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Mahima Ranjan Adhikari

Basic
Topology 3
Algebraic Topology and Topology
of Fiber Bundles
Basic Topology 3
Professor Mahima Ranjan Adhikari (1944–2021)
Mahima Ranjan Adhikari

Basic Topology 3
Algebraic Topology and Topology of Fiber
Bundles
Mahima Ranjan Adhikari
Institute for Mathematics, Bioinformatics,
Information Technology and Computer
Science (IMBIC)
Kolkata, West Bengal, India

ISBN 978-981-16-6549-3 ISBN 978-981-16-6550-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6550-9

Mathematics Subject Classification: 55-XX, 22-XX, 14F35, 14Fxx, 18F15

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
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The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
 Dedicated to
Prof. B. Eckmann and Prof. P. J. Hilton
for their fruitful interaction with them
during my academic visit to
ETH, Zurich, Switzerland
in 2003
Preface

Algebraic topology is an important branch of topology that utilizes algebraic tools to

study topological problems. The main aim of algebraic topology is to construct alge-
braic invariants on topological spaces to convert topological problems into algebraic
problems to have a better chance of a solution. For example, the algebraic invariants
stem from homotopy theory are the homotopy groups π n (X, x 0 ) of a pointed topolog-
ical space (X, x 0 ) for n ≥ 1. The other basic algebraic invariants are homology and
cohomology groups of a space. Their constructions are much more complicated than
those of homotopy groups. Fortunately, computations of homology and cohomology
groups are easier than those of homotopy groups. In algebraic topology, algebraic
invariants classify topological spaces up to homeomorphism. It is found that this clas-
sification is usually in most cases up to homotopy equivalence. It tries to measure
degrees of connectivity using homology, cohomology and homotopy groups.
Several approaches have been used in topology to associate a topological space
with a number of algebraic objects, for instance, groups, rings, etc. The basic idea
of algebraic topology is the correspondence (or functor) associating a collection
of certain algebraic objects to a collection of topological spaces and continuous
mappings of spaces to corresponding homomorphisms. This functorial approach
allows us to transform topological problem into the corresponding algebraic one. The
solvability of this ‘derived’ algebraic problem in many cases implies the solvability
of the initial topological problems.
The contents of Volume 3 are expanded into seven chapters and discuss geometric
topology and manifolds by using algebraic topology.
Chapter 1 provides a background on algebra, topology and Lie groups to facilitate
a smooth study of this volume.
Chapter 2 officially inaugurates a study of algebraic topology by conveying the
basic concepts of homotopy and fundamental groups born through the work of H.
Poincaré in his land-marking Analysis situs, Paris, 1895, and also discusses higher
homotopy groups constructed in 1935 by H. Hurewicz (1904–1956) in his paper
(Hurewicz, 1935), which are natural generalizations of fundamental groups. Homo-
topy theory studies those properties of topological spaces and continuous maps
which are invariants under homotopic maps, called homotopy invariants. Finally,

vii
viii Preface

this chapter presents some interesting applications of homotopy, fundamental and

higher homotopy groups in analysis, geometry, algebra, matrix theory, atmospheric
science, vector field and extension problems and some others.
Chapter 3 conveys the basic concepts of homology theory starting from its inven-
tion by Heny H. Poincaré (1854–1912) in 1895 to the approach formulating axiomati-
zation of homology, announced in 1952 by S. Eilenberg (1915–1998) and N. Steenrod
(1910–1971), now known as Eilenberg and Steenrod axioms. This approach simpli-
fies the proofs of many results by escaping avoidable difficulties to promote active
learning in homology and cohomology theories, which is the most important contri-
bution to algebraic topology after the invention homotopy and homology by Poincaré
in 1895. This functorial approach facilitates in variety of cases to solve topological
problems through the solvability of corresponding algebraic problems. The motiva-
tion of the study of algebraic topology comes from the study of geometric properties
of topological spaces from the algebraic viewpoint.
Chapter 4 discusses the topology of fiber bundles starting with general theory of
bundles and continues its study to Chap. 5. The topology of fiber bundles has created
general interest and promises for more work because it is involved of interesting
applications of topology to other areas such as algebraic topology, geometry, physics
and gauge groups. The theory of fiber bundles was first recognized during the period
1935–1940 through the work of H. Whitney (1907–1989), H. Hopf (1894–1971) and
E. Stiefel (1909–1978), J. Feldbau (1914–1945) and some others. A fiber bundle is
a bundle with an additional structure derived from the action of a topological group
on the fibers. A fiber bundle is a locally trivial fibration having covering homotopy
property.
Chapter 5 continues the study topology of fiber bundles from the viewpoint of
homotopy theory. Covering spaces provide tools to study the fundamental groups.
Fiber bundles provide likewise tools to study higher homotopy groups (which are
generalizations of fundamental groups). The notion of fiber spaces is the most fruitful
generalization of covering spaces. The importance of fiber spaces was realized during
1935–1950 to solve several problems relating to homotopy and homology.
Chapter 6 studies geometric topology primarily, which studies manifolds and
their embeddings in other manifolds. A particularly active area is low-dimensional
topology, which studies manifolds of four or fewer dimensions. This includes knot
theory, the study of mathematical knots. It proves more theorems and conveys further
applications of topological concepts and results discussed in earlier chapters with a
view to understand the beauty, power and scope of the subject topology. Moreover,
it provides alternative proofs of some results proved in the previous chapters such as
Brouwer–Poincaré theorem, Van Kampen theorem and Borsuk–Ulam theorem for
any finite dimension. It proves Ham Sandwich theorem and Lusternik–Schnirelmann
theorem.
Chapter 7 conveys the history of emergence of the concepts leading to the
development of algebraic topology as a subject with their motivations.
The list of chapters shows that the book covers a wide range of topics. Some are
more technical than others, but the reader without a great deal of technical knowl-
edge should still find most of the text accessible. Avoiding readymade proofs of
Preface ix

some theorems, their statements have appeared in this book in the form of problems
providing an opportunity for exploration of the topics of the book along with some-
what diverging from the basic thrust of the book, since solving problems plays a key
role in the study of mathematics.
The book is a clear exposition of the basic ideas of topology and conveys a
straightforward discussion of the basic topics of topology and avoids unnecessary
definitions and terminologies. Each chapter starts with highlighting the main results
of the chapter with motivation and is split into several sections which discuss related
topics with some degree of thoroughness and ends with exercises of varying degrees
of difficulties, which not only impart an additional information about the text covered
previously but also introduce a variety of ideas not treated in the earlier texts with
certain references to the interested readers for more study. All these constitute the
basic organizational units of the book.
The present book, together with the authors’ two other Springer books, Basic
Modern Algebra with Applications (M. R. Adhikari and Avishek Adhikari) and Basic
Algebraic Topology and its Applications (M. R. Adhikari), will form a unitary module
for the study of modern algebra, general and algebraic topology with applications in
several areas.
The author acknowledges Higher Education Department of the Government of
West Bengal for sanctioning the financial support to the Institute for Mathematics,
Bioinformatics and Computer Science (IMBIC), toward writing this book vide order
no. 432(Sanc)/EH/P/SE/SE/1G-17/07 dated August 29, 2017, and also to IMBIC,
the University of Calcutta, Presidency University, Kolkata, India, and Moulana Abul
Kalam Azad University of Technology, West Bengal, for providing the infrastructure
toward implementing the scheme.
The author is indebted to the authors of the books and research papers listed
in the Bibliography at the end of each chapter and are very thankful to Profes-
sors P. Stavrions (Greece), Constantine Udriste (Romania), Akira Asada (Japan) and
Avishek Adhikari (India) and also to the reviewers of the manuscript for their schol-
arly suggestions for improvement of the book. We are thankful to Md. Kutubuddin
Sardar for his cooperation towards the typesetting of the manuscript and to many UG
and PG students of Presidency University and Calcutta University, and many other
individuals who have helped in proofreading the book. Authors apologize to those
whose names have been inadvertently not entered. Finally, the author acknowledges,
with heartfelt thanks, the patience and sacrifice of the long-suffering family of the
author, especially Minati Adhikari, Dr. Shibopriya Mitra Adhikari, and the beloved
grand son Master Avipriyo Adhikari.

Kolkata, India Mahima Ranjan Adhikari

June 2021
A Note on Basic Topology—Volumes 1–3

The topic ‘topology’ has become one of the most exciting and influential fields of
study in modern mathematics, because of its beauty and scope. The aim of this subject
is to make a qualitative study of geometry in the sense that if one geometric object
is continuously deformed into another geometrical object, then these two geometric
objects are considered topologically equivalent, called homeomorphic. Topology
starts where sets have some cohesive properties, leading to define continuity of
functions.
The series of three books on Basic Topology is a project book funded by the
Government of West Bengal, which is designed to introduce many variants of a
basic course in topology through the study of point-set topology, topological groups,
topological vector spaces, manifolds, Lie groups, homotopy and homology theories
with an emphasis of their applications in modern analysis, geometry, algebra and
theory of numbers:
Topics in topology is vast. The range of its basic topics is distributed among
different topological subfields such as general topology, topological algebra, differ-
ential topology, combinatorial topology, algebraic topology and geometric topology.
Each volume of the present book is considered as a separate textbook that promotes
active learning of the subject highlighting elegance, beauty, scope and power of
topology.

Basic Topology—Volume 1: Metric Spaces and General

Topology

This volume majorly studies metric spaces and general topology. It considers the
general properties of topological spaces and their mappings. The special struc-
ture of a metric space induces a topology having many applications of topology
in modern analysis, geometry and algebra. The texts of Volume I are expanded into
eight chapters.

xi
xii A Note on Basic Topology—Volumes 1–3

Basic Topology—Volume 2: Topological Groups, Topology

of Manifolds and Lie Groups

This volume considers additional structures other than topological structures studied
in Volume 1 and links topological structure with other structures in a compatible
way to study topological groups, topological vector spaces, topological and smooth
manifolds, Lie groups and Lie algebra and also gives a complete classification of
closed surfaces without using the formal techniques of homology theory. Volume 2
contains five chapters.

Basic Topology—Volume 3: Algebraic Topology

and Topology of Fiber Bundles

This volume mainly discusses algebraic topology and topology of fiber bundles.
The main aim of topology is to classify topological spaces up to homeomorphism.
To achieve this goal, algebraic topology constructs algebraic invariants and studies
topological problems by using these algebraic invariants. Because of its beauty and
scope, algebraic topology has become an essential branch of topology. Algebraic
topology is an important branch of topology that utilizes algebraic tools to study
topological problems. Its basic aim is to construct algebraic invariants that classify
topological spaces up to homeomorphism. It is found that this classification, usually
in most cases, is up to homotopy equivalence.
This volume conveys a coherent introduction to algebraic topology formally inau-
gurated by H. Poincaré (1854–1912) in his land-marking Analysis situs, Paris, 1895,
through his invention of fundamental group and homology theory, which are topo-
logical invariants. It studies Euler characteristic, the Betti number and also certain
classic problems such as the Jordan curve theorem. It considers higher homotopy
groups and establishes links between homotopy and homology theories, axiomatic
approach to homology and cohomology inaugurated by Eilenberg and Steenrod. It
studies the problems of converting topological and geometrical problems to algebraic
one in a functorial way for better chance for solution.
This volume also studies geometric topology and manifolds by using algebraic
topology. The contents of Volume 3 are expanded into seven chapters.
Just after the concept of homeomorphisms is clearly defined, the subject of
topology begins to study those properties of geometric figures which are preserved by
homeomorphisms with an eye to classify topological spaces up to homeomorphism,
which stands the ultimate problem in topology, where a geometric figure is considered
to be a point set in the Euclidean space Rn . But this undertaking becomes hopeless,
when there exists no homeomorphism between two given topological spaces. The
concepts of topological properties and topological invariants play key tools in such
problems:
A Note on Basic Topology—Volumes 1–3 xiii

(a) The concepts of topological properties, such as, compactness and connect-
edness, introduced in general topology, solve this problem in very few cases
(studied in Basic Topology, Vol. 1).
(b) On the other hand, the subjects algebraic topology and differential topology
(studied in Volume 2) were born to solve the problems of impossibility in
many cases with a shift of the problem by associating invariant objects in the
sense that homeomorphic spaces have the same object (up to equivalence),
called topological invariants. Initially, these objects were integers and subse-
quent research reveals that more fruitful and interesting results can be obtained
from the algebraic invariant structures such as groups and rings. For example,
homology and homotopy groups are very important algebraic invariants which
provide strong tools to study the structure of topological spaces.
Contents

1 Prerequisite Concepts of Algebra, Topology, Manifold

and Category Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Some Basic Concepts on Algebraic Structures and their
Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Groups and Fundamental Homomorphism Theorem . . . . 1
1.1.2 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.3 Modules and Exact Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Some Basic Concepts of Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Homeomorphic Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 Connectedness and Locally Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.3 Compactness, Locally Compactness
and Paracompactness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.4 Weak Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Partition of Unity and Lebesgue Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.1 Partition of Unity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.2 Lebesgue Lemma and Lebesgue Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Separation Axioms, Urysohn Lemma and Tietze Extension
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 Function Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6 Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.7 Topological Groups and Lie Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.7.1 Topological Groups: Definitions and Examples . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7.2 Actions of Topological groups and Orbit Spaces . . . . . . . . 16
1.7.3 Lie Groups and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.8 Category, Functor and Natural Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.8.1 Introductory Concept of Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.8.2 Introductory Concept of Functors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.8.3 Introductory Concept of Natural Transformation . . . . . . . 23
1.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

xv
xvi Contents

2 Homotopy Theory: Fundamental Group and Higher Homotopy

Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1 Motivation of the Study of Algebraic Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 Homotopy: Introductory Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.1 Homotopy of Continuous Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.2 Homotopy Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3 Homotopy Classes of Continuous Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3.1 Homotopy Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.2 Homotopy Classes of Maps to a Topological Group . . . . . 40
2.3.3 Homotopy Between Smooth Maps on Manifolds . . . . . . . 42
2.4 Retraction, Contraction and Deformation Retraction . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4.1 Retraction and Deformation Retraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4.2 Weak Retraction, and Weak and Strong
Deformation Retractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.4.3 Contractible Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.5 Homotopy Extension Property: Retraction and Deformation
Retraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.6 Paths and Homotopy of Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.6.1 Paths in a Topological Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.6.2 Homotopy of Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.6.3 Homotopy of Loops Based at a Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.7 Euler Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.7.1 Simplexes and Polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.7.2 Homotopy and Euler Characteristic of a Finite
Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.7.3 Euler Characteristic of a Polyhedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.8 Exponential Maps and Homotopy Classification
of Complex-Valued Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.9 Fundamental Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.9.1 Basic Motivation of Fundamental Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.9.2 Construction of Fundamental Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.10 Homotopy Property of Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.11 Functorial Property of π1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.12 Link between Fundamental Groups and Retractions . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.13 Simply Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.13.1 A Characterization of Simply Connected Spaces . . . . . . . 82
2.13.2 Simply Connected Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.14 Fundamental Groups of Product Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.15 Fundamental Groups of Hopf Spaces and Topological Groups . . . 84
2.15.1 H-spaces and their Fundamental Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.15.2 Fundamental Groups of Topological Groups . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.16 Alternative Approach to Fundamental Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2.17 Degree and Winding Number of a Loop on the Circle . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.18 Vector Fields and their Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.18.1 Basic Concepts of Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Contents xvii

2.18.2 Vector Fields on S n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

2.18.3 Applications of Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.18.4 Link Between Homotopy and Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2.18.5 Topological Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.19 Computation of the Fundamental Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.19.1 Computation of the Fundamental Group
of the Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.19.2 Computation of the Fundamental Group
of the Punctured Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
2.19.3 Computation of Fundamental Group of Figure-Eight
F8 and a Wedge of Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.20 Higher Homotopy Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.20.1 Introductory Concepts in Higher Homotopy Groups
πn (X, x0 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.20.2 Abelian Group Structure of πn (X, x0 ) for n > 1 . . . . . . . . 111
2.20.3 Functorial Property of πn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.20.4 Role of Base Point x in Groups πn (X, x) for n ≥ 1 . . . . . 114
2.21 Freudenthal Suspension Theorem and Its Applications . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.21.1 Freudenthal Suspension Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2.21.2 Hurewicz and Hopf Theorems on S n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.21.3 Table of πi (S n ) for 1 ≤ i, n ≤ 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.22 Degree of a Spherical Map on S n from Viewpoint
of Homotopy Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.23 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.23.1 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra and Algebraic
Completeness of the Field C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.23.2 Fixed Point and Homotopy: Brouwer Fixed-Point
Theorem for Dimension 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2.23.3 Borsuk–Ulam Theorem for Dimension 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2.23.4 Lusternik–Schnirelmann Theorem for S 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.23.5 Cauchy’s Integral Theorem of Complex Analysis . . . . . . . 125
2.23.6 Extension Problem in Homotopy Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
2.24 Hopf Classification Theorem by Using Homotopy Theory . . . . . . . 127
2.25 Application of Degree of Spherical Maps on S n and Hopf
Classification Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2.25.1 Brouwer Degree Theorem and Hopf Classification
Theorem by Using Homotopy Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.25.2 Brouwer-Poincaré Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
2.25.3 Separation of the Euclidean Plane and Jordan
Curve Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
2.25.4 Separation of the Euclidean Plane Problem: Tietze
Extension Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.25.5 Applications of the Euler Characteristic
in the Theory of Convex Polyhedra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.25.6 Interior and Boundary Point Problem of a Surface . . . . . . 138
xviii Contents

2.25.7 Homotopy Property of Infinite Dimensional Sphere

S∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.25.8 Homotopy Property of Infinite Symmetric Product
Space S P ∞ X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
2.25.9 Brouwer Fixed-Point Theorem for Dimension n . . . . . . . . 144
2.26 More Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
2.27 Invariance of Dimensions of Spheres and Euclidean Spaces . . . . . . 148
2.28 Exercises and Multiple Choice Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
2.28.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
2.28.2 Multiple Choice Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3 Homology and Cohomology Theories: An Axiomatic Approach
with Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.1 Manifolds with Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3.2 Simplicial Homology Theory and Euler-Poincaré Theorem . . . . . . 166
3.2.1 Simplicial Complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.2.2 Simplicial Homology Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.2.3 Euler-Poincaré Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.2.4 Topological and Homotopy Invariance of Euler
Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.3 Topology of CW-Complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.4 Singular Homology Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
3.4.1 Advantage of Singular Homology over Simplicial
Homology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3.4.2 The Singular Homology with Coefficient Group G . . . . . 180
3.5 Noether’s Algebraic Approach to Homology
and Cohomology Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3.5.1 Homology Groups of Chain Complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3.5.2 Cochain Complex and Its Cohomology Groups . . . . . . . . . 186
3.5.3 Cochain Complex and Its Cohomology Groups . . . . . . . . . 186
3.5.4 Singular Cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.5.5 Functorial Approach to Singular Cohomology
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
3.6 Homology Theory: Eilenberg and Steenrod Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.6.1 Admissible Categories for Eilenberg and Steenrod
Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
3.6.2 Eilenberg and Steenrod Axioms for Homology
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
3.7 The Uniqueness Theorem for Homology Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3.8 Cohomology Theory: Eilenberg and Steenrod Axioms . . . . . . . . . . 197
3.9 The Reduced Homology and Cohomology Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
3.9.1 The Reduced Homology Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
3.9.2 The Reduced Cohomology Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3.10 Invariance of Homology and Cohomology Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Contents xix

3.10.1 Invariance of Homology Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

3.10.2 Invariance of Cohomology Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
3.11 Consequences of the Exactness and Excision Axioms
of Eilenberg and Steenrod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
3.11.1 Consequence of the Exactness Axiom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
3.11.2 Consequence of Excision Axiom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
3.11.3 Additivity Property of Homology Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
3.11.4 Mayer-Vietoris Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
3.12 Applications and Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
3.12.1 Computation of Homology Groups of S n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
3.12.2 Suspension Space and Suspension Functor . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
3.13 Degrees of Spherical Maps from the Viewpoint of Homology
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
3.13.1 Brouwer Degree Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
3.13.2 Hopf Classification Theorem by Using Homology
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
3.13.3 More Properties of Degree Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
3.14 More Applications of Homology Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
3.14.1 Brouwer Fixed-Point Theorem for Dimension n . . . . . . . . 223
3.14.2 Hurewicz Homomorphism: Relation Between
Homology and Homotopy Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
3.15 The Lefschetz Number and Fixed-Point Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
3.16 Exercises and Multiple Choice Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
3.16.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
3.16.2 Multiple Choice Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
4 Topology of Fiber Bundles: General Theory of Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.1 General Properties of Bundles in Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.1.1 The Concept of Bundles in Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.1.2 General Properties of Cross Sections of Bundles . . . . . . . . 238
4.1.3 General Properties of Bundle Morphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
4.2 Fiber Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
4.2.1 Introductory Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
4.2.2 Fiber Map and Mapping Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
4.3 Vector Bundles over Topological Spaces and Manifolds . . . . . . . . . 248
4.3.1 Vector Bundles over Topological Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
4.3.2 Vector Bundles over Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
4.4 Tangent and Normal Bundles over Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
4.4.1 Tangent Bundle of a Smooth Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
4.4.2 Tangent Bundle over S n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
4.4.3 Normal Bundle over a Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
4.4.4 Normal Bundle over S n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
4.4.5 Orthonormal K-Frames over Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
4.4.6 Canonical Vector Bundle γ n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
xx Contents

4.5 Covering Spaces and Covering Homomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

4.5.1 Covering Spaces and Covering Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
4.5.2 Automorphism Group of Covering Spaces
and Lifting Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
4.6 Construction of Fiber Bundles and Their Local Cross
Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
4.6.1 Construction of Fiber Bundle by Continuous Action . . . . 269
4.6.2 Local Cross Sections of Fiber Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
4.7 Hopf Fibering of Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
4.7.1 Hopf Map p : S 3 → S 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
4.7.2 A Generalization of the Hopf Map p : S 3 → S 2 . . . . . . . . 275
4.8 G-bundles and Principal G-bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
4.8.1 G-spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
4.8.2 G-Coverings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
4.8.3 G-bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
4.8.4 Principal G-bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
4.9 Charts and Transition Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
4.10 Principal G-bundles for Lie Groups G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
4.11 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
4.11.1 Covering Spaces of R P n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
4.11.2 Covering Space of Figure-Eight F8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
4.12 More Geometrical Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
4.13 Exercises and Multiple Choice Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
4.13.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
4.13.2 Multiple Choice Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
5 Topology of Fiber Bundles: Homotopy Theory of Bundles . . . . . . . . . . 303
5.1 Homotopy Properties of Vector Bundles Over Manifolds . . . . . . . . 303
5.2 Fibrations and Cofibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
5.2.1 Homotopy Lifting Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
5.2.2 Fibration: Introductory Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
5.2.3 Cofibration: Introductory Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
5.3 Hurewicz Fiberings and Characterization of Fibrations . . . . . . . . . . 316
5.4 Homotopy and Path Lifting Properties of Covering Spaces . . . . . . 318
5.4.1 Introductory Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
5.4.2 Characterization of Path Liftings of Fibrations . . . . . . . . . 322
5.4.3 General Lifting Problems from Homotopy
Viewpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
5.4.4 Homotopy Classification of Covering Spaces . . . . . . . . . . 327
5.4.5 Isomorphism Theorem and Computation
of πn (S 1 ) = 0 for n ≥ 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
5.5 Galois Correspondence on Covering Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
5.6 Homotopy Property of Universal Covering Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Contents xxi

5.7 Homotopy Properties of Vector Bundles and Their

Homotopy Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
5.7.1 Homotopy Properties of Vector Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
5.7.2 Homotopy Classification of Vector Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
5.8 Homotopy Properties of Numerable Principal G-Bundles . . . . . . . 343
5.9 Classifying Spaces: The Milnor Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
5.10 Applications and Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
5.10.1 Application of Galois Correspondence Theorem . . . . . . . . 349
5.10.2 Actions of Fundamental Groups on Fibers
of Covering Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
5.10.3 Fundamental Groups of Orbit Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
5.10.4 Computing the Fundamental Group of R P n . . . . . . . . . . . 354
5.10.5 Computing the Fundamental Group of Klein’s Bottle . . . . 355
5.10.6 Computing the Fundamental Groups of Lens Spaces . . . . 356
5.10.7 Computing the Fundamental Group of Figure-Eight . . . . . 358
5.11 The Relative Homotopy Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
5.11.1 Standard Notations and Construction
of πn (X, A, x0 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
5.11.2 Boundary Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
5.11.3 The Induced Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
5.11.4 Algebraic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
5.11.5 Functorial Property of the Relative Homotopy
Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
5.11.6 Role of Cells and Spheres in Computing Homotopy
Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
5.12 Isomorphism on πn (X, x0 ) Induced by a Curve and Role
of Base Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
5.13 Homotopy Sequence and Its Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
5.13.1 Homotopy Sequence of Triplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
5.13.2 Elementary Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
5.13.3 Exactness Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
5.13.4 Homomorphism and Isomorphism of Homotopy
Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
5.14 Homotopy Groups of Cells and Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
5.15 Stable Homotopy Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
5.15.1 Stable Homotopy Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
5.15.2 Some Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
5.16 Consequences of Homotopy Exact Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
5.16.1 Direct Sum Theorems in Higher Homotopy Groups . . . . . 382
5.16.2 Characterization of n-Connected Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
5.17 Homotopy Sequence of Fibering and Hopf Fibering
of Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
5.17.1 Homotopy Sequence of Fibering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
5.17.2 Fiberings of Spheres Over Projective Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . 388
5.17.3 Fiberings of Spheres by Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
xxii Contents

5.18 More Study on Hopf Map p : S 3 → S 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

5.18.1 Problems of Computing πm (S n ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
5.18.2 More Theorems on Hopf Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
5.18.3 Hopf Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
5.18.4 Hurewicz Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
5.18.5 Fiber Maps and Induced Fiber Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
5.19 Homotopy Sequence of Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
5.19.1 Fundamental Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
5.19.2 Homotopy Sequence of a Bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
5.20 Bundle Space and Bundle Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
5.21 Table of πi (S n ) for 1 ≤ i, n ≤ 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
5.22 Action of π1 on πn and n-simplicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
5.22.1 Automorphism Induced by a Closed Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
5.22.2 Isomorphism of πn Induced by a Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
5.22.3 n-simplicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
5.23 Further Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
5.24 Exercises and Multiple Choice Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
5.24.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
5.24.2 Multiple Choice Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
6 Geometric Topology and Further Applications of Algebraic
Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
6.1 Geometric Topology: Embedding Problem of the Circle
in R3 with Knot and Knot Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
6.2 Further Applications of Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
6.2.1 Isotopy and Its Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
6.2.2 Application of Topology to Theory of Numbers . . . . . . . . 427
6.3 Borsuk–Ulam Theorem with Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
6.3.1 Borsuk–Ulam Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
6.3.2 Ham Sandwich Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
6.3.3 Lusternik–Schnirelmann Theorem for Higher
Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
6.3.4 Van Kampen Theorem: An Application of Graph
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
6.3.5 Proof of Jordan Curve Theorem by Homology
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . .  ............................... 435
6.3.6 Homology Groups of Sin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
i∈ A
6.3.7 More Application of Euler Characteristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
6.3.8 Application of Algebraic Topology to Algebra . . . . . . . . . 437
6.3.9 Whitehead Theorem and Its Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
6.3.10 Eilenberg–MacLane Spaces and Their Applications . . . . . 440
6.3.11 Adams Theorem on Vector Field Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Contents xxiii

6.4 Exercises and Multiple Choice Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444

6.4.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
6.4.2 Multiple Choice Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
7 Brief History of Algebraic Topology: Motivation of the Subject
and Historical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
7.1 Motivation of the Study of Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
7.2 Analysis Situs of Henri Poincaré . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
7.2.1 Brief History of Algebraic Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
7.2.2 Motivation of Study of Algebraic Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
7.3 Development of the Basic Topics in Algebraic Topology . . . . . . . . 454
7.3.1 Euler’s Polyhedral Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
7.3.2 Beginning of Algebraic Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
7.4 Historical Note on Homology Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
7.5 Historical Note on Homotopy Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
7.5.1 Inauguration of Homotopy Theory in 1895
by Poincaré . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
7.5.2 Brouwer Fixed-Point Theorem and Degree
of Spherical Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
7.5.3 Brouwer–Poincaré Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
7.5.4 Freudenthal Suspension Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
7.5.5 Stable Homotopy Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
7.6 The Topology of Fiber Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
7.6.1 Historical Note on Category Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
7.6.2 Homology and Cohomology Theories: Eilenberg
and Steenrod Axioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
7.6.3 Euler–Poincaré Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
7.6.4 Topological and Homotopical Invariance of Euler
Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
7.6.5 Brief History of Combined Aspect of Combinatorial
and Set-Theoretic Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
7.6.6 Poincaré Conjecture and Its Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
7.6.7 Interest of Poincaré in Various Scientific Work . . . . . . . . . 467
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
About the Author

Mahima Ranjan Adhikari, Ph.D., M.Sc. (Gold Medalist), is the founder presi-
dent of the Institute for Mathematics, Bioinformatics, Information Technology and
Computer Science (IMBIC), Kolkata, India. He is a former professor at the Depart-
ment of Pure Mathematics, University of Calcutta, India. His research papers are
published in national and international journals of repute, including the Proceed-
ings of American Mathematical Society. He has authored nine textbooks and is the
editor of two, including: Basic Modern Algebra with Applications (Springer, 2014),
Basic Algebraic Topology and Applications (Springer, 2016), and Mathematical and
Statistical Applications in Life Sciences and Engineering (Springer, 2017).
Twelve students have been awarded Ph.D. degree under his guidance on various
topics such as algebra, algebraic topology, category theory, geometry, analysis, graph
theory, knot theory and history of mathematics. He has visited several universities and
research institutions in India, USA, UK, Japan, China, Greece, Sweden, Switzerland,
Italy, and many other counties on invitation. A member of the American Mathematical
Society, Prof. Adhikari is on the editorial board of several journals of repute. He was
elected as the president of the Mathematical Sciences Section (including Statistics)
of the 95th Indian Science Congress, 2008. He has successfully completed research
projects funded by the Government of India.

xxv
Chapter 1
Prerequisite Concepts of Algebra,
Topology, Manifold and Category Theory

This chapter conveys a few basic concepts of algebra, topology, manifold and cate-
gory theory for smooth study of Volume 3 of the present book series. For detailed
study of the concepts and results given in this chapter, [Adhikari and Adhikari, 2003,
2006, 2014], [Adhikari, 2016], [Dugundji, 1966], [Simmons, 1963], [Adhikari and
Adhikari, Volumes 1 and 2, 2022a, 2022b], [Alexandrov, 1979], [Borisovich et al.
1985], [Bredon, 1983], [Chatterjee et al. 2002], [MacLane, 1971], [Williard and
Stephen, 1970] and some other references are given in Bibliography.

1.1 Some Basic Concepts on Algebraic Structures and their

Homomorphisms

A group, ring, vector space, module or any algebraic system is defined as a nonempty
set endowed with special algebraic structures. A homomorphism (transformation) is
a function preserving the specific structures of the algebraic systems.

1.1.1 Groups and Fundamental Homomorphism Theorem

This subsection presents some basic concepts of group (abstract) theory which are
subsequently used.

Definition 1.1.1 Let G be a group. A subset C(G) of G defined by

C(G) = {g ∈ G : gx = xg for all x ∈ G}

forms a subgroup of G, called the center of G.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 1
M. R. Adhikari, Basic Topology 3,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6550-9_1
 2 1 Prerequisite Concepts of Algebra, Topology, Manifold and Category Theory

Definition 1.1.2 Let H be a subgroup of group G. Then for any x ∈ G,

(i) the set

xH = {xh : h ∈ H }

is called a left coset of H in G and

(ii) the set
Hx = {hx : h ∈ H }

is called a right coset of H in G.

Definition 1.1.3 A subgroup H of a group G is said to be a normal subgroup of

G, if
xH = Hx, ∀ x ∈ G.

Definition 1.1.4 (Quotient group) Let G be group, N be a normal subgroup of G and

G/N be the set of all cosets of N in G. Then G/N is a group under the composition

xN ◦ yN = xyN , ∀ xN and yN in G/N ,

called the factor group (or quotient group) of G by N , denoted by G/N .

Definition 1.1.5 Given an additive abelian group G, and a normal subgroup N of

G, the factor group G/N is defined under the group operation

(x + N ) + (y + N ) = (x + y)N .

This quotient group is sometimes called a difference group.

Definition 1.1.6 Let G and K be two groups. A map f : G → K is said to be a

homomorphism if
f (xy) = f (x)f (y), ∀ x, y ∈ G.

Remark 1.1.7 A homomorphism of groups maps identity element into the identity
element and inverse element into the inverse element. Special homomorphisms carry
special names.

Definition 1.1.8 A homomorphism f : G → K of groups is said to be

(i) a monomorphism if f is injective;

(ii) an embedding if f is a monomorphism;
(iii) an epimorphism if f is surjective;
(iv) an isomorphism if f is bijective;
(v) an isomorphism of G onto itself is called an automorphism of G and
(vi) a homomorphism of G into itself is called an endomorphism.
1.1 Some Basic Concepts on Algebraic Structures and their Homomorphisms 3

Remark 1.1.9 Two isomorphic groups are considered as replicas of each other,
because they have the identical algebraic properties. So two isomorphic groups are
identified and are considered the same group (up to isomorphism).
Definition 1.1.10 The kernel of a homomorphism f : G → K of groups, denoted
by kerf is defined by
kerf = {x ∈ G : f (x) = ek },

where ek is the identity element of K.

Theorem 1.1.11 Let f : G → K be a group homomorphism. Then kerf is a normal
subgroup of G. Conversely, if N is a normal subgroup of G, then the map

π : G → K/N , x → xN

is an epimorphism with N as its kernel.

Corollary 1.1.12 Let N be a subgroup of a given group G. Then N is a normal
subgroup of G if it is the kernel of some homomorphism.
Theorem 1.1.13 (First Isomorphism Theorem) Let f : G → K be a homomorphism
of groups. Then f induces an isomorphism

f˜ : G/kerf → Imf , x kerf → f (x).

Corollary 1.1.14 Let f : G → K be an epimorphism of groups. Then the groups

G/kerf and K are isomorphic.
Example 1.1.15 Let G = GL(n, R) be the general linear group over R, R∗ be the
multiplicative group of nonzero real numbers and

det : G → R∗ , M → det M

be the determinant function and N = {M ∈ GL(n, R) : detM = 1}. Then

(i) N is a normal subgroup of G and
(ii) the groups GL(n, R)/N and R∗ are isomorphic by Corollary 1.1.14.
Definition 1.1.16 (Commutator subgroup) Given a group G and a pair of elements
g, h ∈ G, the commutator of g and h denoted by [g, h] is the element

[g, h] = ghg −1 h−1 .

The subgroup K of G generated by the set S = {ghg −1 h−1 : g, h ∈ G} is called the

commutator subgroup of G, and it consists of all finite products of commutators
of G.
Theorem 1.1.17 Let G be a group and K be the commutator subgroup of K. Then
 4 1 Prerequisite Concepts of Algebra, Topology, Manifold and Category Theory

(i) K is a normal subgroup of G;

(ii) the quotient group G/K is always commutative;
(iii) the group G is commutative if its commutator subgroup K is the trivial group.

1.1.2 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

This subsection states the fundamental theorem of algebra and its proof is given in
Chap. 2 by using the tools of homotopy theory. The completeness of the field C of
complex numbers follows directly from the fundamental theorem of algebra.

Definition 1.1.18 A field F is said to be algebraically closed or complete if every

polynomial ring f (x) of degree n (n ≥ 1) over F, has a root in F.

Example 1.1.19 The field C is algebraically closed. It follows from fundamental

theorem of Algebra 2.23.1.

Theorem 1.1.20 (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra) Every nonconstant polyno-

mial with coefficients in the field C has a root in C.

1.1.3 Modules and Exact Sequences

Definition 1.1.21 A module M over a commutative ring R with nonzero identity

element e is an additive abelian group M together with an external law of composition

m : R × M → V,

the image of (α, x) under m abbreviated αx, such that the following conditions are
satisfied:

(i) ex = x;
(ii) α(x + y) = αx + αy;
(iii) (α + β)x = αx + βx;
(iv) (αβ)x = α(βx)
∀ x, y ∈ M , α, β ∈ R.

Example 1.1.22 (i) Every additive abelian group is a module over the ring (Z).
(ii) Every module over a field F is a vector space.
(iii) Every ideal of a ring R is a module over R.

Remark 1.1.23 The definitions of submodules and quotient modules are analogous
to the definitions corresponding to subgroups and quotient groups.
1.1 Some Basic Concepts on Algebraic Structures and their Homomorphisms 5

Definition 1.1.24 Let M and N be two modules over the same ring R. Then a group
homomorphism f is said to be an R-module homomorphism if

f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y), f (rx) = rf (x), for all x, y in M and r in R.

Definition 1.1.25 A sequence of modules or groups and their homomorphisms

fn fn+1 fn+2
· · · → Mn −−−→ Mn+1 −−−−→ Mn+2 −−−−→ Mn+3 → · · ·

(i) is said to be exact at Mn+1 if Im fn = ker fn+1 and

(ii) is said to be exact if it is exact at every Mn+1 in the sense that

Im fn = ker fn+1 , ∀ n.

Remark 1.1.26 There exist many results that compare groups or modules of an
exact sequence, but only some of them are given which are used in the book. As
every abelian group is a module over Z, every result valid for modules is also true
for abelian groups.

Proposition 1.1.27 Consider an exact sequence of four modules or abelian groups

f g h
{0} −−−→ M −−−→ N −−−→ {0},

where the end module or group {0} is the trivial module or group. Then g is an
isomorphism.

Proposition 1.1.28 Consider an exact sequence of five groups

f g
{0} → M −−−→ N −−−→ P → {0},

where group {0} is the trivial group. If h : P → N is a homomorphism such that g ◦ h

is the identity map on P and N is abelian, then the groups

N∼
= M ⊕ P.

1.2 Some Basic Concepts of Topology

This subsection communicates some basic concepts of topology. For their detailed
study, see Basic Topology, Volume 1.
6 1 Prerequisite Concepts of Algebra, Topology, Manifold and Category Theory

1.2.1 Homeomorphic Spaces

This subsection communicates the concept of a homeomorphism in topology which

is a basic concept in topology. This concept is analogous to the concept of an isomor-
phism between algebraic objects such as groups or rings. Every homeomorphism is
a bijective map that preserves topological structure involved. So, every classification
problem in topology involves classification of topological spaces up to homeomor-
phism. Its precise definition is formulated in Definition 1.2.1.

Definition 1.2.1 Let X and Y be two topological spaces. A map

f :X →Y

is said to be continuous if
f −1 (U ) ⊂ X

is an open set in X for every open set U in Y .

Definition 1.2.2 A continuous map f : X → Y between topological spaces X and

Y is said to be a homeomorphism if f is bijective and

f −1 : Y → X

is also continuous.

Remark 1.2.3 If f : X → Y is a homeomorphism, then both the maps f and f −1

are continuous in the sense that
(i) the map f not only sends points of X to points of Y in a (1-1) manner,
(ii) but f also sends open sets of X to open sets of Y in a (1-1) manner.
This implies that X and Y are topologically the same in the sense that a topological
property enjoyed by X is also enjoyed by Y and conversely.

Example 1.2.4 If the map

f :X →Y

is a homeomorphism, then X is compact (or connected) if Y is compact (or con-

nected), because compactness and connectedness properties are topological in the
sense that they are shared by homeomorphic spaces.

Example 1.2.5 Let X and Y be topological spaces. A bijective map

f :X →Y
 1.2 Some Basic Concepts of Topology 7

is not necessarily continuous. For example, let R be the set of real numbers endowed
its usual topology σ and Rl be the same set endowed with the lower topology. Then
the identity map
f : R → Rl , x → x

is a bijection, but it is not continuous.

Example 1.2.6 (i) The open interval (0, 1) ⊂ R and the real line space R with
usual topology are homeomorphic spaces.
(ii) The open ball B = {x = (x1 , x2 ) ∈ R2 : x < 1} ⊂ R2 with Euclidean topology
is homeomorphic to the whole plane R2 .
(iii) The open square A = {(x, y) ∈ R2 : 0 < x, y < 1} ⊂ R2 with Euclidean topol-
ogy is homeomorphic to the open ball B defined in (ii).
(vi) The cone A = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 : x2 + y2 = z 2 , z > 0} with Euclidean topology is
homeomorphic to the plane R2 .
(v) Consider the n-sphere S n = {x ∈ Rn+1 : x = 1, n ≥ 1}, endowed with
Euclidean topology having its north pole

N = (0, 0, . . . , 1) ∈ Rn+1

and its south pole

S = (0, 0, . . . , −1) ∈ Rn+1 .

(a) The stereographic projection

1
f : S n − N → Rn , x  → (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ),
1 − xn+1

for every x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn+1 ) ∈ S n − N is a homeomorphism.

(b) The space S n − S is homeomorphic to S n − N .
(vi) A circle minus (deleted) any of its point is homeomorphic to a line segment, and
a closed arc is homeomorphic to a closed line segment.

Theorem 1.2.7 Consider the n-cube In = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Rn : 0 ≤ xi ≤ 1}. Its

interior
Int In = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Rn : 0 < xi < 1}

and its boundary ∂In = İn = In − Int In . Then

(i) In is homeomorphic to the n-ball Bn in Rn and
(ii) under this homeomorphism, ∂In = In − Int In corresponds to the (n − 1)-sphere
S n−1 .
 8 1 Prerequisite Concepts of Algebra, Topology, Manifold and Category Theory

1.2.2 Connectedness and Locally Connectedness

This subsection conveys the concepts of connectedness and locally connectedness.

Definition 1.2.8 A topological space X is said to be connected if the only sets which
are both open and closed are ∅ and X .

Remark 1.2.9 Connectedness of topological spaces is an important topological

property and is characterized by the following theorem.

Theorem 1.2.10 A topological space X is connected if it is not the union of two

disjoint nonempty open sets.

Definition 1.2.11 Let X be a topological space and x be a point of X . Then X is

said to be locally connected at x, if for every open set V containing x there exists a
connected open set U with x ∈ U ⊂ V . The space X is said to be locally connected
if it is locally connected at x for all x ∈ X .

Example 1.2.12 The Euclidean space Rn is connected and locally connected for all
n ≥ 1.

Remark 1.2.13 The continuous image of a locally connected space may not be
locally connected.

Definition 1.2.14 A path in a topological space X is a continuous map f : I → X

from the closed unit interval I to X .

Definition 1.2.15 A topological space X is said to be path connected, if any two

points of X can be joined by a path.

Remark 1.2.16 A path-connected space is connected. A connected open subset of

a Euclidean space is path connected.

Example 1.2.17 For n > 0, the n-sphere S n is path-connected.

Definition 1.2.18 A topological space X is said to be locally path connected if for

each x ∈ X , and each nbd U of x, there is a path-connected nbd V of x which is
contained in U .

Example 1.2.19 The following spaces in real analysis are connected.

(i) The space R of real numbers;

(ii) Any interval in R;
(iii) Rn ;
(iv) Any ball or cube in Rn ;
(v) The continuous image of a connected space is connected.
1.2 Some Basic Concepts of Topology 9

1.2.3 Compactness, Locally Compactness and

Paracompactness

This subsection conveys the concept of compactness which is used throughout the
book and that of paracompactness which is specially used in the classification of
vector bundles.

Definition 1.2.20 An open covering of a topological space X is a family {Ui } of

open sets of X , whose union is the whole set X .

Definition 1.2.21 A topological space X is said to be compact if every open

covering of X has a finite subcovering.

Remark 1.2.22 This means that from any open covering {Ui } of a compact space X ,
n
we can choose finitely many indices ij , j = 1, 2, . . . , n such that Uij = X . If X
j=1
is a compact space, every sequence of points xn of X has a convergent subsequence,
which means, every subsequence xn1 , xn2 , . . . , xnt , . . . , converges to a point of X .
For metric spaces, this condition is equivalent to compactness.

Proposition 1.2.23 A compact subspace of a Hausdorff topological space X is

closed in X and every closed subspace of a compact space is compact.

Definition 1.2.24 A topological space X is said to be locally compact if each of

its points has a compact neighborhood (nbd).

Example 1.2.25 Any compact space, the space Rn , any discrete space, any closed
subset of a locally compact space are locally compact spaces. On the other hand, the
space Q of rational numbers is not locally compact.

Definition 1.2.26 A topological space X is said to be a Baire space if intersection

of each countable family of open dense sets in X is dense in X .

Example 1.2.27 Every locally compact Hausdorff space is a Baire space.

Definition 1.2.28 A topological space X is said to be compactly generated if X

is a Hausdorff space and each subset A of X satisfying the property that A ∩ C is
closed for every compact subset C of X is itself closed.

Remark 1.2.29 If X and Y are two topological spaces such that X is locally compact
and Y is compactly generated, then their Cartesian product is compactly generated.

Definition 1.2.30 A topological space X is said to be paracompact if every open

covering of X has a locally finite subcovering of X .

Example 1.2.31 (i) Rn is paracompact.

(ii) Every closed subspace of a paracompact space is paracompact; but a subspace
of a paracompact space is not necessarily paracompact.
 10 1 Prerequisite Concepts of Algebra, Topology, Manifold and Category Theory

Definition 1.2.32 A topological space X is said to be countably compact if every

countable open covering of X has a finite subcovering.

Theorem 1.2.33 (Cantor’s intersection theorem) A topological space X is countably

compact if every descending chain of nonempty closed sets of X has a nonempty
intersection.

1.2.4 Weak Topology

This subsection communicates the concept of weak topology which is utilized to

construct some important topological spaces in this book.

Definition 1.2.34 Let

X1 ⊂ X2 ⊂ X3 ⊂ · · ·

be a chain of closed inclusions of topological spaces. Then its set union Xi ,
i≥1
which is the union of the sets Xi defines a topology by declaring a subset K ⊂ Xi
i≥1
to be closed if its intersection K ∩ Xi is closed in Xi for all i ≥ 1. This topology is
known as union topology. It is also called weak topology with respect to the
subspaces.
∞
Example 1.2.35 (i) The infinite sphere S ∞ = S n has the weak topology.
∞ n=0
(ii) The infinite projective space RP ∞ = RP n has the weak topology.
n=0 ∞
(iii) The infinite complex projective space CP ∞ = CP n has the weak topol-
n=0
ogy.

1.3 Partition of Unity and Lebesgue Lemma

This section conveys the concept of ‘partition of unity’ and states Lebesgue lemma
with Lebesgue number. A partition of unity subordinate to a given open covering of
a topological space is an important concept in mathematics.

1.3.1 Partition of Unity

Definition 1.3.1 Let U = {Uj : j ∈ A} be an open covering of a topological space

X . A partition of unity subordinate to U consists of a family of functions
1.3 Partition of Unity and Lebesgue Lemma 11

{fj : X → I : j ∈ A}

such that
(i) fj |(X −Uj ) = 0 for all j and each x ∈ X has a nbd V with the property fj |V = 0,
except
 for a finite number of indices j, and
(ii) fj (x) = 1 for all x ∈ X .
j

Remark 1.3.2 The sum fj (x) is always a finite sum.
j

Remark 1.3.3 Paracompactness of a topological space can be characterized with

the help of partition of unity.
Theorem 1.3.4 A topological space X is paracompact if every open covering U of
X admits a partition of unity subordinate to U.
Proof See [Dugundji, 1966]. ❑

1.3.2 Lebesgue Lemma and Lebesgue Number

Lebesgue lemma is used to prove many important results. This lemma is also called
Lebesgue covering lemma.
Lemma 1.3.5 (Lebesgue) Let X be a compact metric space. Given an open covering
{Uα : α ∈ A} of X , there exists a real number δ > 0, called Lebesgue number of
{Uα } having the property that every open ball of radius less than δ lies in some
element of {Uα }.

1.4 Separation Axioms, Urysohn Lemma and Tietze

Extension Theorem

This section imposes certain conditions on the topology to obtain some particular
classes of topological spaces initially used by P.S. Alexandroff (1896–1982) and H.
Hopf (1894–1971). Such spaces are important objects in algebraic topology. More-
over, this section presents Urysohn Lemma and Tietze Extension theorem which are
used in this book.
Definition 1.4.1 A topological space (X , τ ) is said to be a
(i) T1 -space (due to Frechet) if for every pair of distinct points p, q in X , there exist
two open sets U, V such that

p ∈ U, q ∈ V , p ∈
/ V , and q ∈
/ U.
 12 1 Prerequisite Concepts of Algebra, Topology, Manifold and Category Theory

In other words, every pair of distinct points is weakly separated in (X , τ ):

equivalently, for every pair of distinct points p, q in X , there exist a neighborhood
of p which does not contain q and a neighborhood of q which does not contain
p.
(ii) Hausdorff space (due to Hausdorff) if any two distinct points are strongly sepa-
rated in (X , τ ):
equivalently, distinct points have disjoint neighborhoods.
(iii) Regular space (due to Vietoris) if any closed set F and any point p ∈ / F are
always strongly separated in (X , τ ).
(iv) Normal space (due to Tietze) if any two disjoint closed sets are strongly sep-
arated in (X , τ ), equivalently, each pair of disjoint closed sets have disjoint
neighborhoods.

Remark 1.4.2 It is not true that a nonconstant real-valued continuous function can
always be defined on a given space. But on normal spaces there always exist noncon-
stant real-valued continuous functions. Urysohn lemma characterizes normal spaces
by real-valued continuous functions.

Lemma 1.4.3 (Urysohn ) A topological space (X , τ ) is normal if and only if every

pair of disjoint closed sets P, Q in (X , τ ) are separated by a continuous real-valued
function f on (X , τ ), such that

0, for all x ∈ P
f (x) =
1, for all x ∈ Q

and
0 ≤ f (x) ≤ 1 for all x ∈ X .

1.5 Function Spaces

This section introduces the concept of function spaces topolozied by the compact
open topology. Function spaces play an important role in topology and geometry.

Definition 1.5.1 (Compact open topology) Let X and Y be topological spaces and
Y X (or F(X , Y )) be the set of all continuous functions f : X → Y . Then a topology,
called compact open topology, can be endowed on F(X , Y ) by taking a subspace for
the topology of all sets of the form

VK,U = {f ∈ F(X , Y ) : f (K) ⊂ U },

where K ⊂ X is compact and U ⊂ Y is open.

Let E : Y X × X → Y , (f , x) → f (x) be the evaluation map. Then given a function
h : Z → Y X , the composite
1.5 Function Spaces 13

h×1d E
ψ : Z × X −−−−−→ Y X × X −−−→ Y

i.e., ψ = E ◦ (h × 1d ) : Z × X → Y is a function.
Theorem 1.5.2 (Theorem of Exponential Correspondence) Let X be a locally com-
pact Hausdorff space and Y , Z be topological spaces. Then a function f : Z → Y X
is continuous if
E ◦ (f × 1d ) : Z × X → Y

is continuous.
Theorem 1.5.3 (Exponential Law) Let X be a locally compact Hausdorff space, Z
be a Hausdorff space, and Y be a topological space. Then the function

ψ : (Y X )Z → Y Z×X

defined by ψ(f ) = E ◦ (f × 1d ) is a homeomorphism.

Proposition 1.5.4 If X is a compact Hausdorff space and Y is metricized by a metric
d , then the space Y X is metricized by the metric d  defined by

d  (f , g) = sup{d (f (x), g(x)) : x ∈ X }.

1.6 Manifolds

This section defines manifolds which form an important class of geometrical objects
in topology. An n-manifold is a Hausdorff topological space which looks locally like
Euclidean n-space Rn , but not necessarily globally. A local Euclidean structure to
manifold by introducing the concept of a chart is utilized to use the conventional
calculus of several variables. Due to linear structure of vector spaces, for many
applications in mathematics and in other areas it needs generalization of metrizable
vector spaces, maintaining only the local structure of the latter. On the other hand,
every manifold can be considered as a (in general nonlinear) subspace of some vector
space. Both aspects are used to approach the theory of manifolds. Since dimension
of a vector space is a locally defined property, a manifold has a dimension.
Definition 1.6.1 An n-dimensional (topological) manifold or an n-manifold M is a
Hausdorff space with a countable basis such that each point of M has a neighborhood
homeomorphic to an open subset of Rn . An one-dimensional manifold is called a
curve, and a two-dimensional manifold is called a surface.
Example 1.6.2 S 2 , torus, RP 2 are examples of surfaces.
Remark 1.6.3 All manifolds M in this book are assumed to be paracompact to
ensure that M is a separable metric space.
14 1 Prerequisite Concepts of Algebra, Topology, Manifold and Category Theory

Definition 1.6.4 An n-dimensional differentiable manifold or a smooth manifold

M is a Hausdorff topological space having a countable open covering {U1 , U2 , . . . }
such that

DM(1) for each Ui , there is a homeomorphism ψi : Ui → Vi , where Vi is an open

disk in Rn ;
DM(2) if Ui ∩ Uj = ∅, the homeomorphism ψji = ψj ◦ ψi−1 : ψi (Ui ∩ Uj ) → ψj
(Ui ∩ Uj ) is a differentiable map (or smooth maps) between open subsets
of Rn .

(Ui , ψi ) is called a local chart of M , and {(Ui , ψi )} is a set of local charts of M .

Definition 1.6.5 Let M and N be two smooth manifolds and f : M → N be a map.

A chart (ψ, U ) for M is said to be adapted to f by a chart (φ, V ) for N if f (U ) ⊂ V .
Then the map
φ ◦ f ◦ ψ −1 : ψ(U ) → φ(V )

is well-defined, and it is called the local representation of f at the point x ∈ U

in the given charts. The map f is said to be differentiable (or smooth ) at x if it has
a local representation at x which is differentiable (or smooth). This is well-defined
because a local representation is a map between open sets in Euclidean spaces.

Example 1.6.6 Rn , S n , RP n are n-dimensional differentiable manifolds.

Example 1.6.7 CP n is a 2n-dimensional differentiable manifold.

Definition 1.6.8 A Hausdorff space M is called an n-dimensional manifold with

boundary (n ≥ 1) if each point of M has a neighborhood homeomorphic to the open
set in the subpace of Rn .

Example 1.6.9 The n-dimensional disk Dn is an n-manifold with boundary.

Remark 1.6.10 Let S = {(Ui , ψi )} be a set of local charts of a differentiable man-

ifold M . Then S is said to be a differentiable structure on M . Every subset of S
which satisfies M = ∪ Ui , DM(1) and DM(2) is called a basis for the differential
structure S.

1.7 Topological Groups and Lie Groups

This section recalls the introductory concepts of topological groups and also Lie
groups (studied in Basic Topology: Volume 2) of the present book series. Lie
groups provide special topological groups which are also smooth manifolds satisfy-
ing compatibility conditions laid down in Definition 1.7.14. The detailed study of
topological groups and Lie groups is available in Basic Topology: Volume 2
 1.7 Topological Groups and Lie Groups 15

1.7.1 Topological Groups: Definitions and Examples

This subsection illustrates the concept of topological groups with examples. The
basic concept of a topological group is that it is an abstract group endowed with
a topology such that the multiplication and inverse operations are both continuous.
This concept was accepted by mathematicians in the early 1930s.

Definition 1.7.1 A nonempty set G is said to be a topological group if it satisfies

the following axioms:
TG(1): G is algebraically a group;
TG(2): G is topologically a Hausdorff space; i.e., every pair of distinct points of
G are strongly separated by disjoint open sets;
TG(3): group multiplication m : G × G → G, (x, y) → xy is continuous, where
the topology on G × G is endowed with product topology;
TG(4): group inversion v : G → G, x → x−1 is continuous.
Remark 1.7.2 Some authors do not assume ‘Hausdorff property’ for a topological
group. The conditions TG(3) & TG(4) in Definition 1.7.1 are equivalent to the single
condition
TG(5): the map ψ : G × G → G, (x, y) → xy−1 is continuous.
Example 1.7.3 Rn (under usual addition) and S 1 = {z ∈ C : |z| = 1} (under usual
multiplication of complex numbers) are important examples of topological groups.
Example 1.7.4 (i) The general real linear group GL (n, R) of all invertible n × n
matrices over R is an important topological group, which is neither compact nor
connected.
(ii) GL (n, C) is the set of all n × n nonsingular matrices with complex entries,
called the general complex linear group. GL (n, C) is a topological group with
dimC GL (n, C) = n2 . It is not compact.
(iii) The set U(n, C) = {M ∈ GL (n, C) : MM ∗ = I } forms a subgroup of GL (n, C),
where M ∗ is the transpose of the complex conjugate of M . This subgroup is com-
pact.
(iv) For the sympletic group SU (n, H) = {A ∈ GL (n, H) : AA∗ = I } which is an
quaternionic analogue, see Exercise 1.9 of Sect. 1.9.
Definition 1.7.5 Let G and K be two topological groups. A homomorphism f :
G → K is a continuous map such that f is a group homomorphism in abstract sense.
An isomorphism f : G → K between two topological groups is a homeomorphism
and is also a group homomorphism between G and K.
Example 1.7.6 The special orthogonal group SO(2, R) and the circle group S 1 are
both topological groups. These two topological groups are isomorphic because there
exists an isomorphism of topological groups
 
cos θ − sin θ
ψ : SO(2, R) → S 1 , → eiθ .
sin θ cos θ
16 1 Prerequisite Concepts of Algebra, Topology, Manifold and Category Theory

1.7.2 Actions of Topological groups and Orbit Spaces

This subsection communicates the concept of topological group actions on topo-

logical spaces which provide many geometrical objects such as real and complex
projective spaces, torus, lens spaces, etc., as orbit spaces obtained by specifying
actions of topological groups.

Definition 1.7.7 Let G be a topological group with identity element e and X be a

topological space. If G × X has the product topology, then G is said to act on X
from the left if there is continuous map μ : G × X → X , the image μ(g, x), denoted
by g(x) or gx such that

(i) e(x) = x for all x ∈ X ;

(ii) (gk)(x) = g(k(x)), for all x ∈ X , and g, k ∈ G.

The group G is then called a topological transformation group of X relative

to the group action μ. It is sometimes denoted by the triple (G, X , μ). A topological
space X endowed with a left G-action on X is said to be a left G-space. A right
action and a right G-space are defined in an analogous way.

There is a one-to-one correspondence between the left and right G-structures on

X . So it is sufficient to study only one of them according to the situation.

Example 1.7.8 For the general linear group GL(n, R), the Euclidean n-space Rn is
a left GL(n, R)-space under usual multiplication of matrices.

Definition 1.7.9 Let X be a left G-space. Two given elements x, y in X are called
G-equivalent, if y = g(x) (i.e., y = gx) for some g ∈ G. The relation of being G-
equivalent is an equivalence relation on X and the corresponding quotient space
Xmod G endowed with quotient topology induced from X (i.e., the largest topology
such that the projection map p : X → Xmod G, x → G(x) is continuous, where
G(x) = {g(x) : g ∈ G} is called the orbit space of x ∈ G. For an element x ∈ X ,
G(x) is called the orbit of x and the subgroup G x of G defined by G x = {g ∈ G :
g(x) = x} is called the stabilizer or isotropy group at x of the corresponding group
action.

Example 1.7.10 (Geometrical) The actions of a given topological group on the

same topological space may be different. For example, let T be the torus in R3
obtained by rotating the circle C : (x − 3)2 + z 2 = 1 about the z-axis and Z2 =<
h >, generated by h. Consider the three actions

(i)
ψ1 : Z2 × T → T , (h, (x, y, z)) → (x, −y, −z),

which geometrically represents rotation of T through an angle 180◦ about the

x-axis;
 1.7 Topological Groups and Lie Groups 17

(ii)
ψ2 : Z2 × T → T , (h, (x, y, z)) → (−x, −y, z),

which geometrically represents rotation of T through an angle 180o about the

z-axis;
(iii)
ψ3 : Z2 × T → T , (h, (x, y, z)) → (−x, −y, −z)

which geometrically represents reflection of T about the origin.

Each of ψ1 , ψ2 and ψ3 is a homeomorphism of T of order 2 with the sphere,
torus and Klein bottle as the resulting orbit spaces, respectively.
Proposition 1.7.11 Let X be a left G-space and g ∈ G be an arbitrary point. Then
the map
ψg : X → X , x → g(x) (= gx)

is a homeomorphism.
Proof ψg is continuous for every g ∈ G, since the group action is continuous. So,
ψg and ψg−1 are two continuous maps such that ψg ◦ ψg−1 = IX = ψg−1 ◦ ψg , and
hence, it follows that ψg is a homeomorphism. ❑
Remark 1.7.12 Let X be a left G-space and homeo(X) be the set of homeomor-
phisms ψg : X → X for all g ∈ G. Then homeo(X) = {ψg : g ∈ G} is a group under
usual composition of mappings. Proposition 1.7.13 shows that this group is closely
related to the group action of G on X .
Proposition 1.7.13 Let X be a left G-space. Then the map

f : G → homeo(X), g → ψg

is a group homomorphism.
Proof Since for each g ∈ G, ψg is a homeomorphism, the map f is well defined.
Again, since for g, k ∈ G, f (gk) = ψgk = f (g)f (k) asserts that f is a group homo-
morphism. ❑

1.7.3 Lie Groups and Examples

This subsection communicates the concept of Lie groups which are continuous trans-
formation groups. Lie groups occupy a vast territory of topological groups carrying
a differentiable structure and play a key role in the study of topology, geometry and
physics. S. Lie developed his theory of continuous transformations with an eye to
investigate differential equations. The basic ideas of his theory appeared in his paper
(Lie 1880) published in ‘Math. Ann., Vol 16, 1880.’ A Lie group is a topological
group possessing the structure of a smooth manifold on which the group operations
are smooth functions. Its mathematical formulation is given in Definition 1.7.14.
 18 1 Prerequisite Concepts of Algebra, Topology, Manifold and Category Theory

Definition 1.7.14 A topological group G with identity element e is said to be a real

Lie group if
(i) G is a real differentiable manifold;
(ii) the group multiplication

m : G × G → G, (x, y) → xy

and the group inversion

v : G → G, x → x−1

are both differentiable.

Definition 1.7.15 A topological group G is said to be a complex Lie group if

(i) G is a complex manifold;
(ii) the group multiplication

m : G × G → G, (x, y) → xy

and the group inversion

v : G → G, x → x−1

are both holomorphic.

Definition 1.7.16 The dimension of a Lie group is defined to be its dimension as

a manifold.

Example 1.7.17 Examples of Lie groups are plenty.

(i) The real line R is a Lie group under usual addition of real numbers.
(ii) R+ = {x ∈ R : x > 0} is a Lie group under usual multiplication of real numbers.
(iii) R2 is a Lie group under pointwise addition given by

(x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ).

(iv) Every finite dimensional vector space V over R is a Lie group, since the map

f : V × V → V , (x, y ) → x + y

is linear and hence differentiable. Similarly, the map g : V → V , x → −x is

smooth. In particular, the additive group Rn with its standard structure as a
differentiable manifold is a Lie group.
 1.8 Category, Functor and Natural Transformation 19

1.8 Category, Functor and Natural Transformation

This section conveys the basic concepts of category theory, which provides a
convenient language to unify several mathematical results and unifies many basic
concepts of mathematics in an accessible way. This language born through the work
of S. Eilenberg (1913–1998) and S. MacLane (1900–2005) during 1942–1945 is
used throughout the present book. This section conveys the introductory concepts of
category, functor and natural transformation in the language of category theory.

1.8.1 Introductory Concept of Category

Definition 1.8.1 A category C consists of

(i) a certain family of objects X , Y , Z, . . . usually denoted by ob(C);
(ii) for every ordered pair of objects X , Y ∈ ob(C), a set of morphisms from X to
Y , denoted by [X , Y ] is specified;
(iii) for every ordered triple of objects X , Y , Z ∈ ob(C) and any pair of morphisms
f ∈ [X , Y ], g ∈ [Y , Z], their composition, denoted by g ◦ f ∈ [X , Z] is defined
with the following properties:
(iv) (associativity): if f ∈ [X , Y ], g ∈ [Y , Z], h ∈ [Z, K], then h ◦ (g ◦ f ) = (h ◦
g) ◦ f ∈ [X , K];
(v) (existence of identity morphism): for every object Y ∈ ob(C), there is a mor-
phism 1Y , called identity morphism with the property: for every f ∈ [X , Y ], g ∈
[Y , Z], both the equalities 1Y ◦ f = f and g ◦ 1Y = g hold.

Remark 1.8.2 The identity morphism in a category is unique for each of its object.

Example 1.8.3 (i) The family of all sets and their mappings form a category,
denoted by Set, where objects are all sets, morphisms are all possible mappings
between them and the composition is the usual composition of functions.
(ii) The family of all groups and their homomorphisms form a category, denoted by
Grp, where objects are all groups, morphisms are all possible homomorphisms
between them and the composition is the usual composition of mappings.
(iii) The family of all abelian groups and their homomorphisms form a category,
denoted by Ab, where objects are all abelian groups, morphisms are all possible
homomorphisms between them and the composition is the usual composition of
mappings.
(iv) The family of all vector spaces and their linear transformations form a category,
denoted by Vect.
(v) The family of all topological spaces and their continuous maps form a category,
denoted by T op.
(vi) The family of all pointed topological spaces and their base point preserving
continuous maps form a category, denoted by T op∗ .
 20 1 Prerequisite Concepts of Algebra, Topology, Manifold and Category Theory

Remark 1.8.4 The concepts of bijective mappings of sets, isomorphism of groups,

rings or vector spaces, topological spaces and so on can be unified through the concept
of an equivalence in category theory.
Definition 1.8.5 A morphism f ∈ [X , Y ] in a category C is said to be an equivalence
if there is a morphism g ∈ [Y , X ] in the category C such that

f ◦ g = 1Y , g ◦ f = 1X .

If f is an equivalence in C, then g is also an equivalence in C and the objects X and

Y are said to be equivalent.
Example 1.8.6 The equivalences and equivalent objects in the following categories
are specified:
(i) In the category Set, equivalences are bijective mappings and equivalent objects
are precisely the sets having the same cardinality.
(ii) In the category Grp, equivalences are group isomorphisms and equivalent objects
are precisely isomorphic groups.
(iii) In the category T op, equivalences are homeomorphisms and equivalent objects
are precisely homeomorphic topological spaces.
(iv) In the category Ring, equivalences are ring isomorphisms and equivalent objects
are precisely isomorphic rings.

1.8.2 Introductory Concept of Functors

A functor is a natural mapping from one category to the other in the sense that
it preserves the identity morphism and composites of well-defined morphisms. It
plays a key role in converting a problem of one category to the problem of other
category to have a better chance for solution. Important examples of functors from
the topological viewpoint are available in Chaps. 2, 3 and 5.
Definition 1.8.7 Given two categories C1 and C2 , a covariant functor

F : C1 → C2 , X → F(X ), f → F(f )

from category C1 to the category C2 , consists of

(i) an object function which assigns to every object X ∈ C1 an object F(X ) ∈ C2
and
(ii) a morphism function which assigns to every morphism

f ∈ [X , Y ]

in the category C1 , a morphism

 1.8 Category, Functor and Natural Transformation 21

F(f ) ∈ [F(X ), F(Y )]

in the category C2 such that

(iii) F(1X ) = 1F(X ) for every identity morphism 1X ;
(iv) for morphisms f ∈ [X , Y ], g ∈ [Y , Z] in the category C1 , the equality

F(g ◦ f ) = F(g) ◦ F(f )

holds in the category C2 .

A contravariant functor is defined dually and is formulated in Definition 1.8.8.

Definition 1.8.8 Given two categories C1 and C2 , a contravariant functor

F : C1 → C2 , X → F(X ), f → F(f )

from category C1 to the category C2 , consists of

(i) an object function which assigns to every object X ∈ C1 an object F(X ) ∈ C2

and
(ii) a morphism function which assigns to every morphism f ∈ [X , Y ] in the cate-
gory C1 , a morphism
F(f ) ∈ [F(Y ), F(X )]

in the category C2 such that

(iii) F(1X ) = 1F(X ) ;
(iv) for morphisms f ∈ [X , Y ], g ∈ [Y , Z] in the category C1 , the equality

F(g ◦ f ) = F(f ) ◦ F(g)

holds in the category C2 .

Example 1.8.9 (i) There is a covariant functor F : Grp → Set whose object func-
tion assigns to every group G its underlying set |G| and to every group homo-
morphism f : G → K in the category Grp to its corresponding underlying set
function f : |G| → |K| in the category Set. This functor is known as forgetful
functor as it forgets the group structure.
(ii) Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over R and V d = L(V , R) be the
set of all linear transformations T : V → R. Then it is also an n-dimensional
vector space over R, called the dual space of V , denoted by V d . To each
linear transformation T : V1 → V2 , its dual map T d : V2d → V1d is defined
by T d (α)(x) = α(T (x)), ∀ x ∈ V1 , ∀ α ∈ V2d . If V n be the category of all n-
dimensional vector space over R and their linear transformations, then the above
results assert that there is a covariant functor

F : V n → V n , V → V d ∀ objects V ∈ V n , and T → T d ∀ morphisms T ∈ V n

22 1 Prerequisite Concepts of Algebra, Topology, Manifold and Category Theory

i.e., the object function maps V to V d and morphism function maps T to T d in

the category V n to itself.
(iii) Given an object A ∈ C, there is a covariant functor

hC : C → C

whose object function assigns to every object X ∈ C to the object hC (X ) =

[C, X ] (the set of all morphisms from the object C to the object X in the category
C) and the morphism function assigns to every morphism f ∈ [X , Y ] in C, the
morphism
hC (f ) : hC (X ) → hC (Y ), g → f ◦ g

in the category C.
(iv) Given an object A ∈ C, there is a contravariant functor

hC : C → C

whose object function assigns to every object X ∈ C to the object hC (X ) =

[X , C] (the set of all morphisms from the object X to the object C in the category
C) and the morphism function assigns to every morphism f ∈ [X , Y ] in C, the
morphism
hC (f ) : hC (Y ) → hC (X ), g → g ◦ f

in the category C.

Proposition 1.8.10 Let C1 and C2 be two categories and F : C1 → C2 be a functor.

If X and Y are two objects equivalent in the category C1 , then the corresponding
objects F(X ) and F(Y ) are also equivalent objects in the category C2 .

Proof Let X and Y be two equivalent objects in the category C1 . Then there exist two
morphisms f ∈ [X , Y ], g ∈ [Y , X ] in the category C1 such that f ◦ g = 1Y and g ◦
f = IX . Then the result follows from the definition of a functor F (may be covariant
or contravariant). ❑

Corollary 1.8.11 Let X and Y be two objects in a category C1 and F be a functor

from the category C1 to the category C2 such that the objects F(X ) and F(Y ) are not
equivalent. Then the objects X and Y are also not equivalent.

Remark 1.8.12 The Corollary 1.8.11 is applied to show that the groups Z5 and Z9
are not isomorphic because the forgetful functor assigns to their underlying sets of
different cardinalities. But the cardinal number of the underlying sets of two groups
may be the same but the groups may not be isomorphic. For example, the groups
S3 and Z6 are not isomorphic but the cardinal number of their underlying sets is the
same.
1.8 Category, Functor and Natural Transformation 23

1.8.3 Introductory Concept of Natural Transformation

The subsection defines natural transformation between two functors. Natural trans-
formation is an important concept needed to compare functors with each other of the
same variance (i.e., when they are either both covariant or both contravariant).

Definition 1.8.13 Let C1 and C2 be two categories and F1 , F2 : C1 → C2 be two

functors of the same variance. A natural transformation

ψ : F1 → F2

is a function which assigns to every object X in the category C1 a morphism ψ(X )

such that for every morphism f ∈ [X , Y ] in C1 , the following equality holds:

ψ(Y ) ◦ F1 (f ) = F2 (f ) ◦ ψ(X )

(if both F1 and F2 are covariant functors)

or
ψ(X ) ◦ F1 (f ) = F2 (f ) ◦ ψ(Y )

(if both F1 and F2 are contravariant functors). In addition, if for each object X in the
category C1 , the natural transformation ψ(X ) is an equivalence in the category C2 ,
then ψ is said to be a natural equivalence.

Example 1.8.14 Given a commutative ring R, let ModR be the category of all R-
modules and their R-homomorphisms. Given a fixed R-module A, there is a covariant
functor πA from the category ModR to itself which assigns to an R-module M the
R-module [A, M ] (the module of all R-module homomorphisms from A to M ) and
for a morphism f : M → N in the category ModR the morphism πA (f ) is defined
by
πA (f ) : [A, M ] → [A, N ] : g → f ◦ g.

Then πA is a covariant functor. Similarly, for each fixed R-module A there is a con-
travariant functor π A defined from the category ModR to itself. Given a morphism
f ∈ [X , Y ] in the category ModR , a natural transformation f ∗ : πY → πX is defined
by
f ∗ (M ) : πY (M ) → πX (M ), h → h ◦ f , ∀ M in ModR .

Remark 1.8.15 For topological applications of category theory, see Chaps. 2, 3, 5

and 6.
24 1 Prerequisite Concepts of Algebra, Topology, Manifold and Category Theory

1.9 Exercises

As solving exercises plays an essential role of learning mathematics, various types

of exercises are given in this section. They form an integral part of the book series.
1. Show that the circle group S 1 = {z ∈ C : |z| = 1} in the complex plane is a Lie
group (This group is written as U (1, C) or simply as U (1)).
2. Prove that the general linear group GL (n, H) over the quaternions H is a topo-
logical group but it is not compact.
[Hint : In absence of a determinant function in this case, use the result that
GL (n, H) is an open subset of an Euclidean space.]
3. Show that the special real linear group

SL(n, R) = {X ∈ GL (n, R) : det X = 1}

is a noncompact connected topological group and it is a real Lie group with

dimension n2 − 1.
[ Hint : Use the result that SL(n, R) is a subgroup of GL (n, R). It is a hypersur-
face of GL (n, R). ]
4. Prove that the special complex linear group

SL(n, C) = {X ∈ GL (n, C) : det X = 1}

is a noncompact connected topological group and is a complex Lie group of

dimension n2 − 1.
[Hint : SL(n, C) is a subgroup of GL (n, C). ]
5. Prove that the orthogonal group

O(n, R) = {A ∈ GL (n, R) : AAt = I = At A}

is a compact nonconnected topological group and it is a real Lie group with

dimension n(n−1)
2
.
6. Show that the special orthogonal group

SO(n, R) = O(n, R) ∩ SL(n, R)

is a real compact connected topological group and it is a real Lie group with
dimension n(n−1)
2
.
7. Prove that the general (complex) linear group GL(n, C) is a topological group
and it is a connected, noncompact complex Lie group with dimension n2 .
8. Show that the unitary group

U (n, C) = {A ∈ GL (n, C) : AA∗ = A∗ A = I }

1.9 Exercises 25

is a connected compact topological group, and it is a real Lie group with dimen-
sion n2 , where A∗ denotes the conjugate transpose of A (conjugate means reversal
of all the imaginary components).
[ Hint : It is a subgroup of GL (n, C). It is not a complex submanifold of
GL (n, C). It can be embedded as a subgroup of GL (2n, R) .]
9. Let SU (n, C) denote the special unitary group defined by

SL(n, C) = U (n, C) ∩ SL(n, C).

Show that the group

 
z w
SU (2, C) = {A = : z, w ∈ C and |z|2 + |w|2 = 1}
−w̄ z̄

is isomorphic to S 3 .
[Hint. Use the form of A.]
10. The quaternionic analog of orthogonal unitary groups is the sympletic group

SU (n, H) = {A ∈ GL (n, H) : AA∗ = I },

where A∗ denotes the quaternionic conjugate transpose of A. Prove that it is a

compact topological group.
11. Show that the 3-dimensional projective space RP 3 and SO(3, R) are homeo-
morphic.
12. Let G be a Lie group. Prove the following statements:

(i) the right translation R : G × G → G, (a, g) → Ra (g) = ga is a free and

transitive action and
(ii) left translation L : G × G → G, (a, g) → La (g) = ag is also a free and
transitive action.

13. Let G be a Lie group and M be a smooth manifold. Prove the following state-
ments:

(i) the isotropy group G x of any point x ∈ M is a Lie subgroup of G;

(ii) if G acts freely on M , then the isotropy group G x of any point x ∈ M is
trivial.
14. Show that the orthogonal group O (n + 1, R) acts on RP n transitively from left.
15. Show that orthogonal group O (n, R) acts transitively on the Grassmann manifold
(see Chap. 5) G n,r (r ≤ n).
16. Show that the special orthogonal group SO (n, R) acts transitively on the Stiefel
manifold (see Chap. 5) Vn,r = Vr (Rn ), (r ≤ n).
26 1 Prerequisite Concepts of Algebra, Topology, Manifold and Category Theory

References

Adhikari A, Adhikari MR. Basic topology, vol. 1: metric spaces and general topology. India:
Springer; 2022a.
Adhikari A, Adhikari MR, Basic topology, vol. 2: topological groups, topology of manifolds and
lie groups. India: Springer; 2022b.
Adhikari MR, Adhikari. A. Basic modern algebra with applications. New Delhi, New York, Hei-
delberg: Springer; 2014.
Adhikari MR. Basic algebraic topolgy and its applications. India: Springer; 2016.
Adhikari MR, Adhikari A, Groups, rings and modules with applications. Hyderabad: Universities
Press; 2003.
Adhikari MR, Adhikari A. Textbook of linear algebra: an introduction to modern algebra. New
Delhi: Allied Publishers; 2006.
Alexandrov PS, Introduction to set theory and general topology. Moscow; 1979.
Borisovich YU, Bliznyakov N, Izrailevich YA, Fomenko T. Introduction to topology. Moscow: Mir
Publishers; 1985.
Bredon GE. Topology and geometry. New York: Springer; 1983.
Chatterjee BC, Ganguly S, Adhikari MR. A textbook of topology. New Delhi: Asian Books; 2002.
Dugundji J. Topology. Newton, MA: Allyn & Bacon; 1966.
MacLane S. Categories for the working mathematician. Springer, New York (1971)
Simmons G.Introduction to topology and modern analysis. McGraw Hill York; 1963.
Williard S General topology. Addision- Wesley; 1970.
Chapter 2
Homotopy Theory: Fundamental Group
and Higher Homotopy Groups

This chapter officially inaugurates homotopy theory to begin a study of algebraic

topology by conveying the basic concepts of homotopy and fundamental groups
born through the work of H. Poincaré (1854–1912) in his land-marking ‘Analy-
sis Situs,’ Paris, 1895, and also discusses higher homotopy groups constructed in
1935 by H. Hurewicz (1904–1956) in his paper [Hurewicz, 1935], which are natural
generalizations of fundamental groups. Homotopy theory studies those properties of
topological spaces and continuous maps which are invariants under homotopic maps,
called homotopy invariants. Finally, this chapter presents some interesting applica-
tions of homotopy, fundamental and higher homotopy groups in analysis, geometry,
algebra, matrix theory, atmospheric science, vector field and extension problems and
some others.
Just after the concept of homeomorphisms is clearly defined, the subject of topol-
ogy begins to study those properties of geometric figures which are preserved by
homeomorphisms with an eye to classify topological spaces up to homeomorphism,
which stands as the ultimate problem in topology, where a geometric figure is con-
sidered to be a point set in the Euclidean space Rn . But this undertaking becomes
hopeless when there exists no homeomorphism between the two given topological
spaces. For example, the problem is whether the Euclidean plane R2 and the punc-
tured Euclidean plane R2 − {(0, 0)} are homeomorphic or not. It is difficult to solve
such a problem by the concepts of topological properties such as compactness and
connectedness, studied in Basic Topology, Volume 1 of the present book series.
So, it has become necessary to search for an alternative technique, which is created
in algebraic topology.
A basic problem in topology is to classify continuous maps between topological
spaces up to homeomorphism. This problem is known as classification problems of
topological spaces, and it aims to investigate whether given two topological spaces
are homeomorphic or not. To solve such a problem, either we have to find an explicit
expression of a homeomorphism between them or we have to show that no such
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 27
M. R. Adhikari, Basic Topology 3,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-6550-9_2
28 2 Homotopy Theory: Fundamental Group and Higher Homotopy Groups

homeomorphism exists. To solve the problem of impossibility (when there exists no

such homeomorphism), the problem is shifted in many cases to algebra by associating
invariant objects in the sense that homeomorphic spaces have the same algebraic
object (up to equivalence). These algebraic objects are well known as topological
invariants. They are also called algebraic invariants. Initially, these objects were
integers such as Euler characteristic of a polyhedron. But subsequent research
reveals that more fruitful and interesting results can be obtained from the algebraic
invariant structures such as groups and rings. For example, homology and homotopy
groups are very important algebraic invariants that provide strong tools to study the
structure of topological spaces.
On the other hand, it is a natural problem in homotopy theory to classify con-
tinuous maps between topological spaces up to homotopy: Two continuous maps
from one topological space to other are homotopic if one map can be continuously
deformed into the other map. This classification by an equivalence relation leads to
the concepts of the fundamental groups and the higher homotopy groups, which
are powerful topological invariants to solve many basic problems of topology.
The basic aim of algebraic topology is to devise ways to assign to every topolog-
ical space an algebraic object and to every continuous map from a topological space
to other a homomorphism between the corresponding algebraic objects in a functo-
rial way. This functorial approach facilitates in a variety of cases to solve topological
problems through the possible sovability of corresponding algebraic problems. This
technique defines topological invariants, which are also algebraic invariants. They
convert topological problems into algebraic ones to have a better chance for solu-
tion, which develop another branch of topology, known as algebraic topology. This
branch is one of the most important and powerful creations in mathematics which
uses algebraic tools to study topological spaces. The twentieth century witnessed
its greatest development. For example, in classical mechanics, a natural topology
(Euclidean topology) can be endowed on the configuration space and the phase
space of a system, which provides a qualitative study of the system. A nonvanish-
ing vector field on a nonempty subset X of the Euclidean space Rn and a flow on it
establish a close connection between topology and analysis. This chapter also studies
topological dynamics, which is the study of flows and gives an abstract form of
differential equations.
Historically, B. Riemann (1826–1866) made an extensive work generalizing the
concept of a surface to higher dimensions. He studied a special class of surfaces,
now called Riemann surfaces. While investigating the 3-dimensional and higher-
dimensional manifolds (topological) in 1895, Henri Poincaré in his ‘Analysis
Situs’ formally introduced the concepts of homotopy, fundamental group, homology
groups and Betti numbers. His monumental work embodied in his ‘Analysis Situs’
provided tools to solve problems on system of differential equations, and his research
establishes a surprising connection between analysis and topology (see Topological
Dynamics of Sect. 2.18.5).
Poincaré himself remarked in 1912: ‘Geometers usually distinguish two kinds
of geometry, the first of which they qualify as metric and the second is projective.
· · · But it is a third geometry from which quantity is completely excluded and
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any hay. At the same time the government was feeding in its stables
thirty horses for General Lee and his staff.”
A hundred similar instances of partiality shown to the Rebels by the
Ord and Patrick administration were related to me by eye-witnesses;
coupled with accounts of insults and outrages heaped upon loyal
men and Freedmen. Happily Ord and Patrick and their pro-slavery
rule had passed away; but there were still complaints that it was not
the true Union men who had the ear of the government, but those
whose unionism had been put on as a matter of policy and
convenience. This was no fault of General Terry, although he was
blamed for it. When I told him what I had heard, he said warmly,—
“Why don’t these men come to me? They are the very men I wish to
see.”
“The truth is, General, they were snubbed so often by your
predecessors that they have not the heart to come.”
“But I have not snubbed them. I have not shown partiality to
traitors. Everybody that knows me knows that I have no love for
slavery or treason, and that every pulse of my heart throbs with
sympathy for these men and the cause in which they have suffered.”
One evening I met by appointment, at the tent of the Union
Commission, a number of the dauntless twenty-one, and
accompanied them to a meeting of the Union League. It was a
beautiful night, and as we walked by the rainy fountain, under the
still trees, one remarked,—
“Many an evening, when there was as pretty a moon as this, I have
wished that I might die and be out of my misery. That was when I
was in prison for being loyal to my country.”
At the rooms of the League I was surrounded by these men, nearly
every one of whom had been exiled or imprisoned for that cause. I
witnessed the initiation of new-comers; but in the midst of the
impressive solemnities I could not but reflect, “How faint a symbol is
this of the real League to which the twenty-one were sworn in their
hearts! To belong to this is now safe and easy enough; but to have
been a true member of that, under the reign of terror,—how very
different!”
 CHAPTER XXIII.
MARKETS AND FARMING.

The negro population of Richmond gives to its streets a peculiarly

picturesque and animated appearance. Colored faces predominate;
but of these not more than one in five or six shows unmixed African
blood; and you are reminded less of an American city than of some
town of Southern Europe. More than once I could have fancied
myself in Naples, but that I looked in vain for the crowds of
importunate beggars, and the dark-skinned lazzaroni lying all day in
the sunshine on the street corners. I saw no cases of mendicancy
among the colored people of Richmond, and very little idleness. The
people found at work everywhere belonged to the despised race;
while the frequenters of bar-rooms, and loungers on tavern-steps,
were white of skin. To get drunk, especially, appeared to be a
prerogative of the chivalry.
The mules and curious vehicles one sees add to the picturesqueness
of the streets. The market-carts are characteristically droll. A little
way off you might fancy them dogcarts. Under their little ribbed
canvas covers are carried little jags of such produce as the proprietor
may have to sell,—a few cabbages, a few pecks of sweet potatoes, a
pair of live chickens, tied together by the legs; a goose or a duck in
a box, its head sticking out; with perhaps a few eggs and eggplants.
These little carts, drawn by a mule or the poorest of ponies, have
been driven perhaps a dozen or fifteen miles, bringing to market
loads, a dozen of which would scarcely equal what a New-York
farmer, or a New-England market-gardener often heaps upon a
single wagon.
In the markets, business is transacted on the same petty scale. You
see a great number of dealers, and extraordinary throngs of
purchasers, considering the little that appears to be sold. Not every
producer has so much even as an antiquated mule-cart. Many come
to market with what they can carry on their backs or in their hands.
Yonder is an old negro with a turkey, which he has walked five miles
to dispose of here. That woman with a basket of eggs, whose rags
and sallow complexion show her to be one of the poor whites whom
respectable colored people look down upon, has travelled, it may be,
quite as far. Here comes a mulatto boy, with a string of rock-fish
caught in the James. This old man has hard peaches in his bag; and
that other woman contributes a box of wild grapes.
People of all colors and all classes surround the sheds or press in
throngs through the passages between the stalls. The fine lady,
followed by her servant bearing a basket, has but little money; and
although she endeavors to make it go as far as possible, it must be a
small family that can subsist until Monday upon what she carries
away. There is little money to be seen anywhere; in which respect
these scenes are very different from those witnessed during the last
years of Confederate rule, when it was said that people went to
market with baskets to carry their money, and wallets to bring home
what it would buy. The markets are not kept open during the
evening, and as the hour for closing them arrives, the bargaining
and loud talking grow more and more vivacious, while prices decline.
I remember one fellow who jumped upon his table, and made a
speech, designed to attract the patronage of the freedmen.
“Walk up hyer, and buy cheap!” he shouted. “I don’t say niggers; I
say ladies and gentlemen. Niggers is played out; they’re colored
people now, and as good as anybody.”
The markets indicate the agricultural enterprise of a community. Yet,
even after seeing those of Richmond, I was amazed at the petty and
shiftless system of farming I witnessed around the city. I was told
that it was not much better before the war. The thrifty vegetable
gardens of the North, producing two or three crops a year; the long
rows of hot-beds by the fences, starting cucumbers and supplying
the market with greens sometimes before the snow is gone,—such
things are scarcely known in the capital of Virginia. “We have lettuce
but a month or two in the year,” said a lady, who was surprised to
learn how Northern gardeners managed to produce it in and out of
season.
In one of my rides I passed the place of a Jersey farmer, about three
miles from the city. It looked like an oasis in the desert. I took pains
to make the proprietor’s acquaintance, and learn his experience.
“I came here and bought in ’59 one hundred and twenty-seven acres
for four thousand dollars. The first thing I did was to build that barn.
Everybody laughed at me. The most of the farms have no barns at
all; and such a large one was a wonder,—it must have been built by
a fool or a crazy man. This year I have that barn full to the rafters.
“I found the land worn out, like nearly all the land in the country.
The way Virginia folks have spoilt their farms looks a good deal more
like fools or crazy men than my barn. First, if there was timber, they
burnt it off and put a good coat of ashes on the soil. Then they
raised tobacco three or four years. Then corn, till the soil got run out
and they couldn’t raise anything. Then they went to putting on
guano, which was like giving rum to an exhausted man; it just
stimulated the soil till all the strength there was left was burnt out.
That was the condition of my farm when I came here.
“The first thing I did, I went to hauling out manure from Richmond.
I was laughed at for that too. The way people do here, they throw
away their manure. They like to have their farm-yards high and dry;
so they place them on the side of a hill, where every rain washes
them, and carries off into the streams the juices that ought to be
saved for the land. They left their straw-stacks any number of years,
then drew the straw out on the farms dry. I made my barn-yard in a
hollow, and rotted the straw in it. Now I go to market every day with
a big Jersey farm-wagon loaded down with stuff.”
He had been getting rich, notwithstanding the war. I asked what
labor he employed.
“Negro labor mostly. It was hard to get any other here. I didn’t own
slaves, but hired them of their masters. Only the poorest hands were
usually hired out in that way; I could seldom get first-class hands;
yet I always found that by kind treatment and encouragement I
could make very good laborers of those I had. I get along still better
with them now they are free.”
“Do you use horses?”
“No; mules altogether. Two mules are equal to three horses. Mules
are not subject to half the diseases horses are. They eat less, and
wear twice as long.”
I found farms of every description for sale, around Richmond. The
best land on the James River Bottom could be bought at prices
varying from forty to one hundred dollars an acre. I remember one
very desirable estate, of eight hundred acres, lying on the river,
three miles from the city, which was offered for sixty dollars. There
were good buildings on it; and the owner was making fences of old
telegraph wire, to replace those destroyed during the war.
 CHAPTER XXIV.
IN AND AROUND RICHMOND.

If temples are a token of godliness, Richmond should be a holy city.

It has great pride in its churches; two of which are noteworthy.
The first is St. John’s Church, on Church Hill,—a large, square-
looking wooden meeting-house, whose ancient walls and rafters
once witnessed a famous scene, and reëchoed words that have
become historical. Here was delivered Patrick Henry’s celebrated
speech, since spouted by every schoolboy,—“Give me liberty or give
me death!” Those shining sentences still hang like a necklace on the
breast of American Liberty. The old meeting-house stands where it
stood, overlooking the same earth and the same beautiful stream.
But the men of that age lie buried in the dust of these old crowded
church-yards; and of late one might almost have said that the
wisdom of Virginia lay buried with them.
On the corner of Grace Street, opposite my hotel, I looked out every
morning upon the composite columns and pilasters, and spire clean
as a stiletto, of St. Paul’s Church, with which are connected very
different associations. This is the church, and (if you enter) yonder is
the pew, in which Jeff Davis sat on Sundays, and heard the gospel of
Christ interpreted from the slave-owners’ point of view. Here he sat
on that memorable Sabbath when Lee’s dispatch was handed in to
him, saying that Richmond was lost. The same preacher who
preached on that day, still propounds his doctrines from the desk.
The same sexton who handed in the dispatch glances at you, and, if
you are well dressed, offers you a seat in a good place. The same
white congregation that arose then in confusion and dismay, on
seeing the President go out, sit quietly once more in their seats; and
the same colored congregation looks down from the nigger gallery.
The seats are still bare,—the cushions that were carried to the Rebel
hospitals, to serve as mattresses, having not yet been returned.
Within an arrow’s shot from St. Paul’s, in the State Capitol, on
Capitol Square, were the halls of the late Confederate Congress. I
visited them only once, and found them a scene of dust and
confusion,—emblematical. The desks and seats had been ripped up,
and workmen were engaged in sweeping out the last vestiges of
Confederate rule. The furniture, as I learned, was already at an
auction-room on Main Street, selling under the hammer. I reported
the fact to Mr. C——, of the Union Commission, who was looking for
furniture to be used in the freedmen’s schools; and he made haste
to bid for the relics. I hope he got them; for I can fancy no finer
stroke of poetical justice than the conversion of the seats on which
sat the legislators of the great slave empire, and the desks on which
they wrote, into seats and desks for little negro children learning to
read.
It was interesting, by the light of recent events, and in company
with one who knew Richmond of yore, to make the tour of the old
negro auction-rooms. Davis & Co.’s Negro Bazaar was fitting up for a
concert hall. We entered a grocery store,—a broad basement room,
with a low, dark ceiling, supported by two stout wooden pillars. “I’ve
seen many a black Samson sold, standing between those posts; and
many a woman too, as white as you or I.” Now sugar and rice were
sold there, but no more human flesh and blood. The store was kept
by a Northern man, who did not even know what use the room had
served in former years.
A short ride from the city are two cemeteries worth visiting. On one
side, Hollywood, where lie buried President Monroe and his doctrine.
On the other side, Oak Wood, a wild, uncultivated hill, half covered
with timber and brush, shading numerous Confederate soldiers’
graves. Here, set apart from the rest by a rude fence, is the “Yankee
Cemetery,” crowded with the graves of patriot soldiers, who fell in
battle, or died of slow starvation and disease in Richmond prisons; a
melancholy field, which I remember as I saw it one gusty September
day, when wild winds swept it, and shook down over it whirling
leaves from the reeling and roaring trees.
Lieut. M——, of the Freedmen’s Commission, having invited me to
visit Camp Lee, about two miles from the city, came for me one
afternoon in a fine large carryall, comfortably covered, cushioned,
and carpeted.
“Perhaps you will not feel honored,” he remarked, as we rattled up
Broad Street, “but you will be interested to know that this is General
Robert E. Lee’s head-quarters’ wagon. You are riding on the seat he
rode on through the campaigns of the last two years. Your feet are
on a piece of carpet which one of the devoted secessionists of
Richmond took up from his hall-floor expressly to line the General’s
wagon-bottom,—little thinking Yankee boot-soles would ever
desecrate it! After Lee’s surrender, this wagon was turned over to
the quartermaster’s department, and the quartermaster turned it
over to us.” I was interested, indeed; I was carried back to those
sanguinary campaigns; and I fancied I could see the face of him
sitting there where I sat, and read the thoughts of his mind, and the
emotions of his heart, in those momentous nights and days. I
imagined the plans he revolved in his brain, shut in by those dark
curtains; what he felt after victory, and what after defeat; the
weariness of body and soul; the misgivings, the remorse, when he
remembered his treason and the folly of Virginia,—for he certainly
remembered them in the latter gloomy periods, when he saw the
black cloud of doom settling down upon a bad and failing cause.
Camp Lee, formerly a fair ground, was the conscript camp of the
Confederacy. I had been told many sad stories of young men, and
men of middle age, some of them loyal, seized by the conscript
officers and sent thither, as it were to a reservoir of the people’s
blood, whose stream was necessary to keep the machinery of
despotism in motion. I paced the grounds where, with despairing
hearts, they took their first lessons in the art by which they were to
slay and be slain. I stood by the tree under which deserters were
shot. Then I turned to a very different scene.
The old barrack buildings were now the happy homes of a village of
freedmen. Groups of barefooted and woolly-headed negro children
were at play before the doors, filling the air with their laughter, and
showing all their ivory with grins of delight as I passed among them.
The old men took off their caps to me, the wise old aunties
welcomed me with dignified smiles, and the younger women looked
up brightly from their ironing or cooking as I went by. The young
men were all away at their work. It was, with few exceptions, a self-
supporting community, only about a dozen old or infirm persons, out
of three hundred, receiving aid from the government.
A little removed from the negro village was a cottage formerly
occupied by Confederate officers.
“In that house,” said the Lieutenant, “is living a very remarkable
character. You know him by reputation, ——, formerly one of the
ablest writers on ‘De Bow’s Review,’ and considered the great
champion of slavery in the South.”
“What! the author of ——?” a somewhat celebrated book in its day,
and in the latitude for which it was written; designed to set forth the
corrupt and perishable nature of free societies and progressive
ideas, and to show that slavery was the one divine and enduring
institution.
“The very man. He is now a pauper, living on the bounty of the
government. The rent of that cottage is given him, and he draws
rations of the Relief Commission. He will be glad to see you; and he
has two accomplished daughters you will be glad to see.”
Accordingly we called upon him; but, declining to enter the house,
we sat under the stoop, where we could look across the desolate
country at the sunset sky.
Mr. ——, an emaciated, sallow, feeble old man, received us affably,
and talked with us freely on his favorite topics. He had lived to see
the one divine and enduring institution die; but civilization still
survived; and the race that found its welfare and happiness only in
bondage seemed pretty well off, and tolerably happy,—witness the
negro village close by: and the world of progressive ideas still moved
on. Yet this great champion of slavery did not appear to have
learned the first lesson of the times. All his arguments were the old
arguments; he knew nothing but the past, which was gone forever;
and the future to him was chaos.
His two daughters, young and accomplished, came and sat with us
in the twilight, together with a vivacious young lady from Richmond.
On our return to the city, Miss —— accompanied us, with their
visitor. The latter proved to be an audacious and incorrigible little
Rebel, and regaled us with secesh songs. I remember a few lines.
“You can never win us back,
Never, never,
Though we perish in the track
Of your endeavor!”

“You have no such noble blood

For the shedding:
In the veins of Cavaliers
Was its heading!
You have no such noble men
In your abolition den,
To march through fire and fen,
Nothing dreading!”
 CHAPTER XXV.
PEOPLE AND POLITICS.

One day I dined at the house of a Union man of a different stamp

from the twenty-one I have mentioned. He was one of the wealthy
citizens of Richmond,—a man of timid disposition and conservative
views, who had managed admirably to conceal his Union sentiments
during the war. He had been on excellent terms with Jeff Davis and
members of his cabinet; and he was now on excellent terms with the
United States authorities. A prudent citizen, not wanting in kindness
of heart; yet he could say of the Emancipation Act,—
“It will prove a good thing for the slave-owners; for it will be quite as
cheap to hire our labor as to own it, and we shall now be rid of
supporting the old and decrepit servants, such as were formerly left
to die on our hands.”
On being asked if he considered that he owed nothing to those aged
servants, he smoothed his chin, and looked thoughtful, but made no
reply.
An anecdote will show of what stuff the Unionism of this class is
composed. His name happened to be the same as that of one of our
generals. During the war, a Confederate officer, visiting his house,
said to him,—“I am told you are a near relative of General ——, of
the Federal army.”
“It’s a slander!” was the indignant reply. “He is no kin of mine, and I
would disown him if he was.”
After the occupation by our troops, Union officers were welcomed at
his house; one of whom said to him,—
“Are you related to our famous General ——?”
“Very likely, very likely,” was the complacent answer; “the ——’s are
all connected.”
Next to the uncompromising Union men, the most sincerely loyal
Virginians I saw in Richmond, or elsewhere, were those who had
been lately fighting against us. Only now and then a Confederate
soldier had much of the spirit of the Rebellion left in him.
“The truth is,” said Colonel D——, “we have had the devil whipped
out of us. It is only those who kept out of the fight that are in favor
of continuing it. I fought you with all my might until we got
whipped; then I gave it up as a bad job; and now there’s not a more
loyal man in the United States than I am.” He had become
thoroughly converted from the heresy of secession. “No nation can
live that tolerates such a doctrine; and, if we had succeeded, the
first thing we should have done would have been to repudiate it.”
I became acquainted with several officers of this class, who inspired
me with confidence and sympathy. Yet when one of them told me he
had been awarded a government place, with four thousand a year, I
could not help saying,—
“What right have you to such a place? How many capable and
worthy men, who have been all the while fighting for the
government you have been fighting against, would be thankful for a
situation with one half or one quarter the salary!”
The animus of the secessionists who kept out of the war, and
especially of the women, still manifested itself spitefully on
occasions.
“It is amusing,” said Mrs. W——, “to see the pains some of them
take to avoid walking under the flag we keep flying over our door.”
Two female teachers of the freed people had, after much trouble,
obtained board and lodgings in a private family, where the treatment
they received was such as no sensitive person could endure. They
were obliged to leave, and accept quarters in a Confederate
government building not much better than a barn. Many Richmond
families were glad enough to board army officers for their money;
but few were prepared to receive and treat decently “nigger
teachers,” at any price.

INDUSTRY OF LADIES IN CLOTHING THE

SOLDIERS, AND ZEAL IN URGING THEIR
BEAUX TO GO TO THE WAR.

“Yet the people of Richmond are not what they were five years ago,”
said General S——, who knew them well, being himself a Virginian.
“Their faces have changed. They have a dazed look, like owls in a
sudden light. To any one who used to see them in the old days of
their pride and spirit, this is very striking. There never was such a
downfall, and they have not yet recovered from the shock. They
seem to be groping about, as if they had lost something, or were
waiting for something. Whatever may be said of them, or whatever
they may say of themselves, they feel that they are a conquered
people.”
“They were a conquered people,” said the radical Union men. “There
never was a rebellious class more thoroughly subdued. They
expected no mercy from the government, for they deserved none.
They were prepared to submit to everything, even to negro suffrage;
for they supposed nothing less would be required of them. But the
more lenient the government, the more arrogant they become.”
Of Confederate patriotism I did not hear very favorable accounts. It
burst forth in a beautiful tall flame at the beginning of the war. There
were soldiers’ aid societies, patronized by ladies whose hands were
never before soiled by labor. Stockings were knit, shirts cut and
sewed, and carpets converted into blankets, by these lovely hands.
If a fine fellow appeared among them, more inclined to gallantry in
the parlor than to gallantry in the field, these same lovely hands
thrust him out, and he was told that “only ‘the brave deserve the
fair.’” But Southern heat is flashy and intense; it does not hold out
like the slow, deep fire of the north. The soldiers’ aid societies soon
grew to be an old story, and the lovely ones contented themselves
with cheering and waving their handkerchiefs when the “noble
defenders of the south” marched through the streets.
The “noble defenders of the south” did not, I regret to say,
appreciate the cheers and the handkerchiefs as they did the shirts
and the blankets.
“Many a time,” said Mrs. H——, “I have heard them yell back at the
ladies who cheered them, ‘Go to ——! If you care for us, come out
of your fine clothes and help us!’ After the people stopped giving,
the soldiers began to help themselves. I’ve seen them rush into
stores as they passed, snatch whatever they wanted, and march on
again, hooting, with loaves of bread and pieces of meat stuck on the
points of their bayonets.”
The sons and brothers of influential families were kept out of the
war by an ingenious system of details. Every man was conscripted;
but, while the poor and friendless were hurried away to fight the
battles of slavery, the favored aristocrat would get “detailed” to fill
some “bomb-proof” situation, as it was called.
“These ‘bomb-proofs’ finally got to be a very great nuisance. Men
were ‘detailed’ to fill every comfortable berth the government,
directly or indirectly, had anything to do with; and as the
government usurped, in one way or another, nearly all kinds of
business, it soon became difficult for an old or infirm person to get
any sort of light employment. A friend of mine, whom the war had
ruined, came down from the country, thinking he could get
something to do here. He saw able-bodied young men oiling the
wheels of the cars. He was old and lame, but he felt himself well
able to do that kind of work. So he applied for a situation, and found
that the young men he saw were ‘detailed’ from the army. Others
were ‘detailed’ to carry lanterns for them when they had occasion to
oil the car-wheels at night. It was so with every situation the poor
man could have filled.”
This was the testimony of a candid old gentleman, himself an
aristocrat, at whose house I passed an evening.
I took an early opportunity to make the acquaintance of Governor
Pierpoint, whom I found to be a plain, somewhat burly, exceedingly
good-humored and sociable person. The executive mansion occupies
pleasant grounds, enclosed from a corner of Capitol Square; and as
it was not more than three minutes’ walk from my hotel, I found it
often very agreeable to go over and spend a leisure hour or two in
his library.
Once I remarked to him: “What Virginia needs is an influx of
Northern ideas, Northern energy, Northern capital; what other way
of salvation is open to her?”
“None; and she knows it. It is a mistake to suppose that Northern
men and Northern capital are not welcome here. They are most
heartily welcome; they are invited. Look at this.”
He showed me a beautiful piece of white clay, and a handsome
pitcher made from it.
“Within eighty miles of Richmond, by railroad, there are beds of this
clay from which might be manufactured pottery and porcelain
sufficient to supply the entire South. Yet they have never been
worked; and Virginia has imported all her fine crockery-ware. Now
Northern energy will come in and coin fortunes out of that clay.
Under the old labor system, Virginia never had any enterprise; and
now she has no money. The advantages she offers to active
business men were never surpassed. Richmond is surrounded with
iron mines and coal-fields, wood-lands and farm-lands of excellent
quality; and is destined from its very position, under the new order
of things, to run up a population of two or three hundred thousand,
within not many years.”
I inquired about the state finances.
“The Rebel State debt will, of course, never be paid. The old State
debt, amounting to forty millions, will eventually be paid, although
the present is a dark day for it. There is no live stock to eat the
grass; the mills are destroyed; business is at a stand-still; there is no
bank-stock to tax,—nothing to tax, I might almost say, but the bare
land. We shall pay no interest on the debt this year; and it will
probably be three years before the back interest is paid. We have
twenty-two millions invested in railroads, and these will all be put in
a living condition in a short time. Then I count upon the
development of our natural resources. In mineral wealth and
agricultural advantages Virginia is inconceivably rich, as a few years
will amply testify.”
As an illustration of native enterprise, he told me that there was but
one village containing fifty inhabitants on the canal between
Richmond and Lynchburg, a distance of one hundred and fifty miles;
and land lying upon it was worth no more to-day than it was before
the canal was constructed. “Neither is there a village of any size on
the James River, between Richmond and Norfolk. How long would it
be before brick villages and manufacturing towns would spring up on
such a canal and river in one of the free States? Wasn’t it about
time,” he added, “for the old machine to break to pieces?”
At the hotel I used to meet a prosperous looking, liberal faced, wide-
awake person, whom I at once set down as a Yankee. On making his
acquaintance, I learned that he was at the head of a company of
Northern men who had recently purchased extensive coal-fields near
the James River, twelve miles above Richmond.
“The mines,” he said, “had been exhausted once, and abandoned, so
we bought them cheap. These Virginians would dig a little pit and
take out coal until water came in and interfered with their work;
then they would go somewhere else and dig another little pit. So
they worked over the surface of the fields, but left the great body of
the coal undisturbed. They baled with a mule. Now we have come in
with a few steam-pumps which will keep the shafts free from water
as fast as we sink them; and we are taking out cargoes of as good
anthracite as ever you saw. Here is some of it now,” pointing to a
line of loaded carts coming up from the wharf, where the coal was
landed.
I asked what labor he employed.
“Negro labor. There is none better. I have worked negroes all my life,
and prefer them in my business to any other class of laborers. Treat
a negro like a man, and you make a man of him.”
I also made the acquaintance of a New Yorker, who was working a
gold mine in Orange County, Va., and whose testimony was the
same with regard to native methods and negro labor. In short,
wherever I went, I became, every day, more strongly convinced that
the vast, beautiful, rich, torpid state of Virginia was to owe her
regeneration to Northern ideas and free institutions.
Hearing loud laughter in the court-house one evening, I looked in,
and saw a round, ruddy, white-haired, hale old man making a
humorous speech to a mixed crowd of respectable citizens and
rowdies. It was the Honorable Mr. P——, bidding for their votes. A
played-out politician, he had disappeared from public view a quarter
of a century before, but had now come up again, thinking there was
once more a chance for himself in the paucity of able men, whom
the barrier of the test-oath left eligible to Congress.
“As for that oath,” said he, with a solemn countenance, “I confess it
is a bitter cup; and I have prayed that it might pass from me.”
Here he paused, and took a sip of brandy from a glass on the desk
before him. Evidently that cup wasn’t so bitter, for he smacked his
lips, and looked up with a decidedly refreshed expression.
“Fellow-citizens,” said he, “I am going to tell you a little story,”—
clapping his cane under his arm, and peering under his gray
eyebrows. “It will show you my position with regard to that
abominable oath. In the good old Revolutionary times, there lived
somewhere on the borders a pious Scotchman, whose farm was run
over one day by the red-coats, and the next by the Continentals; so
that it required the most delicate manœuvering on his part to keep
so much as a pig or a sheep (to say nothing of his own valuable
neck) safe from the two armies. Now what did this pious Scotchman
do? In my opinion he did very wisely. When the red-coats caught
him, he took the oath of allegiance to the Crown. The next day,
when the Continentals picked him up, he took the same oath to the
Continental Congress. Now, being a deacon of the Presbyterian
Church, in good and regular standing, certain narrow-minded
brethren saw fit to remonstrate with him, asking how he could
reconcile his conscience to such a course.
“’My friends,’ said he, ‘I have thought over the matter, and I have
prayed over it; and I have concluded that it is safer to trust my soul
in the hands of a merciful God, than my property in the hands of
those thieving rascals.’
“Fellow-citizens,” resumed the candidate, after a storm of laughter
on the part of the crowd, and another a sip of the cup not bitter, on
his part, “I have thought over it, and prayed over it, and I have
concluded that I can conscientiously take that abominable test-oath;
in other words, that it is safer to trust my soul in the hands of a
merciful God, than my country in the hands of the Black
Republicans.”
He then proceeded to malign the people of the North, and to
misrepresent their motives, in a spirit of buffoonery and shameless
mendacity, which amazed me. The more outrageous the lies he told,
the louder the screams of applause from his delighted audience. I
could not have helped laughing at the ludicrousness of his
caricatures, had I not seen that they passed for true pictures with a
majority of his hearers; or had I not remembered that it was such
reckless political lying as this, which had so lately misled to their ruin
the ignorant masses of the South.
Having finished his speech and his brandy, he sat down; and a rival
candidate mounted the platform.
“B——! B——!” shrieked the ungrateful crowd, clapping and
stamping as frantically for the new speaker as for him who had
labored so long for their amusement. Thereupon, the Honorable Mr.
P——, pitching his hat over his eyes, and brandishing his cane,
advanced upon his rival.
B——, a much younger and more slender man, quietly stripped up
his coat-sleeves, exposing his linen to the elbows, and showing
himself prepared for emergencies; whereat the yells became
deafening. A few words passed between the rival candidates; after
which B—— folded his arms and permitted P—— to make an
explanation. It appeared from this that P—— had written to B——,
inviting him to become a candidate for Congress. B—— had
declined. Then P—— came forward as a candidate; and then B——,
changing his mind, said he would be a candidate too. Hence their
quarrel.
Calmly, with his sleeves still up, or ready to come up, for P—— was
continually advancing upon him with cane lifted and hat set fiercely
on his head,—B—— replied, giving his version of the
misunderstanding. He admitted that P—— had written him such a
letter. “But his suggestion with regard to my becoming a candidate
was very feeble, while the intimation which accompanied it, that he
meant to run if I didn’t, was very strong; reminding me of the
boarder at the hotel-table, who coveted a certain dish of cakes.
‘Here, waiter,’ said he, ‘see if any of the gentlemen will have these
cakes, for if they won’t, I will.’ Of course I declined the cakes. But
they have been passed to me by others in a very different spirit, and
now I mean to have them if I can get them,—with all deference to
the appetite of my venerable friend.”
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