concepts of sustainable and unsustainable resource use

Sustainable- able to be used at the same rate for a long time without threatening the
supply.

Unsustainable- cannot be used at the present rate without being lost or damaged

EVIDENCE
- Soil erosion and desertification
- Deforestation
- Reduction of mineral resources
- Extinction of plant and animal species
- Water and air pollution

WAYS RESOURCES MAY BE USED SUSTAINABLY

1. Making compost from kitchen waste

2. Recycling
3. Collecting
4. Putting insulation in the roof
5. Using low-energy things
6. Using less water
7. Making biogas from waste
8. Using fuel-efficient transport
9. Using solar power for electricity
10. Growing food

SUSTAINABLE FISHING

- Fishing the right amount without damaging the ecosystems etc.

ESTABLISHING QUOTAS AND LAWS

- Quotas ( maximum quantity) are calculated on sustainability levels. Once that quota of a
fish is reached, you cannot fish that fish again.

MARINE PROTECTED AREAS

- Provide a safe place for fish stocks to breed and grow

- Protect important habitats from damage
- Increase in size of fish catches in surrounding fishing areas.
-modern fishing techniques catch unwanted and unsafe fish
-set international standards for the mesh sizes of nets
-make certain kinds of nets illegal
-Prohibit all destructive fishing methods

-education and awareness of the need for sustainable fishing can help people to become
involved in helping fish to become sustainable.

SASSI ( South African Sustainable Seafood Initiative) published a list of endangered fish to
inform consumers about what fish they can catch and what they can’t.

SUSTAINABLE LAND USE FOR GRAZING

Rotational grazing- limits the time animals spend on one piece of land
Strip grazing- movable electric fences that restrict animals to one part of the land.
Providing fodder-provide animals with food like dry grass and silage crops like clover that have
been stored in summer

The role of individuals, businesses and governments choosing more sustainable

resources such as reducing pressure on resources, lowering the carbon footprint

- Consumers should opt for more eco-friendly products

- The government should use renewable sources
- Lower the impact you have by choosing things that don’t release carbon dioxide or
harmful gas emissions etc…

Food security means that everybody in a society has permanent access to sufficient, safe,
nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life.
- Food availability requires enough food to always being available
- Food access is about people being able to afford to buy food, or being able to obtain
appropriate foods
- Appropriate knowledge about preparing balanced meals

Food insecurity
- Are undernourished as a result of the physical unavailability
- Cannot access adequate food due to social or economic reasons

Local: Schools teaching how to grow food

Regional: Women
Global: Levels of development

Sustainable farming
Appropriate technology- simple, inexpensive technology that does not replace people

Crop rotation: Growing different crops in succession in the same field

Maintains soil fertility and controls pests
Breaks the reproductive cycle of pests because every year the food supply for certain pests is
removed

Soil management: Natural soil quality can be increased in several ways without using artificial
fertilizers
Covering newly planted soil with dry grass or leaves prevents water loss through evaporation.
Compost and animal manure on the fields improves soil quality and reduces the need for fake
fertilizers

Natural pest predators: a farm is a ecosystem

Sustainable farmers look for ways to support natural pest control, by creating habitats for the
right predators.