Computer

Science

Notes
Summarized
Prepared by:
Eng. Maged Wageeh
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Table of Content
1 Ch1.Data Representation
4 Ch 2.Communication and Internet
Technologies
11 Ch 3.Software + Computer
Architecture
17 Ch 4. Hardware (I/O devices + Data
storage)
28 Ch 5.Cyber security
36 Ch 6.Automated and emerging tech
Summarized
notes
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Summary Chapter 1 (Data Representation)

Why data is stored in binary in computers??

 The computer uses switches/logic circuits/transistors that can only store/process data
in two states / as high-low / on-off / 1 and 0.
 The binary value represents the current flowing through a circuit: 1 means current is
flowing (on), 0 means current is not flowing (off).

Adv. Of hexadecimal than binary: (Explain why hexadecimal is used to represent binary
numbers.)

1. Easier for humans to read & understand

2. Easier for humans to debug
3. Fewer digits are used so it takes up less space on display

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Uses and examples where hexadecimal is used in computer science:

1. Hexadecimal is used as a notation for colour in HTML e.g #FF0000 is red

2. Display Media Access Control (MAC) addresses e.g 1A-2B-3C-4D-5E-6F
3. Display machine code/memory dumps e.g. 5F 3A 09 F1
4. Display error codes e.g. error #404 page not found
eg
Binary Number System

Base-2 system , Uses 0-1 values

Denary Number system

Base-10 system , Uses 0 to 9 values

Hexadecimal Number system

Base-16 system , Uses 16 symbols, the

numbers 0-9 and the letters A-F.

Has units that increase by the power of 2 Has units that increase by the power of 10 Has units that increase by the power of 16

Has more digits for the same value Has less digits than binary for the same Has less digits than binary and denary for the
value same value

Understand the concept of overflow and why it occurs in binary addition

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 An overflow error will occur if the value is greater than 255 in an 8-bit register
 A computer or a device has a predefined limit that it can represent or store, for example
16-bit
 An overflow error occurs when a value outside this limit should be returned

Two systems are used for character representation (text, numbers and symbols):

ASCII Unicode

Advantage Character takes 1 byte of  Contains many more characters

storage (8 bits)  Unicode allows for a greater range of characters and symbols
than ASCII, including different languages and emojis

Disadvantage Does not contain a large  Character takes 2 bytes of storage (16 bits)
enough character set for some  Unicode requires more bits per character than ASCII
other languages

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Character  All the characters and symbols that can be represented by a computer system.
set  Each character and symbol is assigned a unique value.

Explain how the captured images are converted to digital photo files?

 Image is made of pixels

 Image has a set number of pixels wide by pixels high
 Each pixel stores one colour
 Each colour has a unique binary value
 The colour/binary value of each pixel is stored in sequence
 File contains metadata to identify how the file should be displayed, metadata can be
the colour depth / resolution

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 An example of suitable photo file e.g. JPEG
 Extra: In coloured high quality images, the amount of binary data needed is much
greater to get the correct colour depth in each pixel.
 Extra: In images more pixels used will give a higher image quality (resolution).
Pixel The smallest component of the image

Resolution The number of pixels in the image

eg
Colour depth The number of bits used to represent each colour

The file size and quality of the image increases as the resolution and colour depth increase

Explain how the recorded sounds are converted to digital photo files?

 Sampling is used by recording the amplitude of sound waves

 At regular time intervals
 The value of the sample is recorded as a binary number
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 Increasing the sampling rate means more samples will be used (and the time
intervals will be closer) and the sound track quality will be higher

Sample rate Number of samples taken in a second

Sample resolution Number of bits per sample

The accuracy of the recording and the file size increases as the sample rate and resolution increase

Why data compression?

1) Smaller file size  less storage space needed.

2) Less bandwidth required
3) Faster transmission  Quicker to upload and download

Data Compression: Reducing the file size

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We have two types of data compression: (VERY IMPORTANT TABLE)

Type of Lossy compression Lossless compression

compression

Definition  Some data will be lost permanently and When decompressed the original file is restored
original file cannot be recreated with no loss of data as no data is permanently
 Removing details from the image that removed e.g. Run Length Encoding (RLE)
should go unnoticed and will not affect the
quality too much. N.B. Quality will be
affected but not too much
Used when?? For multimedia such as audio, video and image When it is essential that no data is lost or discarded.
files. (Text)

Example of a  A lossy compression algorithm is used  A lossless compression algorithm is used

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music file  Definition of lossy compression  Definition of lossless compression
 Uses perceptual music shaping:  Repeated patterns of notes are identified and
1. Removing noises may not be store the pattern once along with how many
heard by human ear times it is repeated.
2. If two sounds played at same time,
softer sound is removed
 Reduce the sampling rate and the sampling
eg
Example of an 
image 
resolution
A lossy compression algorithm is used
Definition of lossy compression


A lossless compression algorithm is used
Definition of lossless compression
 Colour depth can be reduced by reducing the  Repeating Patterns (colour patterns) in the
number of bits required for each pixel/colour image/data are identified and the number of
 Resolution can be reduced by reducing the times the pattern appears is stored
number of pixels.  An index/dictionary of pixels is created
 The number of times a pixel is repeated in a row
is stored
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Lossy Compression for Video: 1) Use lossy compression algorithm 2) Definition of lossy compression 3) Removes details
that human eye/ear may not see/hear 4) Reduce colour depth 5) Reduces image resolution 6) Reduces sample rate
7) Reduces sample resolution

How the size of text files can be reduced?

 Lossless compression algorithm is used

 Original file can be restored with no loss of data
 Repeated words are identified and are indexed/put into a table
 Repeated words are replaced with their index
 The positions of the repeated words are stored in the table
 The number of times the word appears is stored in the table

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Summary Chapter 2 (Communication and Internet Technologies)

Data A small part of a message/data that is transmitted over a network; after transmission all the data
Packet packets are reassembled to form the original message/data
Data is broken down into packets to be transmitted. A packet of data in a unit of data contains a 1)
packet header 2) payload 3) trailer
Packet The part of the data packet that contains the 1) IP addresses of the sender 2) IP address of the
Header receiver 3) and includes the packet number which allows reassembly of the data packets
Packet The part of a data packet that indicates the end of the data packet and some form of error checking
Trailer to ensure the packet arrives error free
Payload The actual data being carried in a data packet

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Packet switching: A method of transmission in which a message is broken into many data packets
which can then be sent along pathways independently of each other:
- Data is broken down into packets o
- Each packet could take a different route
- A router controls the route a packet takes
- Packets may arrive out of order
- Once the last packet has arrived, packets are reordered
eg - Routing selection depends on the number of packets waiting to be processed at each node
- The shortest possible path available is always selected – this may not always be the shortest

-
path that could be taken, since certain parts of the route may be too busy or not suitable

Adv. Packet Switching Disadv. Packet Switching

There is no need to tie up a single Packets can be lost and need to be re-sent
communication line

It is possible to overcome failed, busy or The method is more prone to errors with real-time
faulty lines by simply re-routing packets streaming (for example, a live sporting event being
transmitted over the internet)
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It is relatively easy to expand package There is a delay at the destination whilst the packets are
usage being re-ordered.
A high data transmission rate is possible.
Serial and parallel transmission (VER IMPORTANT TABLE)

Serial transmission Parallel transmission

Definition: Transfer of the data bits sequentially Definition: Transfer of data bits simultaneously using
using a single wire. several/multiple wires.

More reliable over long distances. Suitable for short distances. Parallel cables are not
manufactured above approx. 5m

Reduced costs as only single wire needed. Increased costs as multiple wires needed.

Less interference as only single wire is needed More interference as multiple wires are needed that can
create crosstalk

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Safer transmission as it is easier to accurately Less safe transmission as bits are sent simultaneously
collate the bits together as they are sent one at a and errors can occur in collating them together at the
time // less chance of the data being skewed receiver’s side // Bits may arrive skewed

Slower transmission as data bits are only Quicker transmission as data bits are sent
transmitted one bit at a time (sequentially) over a simultaneously over multiple wires.
single wire.

Additional data may need to be sent to indicate the

receiving device when the data transmission has
started and stopped. These are called a start bit and a
stop bit.

Example: USB / Connecting computer to a Example: IC (Integrated circuits) / Internal data transfer
modem (busses)

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What is meant by USB ?

1) Universal Serial Bus

2) Data transmission method
3) It uses serial transmission where all bits of data are sent one at a time using a single wire
4) Universal standard // Common Interface
eg Uses of USB:

1. Connect electronic devices such as mobile phones and tablets to computers.

2. Connect mouse and keyboard to a computer.
3. Use it as a storage device using USB flash drive.

Benefits of USB Drawbacks of USB

Devices plugged into the computer are automatically The maximum cable length is presently about 5
detected and device drivers are automatically meters
downloaded/installed so no need to install them manually
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The connectors can only fit one way, this prevents The transmission speed is relatively high for a
incorrect connections being made USB connection but it isn’t as high as other types
of connection, such as ethernet.

USB has become the industry standard; this means that

considerable support is available to users (USB is a
universal standard so it is likely to be compatible with the
computer)

Newer USB standards are backward compatible with

older USB standards so no additional technology is
needed

Several different data transmission rates are supported

 USB uses serial transmission for sending data externally (to and from
peripherals / between devices)
 IC uses parallel transmission for sending data internally
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Transmission modes (The direction in which the data is transmitted can also vary)

Type Simplex transmission Full-duplex transmission Half-duplex transmission

Definition Data is sent in one direction Data is sent in both Data is sent in both
only. directions at the same directions but only one
time. direction at a time.

Example *Television broadcasts. *Telephone conversation *Walkie-Talkie, both

in a phone line where both people can speak to each
*Microphone to computer people can speak to each other but only one person
*Computer to monitor other at the same time. can speak at a time.

*Instant messaging

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Different methods of data transmission can be combined. For example:

 A modern network/computer to modem uses serial duplex transmission.

 A walkie-talkie uses serial half duplex transmission.
 Connecting mouse to a computer uses serial simplex transmission.

N.B. Check Drawing of transmission modes from notes

egError detection and correction methods (VERY IMPORTANT PAGE):
Parity Check (used in data transmission)

 Odd or even parity is set/agreed for the data

 At the transmitter, a parity bit (1 or 0) is added (to the parity byte) as an extra bit.
 To make the sum of the bits in a byte odd or even.
 At the receiver, a check is performed when data is received to check the number of 1’s is even
or odd.
 If parity is incorrect, error is detected.
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Checksum (used in data transmission)

 At the transmitter, the checksum value for the bytes is calculated.

 This value is then transmitted with the block of data
 At the receiver, the checksum is recalculated, from the block of data received.
 The calculated value is compared to the checksum transmitted; if the values are different then
an error has been found.

Automatic Repeat request (ARQ) (error control protocol used in data transmission)

 A check is performed on receiving data // error is detected by e.g. parity check, check sum
 If error detected, a request is sent to the transmitter to resend the data. (negative
acknowledgment)
 This resend request will be sent repeatedly until the packet is received error free or a limited
amount of resend requests is reached or requests timeout
 The receiver sends a positive acknowledgement when data is received correctly.

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Check digit (used in data entry)

 A digit is calculated from the data and is appended/added to the data.

 Digit is recalculated when data is entered/input.
 Digits are compared to check for error.
 Check digit is a validation method used to check data entry.

Echo check (used in data transmission)

 Data is send from the sender/Transmitter to the receiver

 Copy of data is sent back to the sender
 Data is compared to see if it matches
 If it doesn’t match; error is detected

Explain how you identified the incorrectly transmitted byte using parity check

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 Count the number of 1/0 bits (in each byte/register)
 Two bytes/registers have an odd number of 1/0 bits // Two use odd parity
 Odd parity must be the parity used
 One byte/register has an even number of 1/0 bits // One uses even parity
 One with an even number of one bits/even parity is incorrect // Register C should have
odd parity
eg
Internet
------------------------------------------

It is a worldwide collection of interconnected

World Wide Web (WWW)
it is a collection of multimedia web pages and other information
networks and devices. Internet is the on websites
infrastructure.  web resources are accessed by web browsers
 uses the internet to access information from web servers
allows online chatting (via text, audio and http(s) protocols are written using hypertext mark-up language
video) + users can send and receive emails (HTML)
makes use of transmission protocols (TCP) and uniform resource locators (URLs) are used to specify the location
internet protocols (IP) of web pages
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Browser A browser is a software that enables users to access/view webpage, documents and other
resources on the internet. Purpose: Render HTML and display webpages

Functions of a web browser:

 Purpose: Render HTML and display webpages

 Storing bookmarks and favourites
 Recording user history
 Allowing use of multiple tabs
 Storing cookies
 Providing navigation tools
 Providing an address bar
 Identifies protocols such as https and SSL // Manages SSL/TLS certificate process

Web server A computer that responds to requests to provide information and services over the internet.

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Uniform resource locator (URL)

 A URL is a text-based address for a web page; it can contain the protocol, the domain
name and the web page/file name. URL is the User-friendly version of the IP address
 The URL is translated by a special type of webserver, known as DNS (domain name
server), into the 32-bit binary IP address.
 Advantage: A URL is far easier for a user to remember than a 32-bit binary. It allows an
organization to personalize its web address with the organization’s name. An IP address can
be used instead of typing in the full URL. For example: http://109.108.158.1.
 The web browser breaks up the URL into 3 components: 1) protocol 2) web server name
3) file name

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Care of the difference between a web server name and a domain name.
Network a hardware component (circuit board or chip) that is required to allow a device to connect to a network,
Interface such as the internet. The NIC is usually part of the device hardware and contains the Media Access Control
Card (NIC) (MAC) address generated at the manufacturing stage.
eg Internet addresses (VERY IMPORTANT TABLE)

Internet Protocol address – IP address

Numerical ID that gives the location of a device on

Media Access Control Address – MAC address

Hardware/physical address that uniquely identifies each

the internet / identifies the global address on the device connected to the internet/network.
internet

may not necessarily be unique unique for device on the network

Assigned by the network. Dynamic IP addresses are Assigned by the device’s manufacturer and is part of the
assigned by ISP using DHCP each time the device NIC
connects to the internet.
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Dynamic or static. Dynamic IP addresses change  Always fixed (Doesn’t change)
every time a device connects to the internet; Static IP  They can be universal or local
addresses don’t change

32-bit binary (IPv4) 12 hexadecimal digits (48-bit binary)

128-bit binary (IPv6)  First half (First 6 hexadecimal digits) represent the
Manufacturer ID
(Can be represented in numeric IPv4 and  Second half (Last 6 hexadecimal digits) represent
hexadecimal IPv6) the Serial number of the device

used in routing operations as they specifically when a packet of data is sent and received, the MAC
identify where the device is connected to the address is used to identify the sender’s and recipient’s
internet devices

Example: 192.168.1.1 Example: 1A-2B-3C-4D-5E-6F

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Dynamic IP addresses Static IP addresses

greater privacy since they change each time a since static IP addresses don’t change, they
user logs on allow each device to be fully traceable
dynamic IP addresses can be an issue when allow for faster upload and download speeds
using, for example, VoIP since this type of
more expensive to maintain since the device
addressing is less reliable as it can disconnect
must be constantly running so that information
and change the IP address causing the VoIP
is always available
connection to fail

IPv4 IPv6
-It is denary based with numbers between 0 and 255 - IPv6 usually written as hexadecimal and IPv6

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-It is 32 bits the address is written as four groups digits are between 0000 and FFFF.
separated by dots -IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses that take the form of
-Each group consists of 8 bits
eight groups of hex digits; for example:
-for example: 254.25.28.77
-e,g, A8FB:7A88:FFF0:0FFF:3D21:2085:66FB:F0FA
-Separated by colons
IPv6 has been designed to allow the internet to grow in terms of the number of hosts and potential increase in
the amount of data traffic. (32 bits vs 128 bits  greater number of potential devices)
eg Adv. Of IPv6 to IPv4: 1)removes the risk of IP address collisions -- 2) has built-in authentication check -- 3)
allows for more efficient packet routes.
Router: A device that forwards packets to their correct destinations in a network. Role: 1) A router
sends data to a specific destination on a network. 2) A router can assign IP addresses.3) A router can
connect a local network to the internet. Dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP): a server that
automatically provides and assigns an IP address

Cookies  Tiny pieces of data stored in a text file.

 They are downloaded by a computer when it visits a website.
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 Cookies are stored by the computer’s browser and accessed by the website
whenever it is visited by the client.
 Cookies can be deleted from a customer’s computer

Explain why companies’ websites use cookies:

 To store login details and speed up login times

 To provide pages/adverts customized for the user next time he logs in based on his interests and preferences by
tracking user’s internet surfing activities
 To implement shopping carts and one-click purchasing (by storing customer’s credit card details)

Explain why a user may be concerned about their personal data and online browsing habits being stored in cookies.

 User does not see what information is stored so, user may feel their privacy is affected.
 A profile could be built about the use that could expose a user’s identity and lead to identity theft
 Computer could be hacked to obtain data stored in cookies so information could be stolen and used by a third party

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Session Cookies Persistent (permanent) cookies

 This type of cookie is stored in  They are stored on the hard drive of a user’s computer until the expiry
temporary memory on the date is reached or the user deletes it.
computer, doesn’t actually  These cookies remain in operation on the user’s computer even after the
collect any information from the browser is closed or the website session is terminated.
user’s computer and doesn’t  Persistent cookies remember a user’s log in details (so that they can
personally identify a user. authenticate the user’s browser).
 They are discarded once the  Legitimate websites will always encrypt any personal information stored
browser is closed or the website in the cookie to prevent unauthorized use by a third party that has access
session is terminated. to your cookie folder
 Eg.: Session cookies are used, for  Collecting cookies can only be done with the user’s permission to provide
example, when making online the website with information and to store it.
purchases. They keep a user’s  Storing the data on the web server without using cookies would also make
items in a virtual shopping

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it very difficult to retrieve a user’s data without requiring the user to log in
basket. every time they visit the website.  Cookies remove the need to store
massive amounts of data on the web server itself.

HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol: (http) is the core protocol (set of rules) that governs transmission of data
via the internet. Protocol used by web browsers. HTTPS is hypertext transfer protocol secure. It is a secure
version of http. Set of rules that govern the transmission of data over the internet. It means the website uses
eg SSL/TLS. It means data sent (to and from the webserver) is encrypted.

 Hypertext mark-up language (HTML) is an authoring language used to create documents

(web pages) to be viewed on the World Wide Web.
 HTML uses (opening and closing) tags to display/format content.
 HTML is translated by a browser to display webpages
 HTML uses both structure and presentation
 By keeping the presentation separate it is easier to update colour/font and style of the
webpage and the presentation/style can be re-used for other websites
 Structure and presentation are defined using (mark-up) tags
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A company sells smartphones over the Internet. Explain how the information stored on the
company’s website is requested by the customer, sent to the customer’s computer and
displayed on the screen.


A web browser is used

The user enters the URL into the address bar.

The URL specifies the protocol used such as http or https.

The URL contains the domain name.

The web browser sends URL to DNS (domain name server) which looks up the
corresponding IP address
 The URL is translated by the DNS into a 32-bit binary IP address
 The web browser sends a request to the web server/IP address
 The web server sends the data for the website back to the web browser.
 The data is transferred into Hyper Text Mark-up Language (HTML)
 HTML is translated by the web browser (to display the website)
 The web browser manages SSL/TLS certificate process
Eng. Maged
The web browser stores/retrieves cookies.
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Summary Chapter 3 (Software + Computer Architecture)

System software Application software

System software provides the services that the computer Application software provides the services that the user
requires, including operating system and utility software requires

Provides a platform on which other software can run Application software requires the operating system to
provide a platform on which the software can run
successfully.

Controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources Allows a user to perform specific tasks using the
computer’s resources

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Examples: operating system, utility programs, compilers, Examples: word processor, spread sheet, database, control
device drivers, and linkers & measuring software, apps, photo editing software, video
editing software, and graphics manipulation software

Operating System (OS) Software running in the background of a computer system which allows humans
to communicate with the computer hardware in an interactive way
eg GUI: Graphical User Interface allows the user to interact with the computer using icons, buttons and menus.
CLI: Command Line Interface allows user to type different commands for different computer tasks.
Features/Functions of a typical operating system:
 managing memory (check J23 v13 q11)
 managing files  managing multitasking
 handling interrupts  providing a platform for running applications
 providing an interface (GUI -CLI)  providing system security
 managing peripherals and drivers  managing user accounts

Understand how hardware, firmware and an operating system are required to run applications software
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1. Applications are run on the operating system  The application software will be under
2. The operating system is run on the firmware the control of the operating system and
3. The bootloader (firmware) is run on the hardware will need to access system software such
as the device drivers while it is running.
Buffers are used in computers as temporary memory area. Different parts of the operating system
Why they are essential? may need to be loaded in and out of RAM
 They are essential in modern computers since hardware as the software runs
devices operate at much slower speeds than the processor.  The operating system is run on the
What would happen if there are no buffers?
firmware
 Processors would spend the majority of their time idle, waiting
 The BIOS is often referred to as firmware.
for the hardware device to complete its operation.
Firmware is defined as a program that
 Buffers are essentially filled from the processor or memory unit
provides low level control for devices.
and whilst these are emptied to the hardware device, the
processor carries on other tasks.
Check this question from notes: Explain how buffer and interrupts are used when printing data ?

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Interrupt 1. A signal sent from a device or from software to the processor.

2. This will cause the processor to temporarily stop what it is doing and service the interrupt
(Interrupt service routine).
3. They have different levels of priority
4. After the interrupt is serviced, the (previous) process is continued
5. It enables multi-tasking to be carried out on a computer
6. It allows efficient processing

Examples:

1. Hardware interrupts include pressing a key on the keyboard and moving the mouse
2. Software interrupts include division by zero and two processes trying to access the same
memory location

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3. User Interrupt: e.g. <CTRL><ALT><BREAK> keys pressed simultaneously.

When printer generates interrupt signal ??

paper jam-out of paper-out of ink-Buffer full-print complete-print ready

High Level language Low Level Language

eg
Definition: Definition:

A programming language that is much easier for A programming language that is closer to native language of
humans to understand and much closer to natural computers and difficult for humans to understand. Example:
language. Examples: Python, Pascal, Visual Basic, Java. machine code (binary language that a computer uses) and
assembly language (Low Level Language that uses mnemonics
and requires translation before it can be used by a computer)

Needs to be translated by a compiler or an interpreter. Assembly language needs an assembler to be processed. (No
need for compiler or interpreter)

Features of HLL: Features of LLL:

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1. Easier/faster to read/write/understand therefore, 1. Can work directly on memory locations and CPU
the programmer is less likely to make mistakes and (directly access hardware)
can write programs in shorter timeframe. 2. Executes instructions faster (no need for translation)
2. Easier to debug so the programmer can find and 3. Translated program requires less memory
correct errors in less time 4. Programmer can write programs that make use of
3. Portable language code since it works on many special hardware (Machine dependent)
different platforms / machines / operating systems 5. One line of code represents a single instruction
(Machine independent). Why to write a game in a low-level language?? • More memory
4. One line of code can carry out multiple commands efficient as computer game may require high memory
(One statement is equal to many low-level consumption so this needs limiting • Game may be being built
statements) for one device therefore, machine independence is not
required.
Sum = FirstNumber + SecondNumber LDA First ADD Second STO Sum

LDA-ADD-STO are called mnemonic codes

The structure of language statements in a computer program is called the syntax.

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Compiler Interpreter

Translates high-level language into machine code/low level Translates high-level language into machine code/low level
language language

A compiler translates the whole code at once before Translates and executes the code line by line
executing it, producing an executable file

Provides an error report for the whole code if errors are Produces an error message each time an error is
detected (more difficult to debug the code since one error encountered (so it is easy to debug a program. The
can produce many other associated errors) --- Describe how interpreter will continue only when the error is fixed. An
the compiler reports errors?  It creates an error report interpreter stops execution when an error is found)
after trying to compile displaying all errors in the code that
require correction before execution can take place.

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Compilation process is slow but resultant code runs very Interpreted code runs slowly.
quickly

Advantage:  Doesn’t produce stand-alone code

 No executable file of machine code is produced.
1. Produces stand-alone code and no need for a
eg compiler (Translator) when running programs.
2. An executable file of machine code is produced, this
creates a smaller file size and makes the program
more saleable.
3. Source code cannot be stolen as executable file can
be provided without the source code

Disadvantage: Source code is not available to be modified if

needed and future changes will require the code to be
recompiled
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Use: A compiled program is usually distributed for general Use: An interpreter is often used when a program is being
use. (Why?? check advantages) + A compiler is used to developed. (why?? check 2nd and 3rd row)
translate the final program.

Produces object code/ machine code Doesn’t produce object code

Translators

Assembler: A computer program that translates a program written in an assembly language (low
level language) into a machine code program.

Assembler has exactly the same features as the compiler.

Check these important questions: M17 v12 q11 + J18 v12 q8 + N18 v13 q7+ N21 v12 q4

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Integrated Development Environment (IDE): An application software used by programmers to aid in

writing and developing programs. Examples of IDE include PyCharm, Visual Studio, and BlueJ.

Below are some features of IDE:

 Code Editor: allows a program to be written and edited without the need to use a separate
text editor for faster program development process.
 Translator: a compiler and/or an interpreter which are used for the program’s execution.
Usually, the interpreter is used for developing the program while the compiler is used to
produce the final version of the program.
 Runtime Environment with a Debugger: a program that runs the program under development
and allows the programmer to step through the program a line at a time (single stepping) or
to set a breakpoint to stop the execution of the program at a certain point in the source code.

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The values of variables and expressions are shown in a report window, which the programmer
use to identify any logic errors.
 Error Diagnostics & Auto-Correction: dynamic error checking finds and alerts the programmer
for errors while the code is being typed causing errors to be identified & corrected before
running the program. It also provides suggestions for correction.
 Auto-Completion: code editors provide context-sensitive prompts with text completion for
variable names and reserved words.
eg  Auto-Documenter and Prettyprinting: auto-documenter explains the function/purpose of
programming code. Prettyprinting is the feature where there is colour code for the words for
the purpose of a meaningful layout of a program.

Computer Architecture
Type of bus Description of bus (A bus is a Pathway for transmitting data and instructions.) Data/Signal direction

Address carries signals relating to addresses between the processor and the memory // Unidirectional (signals
bus Transmit/carries addresses between components in the CPU travel in one direction only)
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Data bus sends data between the processor, the memory unit and the input/output bi-directional (data can
devices // Data bus transmits/carries data between components in the CPU travel in both directions)

Control bus carries signals relating to the control and coordination of all activities within the Unidirectional (signals
computer from CPU to components (examples include: the read and write functions) + travel in one direction only)
Synchronizes Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle // Transmits control signals from the control
unit to other components in the CPU Describe how the MDR and the
ALU are used in the fetch–decode–
Fetch-decode-execute cycle: (I would prefer the one in the notes) execute cycle.
 Data fetched from RAM is stored
1. The PC holds the address of the next instruction to be fetched.
in the MDR
2. This address held in the PC is sent to MAR using the address bus.  Data from MDR is sent to ALU to
3. MAR goes to location in memory where instruction is stored be executed
4. Instruction sent to MDR using Data bus  ALU performs calculation and
logical operations on data
5. Instruction sent to CIR
 ALU has a built-in register where
6. Control Unit sends signals to manage the process using the control bus it stores interim results of
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 After calculations, ALU sends data
Sharing or copying the notes is not allowed to MDR
 Data is sent from MDR to be
written to RAM
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The CPU processes Data and Instructions that are input into the computer so that the result can be output. An
instruction is fetched from RAM into the CPU where it is then decoded. Once this has taken place the
instruction is then executed.

Describe the stored program concept when applied to the von Neumann model

 The program is stored on a secondary storage device

 Data and instructions are moved to memory/RAM and stored in the same memory
 Instructions are fetched one at a time
 Data and instructions are moved to registers to be executed
Functions of a control unit

 It decodes an instruction using an instruction set.

 It sends control signals that manage the transfer of data and instructions within the CPU
 Controls (Manages) operation of memory, processor and input/output

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Functions of ALU
 Performs arithmetic and logic operations
 Holds temporary/interim values during calculations in a register called the accumulator
(ACC).
CPU Components
 ALU
 Control Unit
eg  Registers (MAR-MDR-CIR-PC-ACC)
 Buses (Address-Data-Control)

Registers

PC Stores the address of the next instruction to be fetched

MAR Stores the address of the instruction to be processed

MDR Holds data/instruction that is in use from address in MAR

CIR Stores the current instruction while it is being decoded and executed
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ACC  A general-purpose register that stores a value before and after the execution of an instruction by the ALU
 It temporarily stores data. It stores the result of interim calculations

Register A storage/memory component that holds data or instructions temporarily when they
are being processed.

Microprocessor A type of integrated circuit (IC) on a single chip

Immediate access store (IAS) A memory component that holds data and instructions when they are loaded from main
memory and are waiting to be processed.

An instruction set is a list of all the commands that can be processed by a CPU and the commands are machine
code. Each instruction is made up of an opcode and an operand.

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Core A core is made up of an ALU, the control unit and the registers. A CPU may contain a number of cores. A computer
that is dual core means that its CPU consists of 2 cores. Similarly, a quad core is one with 4 cores. Purpose of the
core: • to process an instruction • to carry out a fetch-execute cycle.

Cache A type of memory that is located within the CPU itself and is used to store frequently used instructions and data.
memory (Extra: More generally, cache means any area of storage used to quickly access frequently-used data - other
examples include web cache, database cache, DNS cache)

System Produces timing signals on the control bus to ensure synchronisation takes place. Clock speed is the number of fetch-
clock decode-execute cycles that can be performed in a second.

The number of cores, size of the cache and speed of the clock can affect the performance of a CPU.

o Increasing the number of cores can improve the computer’s speed. e.g. Dual core can
process two instructions simultaneously increasing the performance.

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o Increasing the size of the cache memory can improve the performance and speed of CPU
o Increasing the clock speed can potentially increase the speed of a computer.

Embedded System is a combination of hardware and software which is designed to perform a

dedicated function. It runs on firmware and it doesn’t have additional peripherals. Examples:
domestic appliances, cars, security systems, lighting systems or vending machines. (Extra: This is
different to a general purpose computer that is used to perform many different functions, e.g. a
eg personal computer (PC) or a laptop)

Summary on how an embedded system work:

 The embedded system consists of hardware (sensors, actuators, mechanical components)

along with the software to form a feedback oriented system.
 Latest embedded systems have dual/quad CPUs along with I/O connections for efficient
operation.
 It receives analogue/digital input along with the user’s input from the interface and perform
an operation which then produces an output.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Embedded Systems
Benefits Drawbacks

small in size  easy to fit into devices It can be difficult to upgrade some devices to take advantage
of new technology

compared to other systems, they are relatively low Troubleshooting faults in the device becomes a specialist task
cost to make

consume very little power Any device that can be accessed over the internet is also open
to hackers, viruses,…etc.

 Embedded systems can be connected to the internet  they can be controlled remotely
using smartphone or computer (e.g. setting the central heating system to switch on/off
while being away).

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Summary Chapter 4 (Hardware (I/O devices + Data storage))

Devices (definition – application - adv.&disadv.)

Input A hardware device that allows a user to enter data into a computer system. Input devices are either manual (e.g.
device keyboard) or automatic (e.g. temperature sensor)

1) Keyboard: A hardware device used to input data into a computer system. Types of
Keyboard: Normal Keyboard // On-screen keyboard // Concept keyboard

Advantages of keyboard Disadvantages of keyboard

Keyboards are very simple to use It is easy to make a mistake during when you input data

A trained person can type fast making the input If a person is not trained to type fast then inputting data using a

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data process very efficient keyboard can be slow

Advantages of concept keyboard rather than normal keyboard:

 Fewer typing errors may be made because one button is pressed to order an item
 Speed up the time to enter an order because fewer buttons are pressed to compete the order
 May require less training because it is easier to identify an order item from its image rather than typing it
eg 2) Optical
mouse
Advantages of a Mouse
1) Input device that is used to control a pointer or a cursor on a screen.

Disadvantages of a Mouse

Very simple to use // let the user A flat surface is needed next to the computer to move the mouse around it.
efficiently navigate around the screen If this space is limited it can restrict the use of a mouse.

3) Scanner An input device that converts a hard copy document into an electronic form to be stored as a file on
a computer.
Types of Scanners 2D & 3D (2D scanner  flatbed scanner and handheld scanner)
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Applications: Optical Character Recognition (OCR) - Optical mark recognition (OMR)

Advantages of a 2D scanner Disadvantages of a 2D scanner

Produce digital copies of documents with high quality Scanned documents can use a lot of memory space

Digital copies can be edited and could be attached to an It is not likely to be as high quality as the original,
e-mail especially if it is an image or photograph

4) Digital Camera A device that encodes digital images and videos and stores them for viewing and later use.
Tasks (functions-features): Adjust the shutter speed//Focus the image automatically.
Operate the flash automatically

Advantages of a digital camera Disadvantages of a digital camera

Image taken can be immediately seen on a screen. Images taken requires large memory storage space

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A backup copy can be made of any digital images taken. A user may accidentally share images that they did not want to
share.

Images can easily be shared as easily be attached to e-

mails or uploaded to social networking sites.

5) Barcode It is a series of black and white vertical bars (dark and light parallel lines) of varying thickness.
scanner The numbers 0 to 9 are each represented by a unique series of lines.

Advantages of a barcode Disadvantages of a barcode

A barcode is very efficient method of entering product’s If the barcode is damaged, not printed clearly, or

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details to find out its price. rubbed away in part, it may not scan properly.

 Quicker to scan rather than type in a system

 Fewer errors as there is no human input

A barcode can be used to help keep a record of stock levels If the barcode data has not been recorded in the
for a product. computer system, the barcode scanner will not be
able to find it.
eg
6) QR code (Quick It is made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light background.
Response code) Scanner

Barcode QR Code
M
QR Cod can hold more data than a barcode + definition of both

Application: Supermarket Checkout (Automatic stock control) Application: QR codes are used for advertising

QR Codes are faster to scan than the barcodes

7) Touchscreen: Input Devices that allow simple touch to launch an application or to carry out many of the functions
of pointing devices such as a mouse. There are three types of touch screens: 1) Capacitive 2) Resistive 3) Infra-red
Advantages of Touchscreen
 Does not require peripherals (mouse or keyboard)
 Number of possible inputs limited / menu driven interface
 Less chance of input error
 Resistant to weather
Check difference between Resistive, Capacitive and Infrared from the notes.

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8) Microphone An analogue input device that converts sound into an electrical signal/voltage
Applications:
 Voice Recognition: The user’s voice is detected and then converted into digital. A few words spoken
produce a digital wave pattern. Software compares this wave pattern to wave patterns stored in
memory to see if they match. If they match, then the person has been correctly identified.
 Speech Recognition: The spoken words are recognized and shown on a screen, input into a word
processor or used in other application.
9) Sensor Def: A sensor is a type of an automatic input device that can read or measure physical
properties. Sensors can include temperature, pressure and acidity. Benefits: 1) Can work
continuously 2) Avoids human error 3) It could be a dangerous environment and will avoid
human risk 4) Detects errors instantly 5) Maintain consistent and correct conditions

Sensor Data captured (measures) Scenrio/Examples

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Acoustic/sound level of sound pick up the noise of footsteps in a security system // detect
the sound of liquids dripping at a faulty pipe joint
Accelerometer Acceleration and motion used in cars to measure rapid deceleration and apply air bags
changes of an object in a crash // Fitness tracking device
flow Flow rate of a moving used in respiratory devices and inhalers in hospitals //
liquid or gas measure gas flows in pipes (for example, natural gas
eg Gas

Humidity
Presence
concentration of a gas
and monitor pollution levels in the air at an airport // monitor
oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in a greenhouse
Amount of water vapor in monitor humidity levels in a building // monitor humidity
air level in the air in a greenhouse
Infra-red Infra-red/heat radiation security alarm system (intruder breaks the infra-red beam //
of an object security alarm system (detects body heat)
Level Level or amount of a monitor levels in a petrol tank in a car // In a pharmaceutical
substance e.g., liquid process where powder levels in tablet production need to be
monitored
Light Level of ambient light in a switching street lights on or off depending on light levels //
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certain environment switch on car headlights automatically when it gets dark
Magnetic field Changes in magnetic detect magnetic field changes (for example, in mobile phones
fields and CD players) // used in anti-lock braking systems in cars
Moisture Amount of water level in control/monitor moisture levels in soil in a greenhouse //
a substance such as soil monitor the moisture levels in a food processing factory
pH pH level of a substance monitor/control acidity levels in the soil in a greenhouse //
(acidity or alkalinity) control acidity level in a chemical process
Pressure Force of pressure applied weighing of lorries at a weighing station
Proximity How close an object is in detect when a face is close to a mobile phone screen and
comparison to the sensor switches off screen when held to the ear
Temperature Measures the control of a central heating system // control/monitor
temperature of an object temperature in a greenhouse
or a substance

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Output device: A device that allows the user to view/hear the data (that has been entered into a
computer system

10) Inkjet A printer that uses ink to print information. The ink is provided in a cartridge and is
printer sprayed through nozzles onto a paper.

11) Laser A printer that uses a special powder called toner to print out information. The toner is
printer provided in cartridge. As with color inkjet printers, color laser printers normally have four
cartridges, one for each CMYK colour.
Advantages of inkjet printers Disadvantages of inkjet printer

They are cheaper to buy than most other printers They are more expensive to run as they can use a
lot of ink, which is expensive to buy

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Image quality can be excellent when used with Image quality can be poor when printing on
photographic paper ordinary paper

It is difficult to print on both sides of paper

They are slow at printing.

eg
Advantages of laser printers Disadvantages of laser printer

They are cheaper to run as toner cartridges last much Expensive to buy/purchase printer as laser
longer technology/toner is expensive

Text printing quality is generally excellent Image printing quality on photographic paper is not as
good as inkjet printer

They are very quick at printing Can be quite large in size

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They are suitable for duplex printing. This reduces paper They normally have a larger footprint than an equivalent
cost. inkjet printer

12) 3D printer Uses of 3D printing:

Principles of operation of 3D printer:  Prosthetic limbs made to exactly fit the recipient
 Items to allow precision reconstructive surgery (e.g.
 Produces solid, 3D objects/prototypes
facial reconstruction following an accident)
 Used in CAD/CAM
 In aerospace, e.g. wings
 Makes use of tomography/slices of an object
 In fashion and art e.g. sculptures and dresses
 Solid built up in thin layers
Uses resin, powdered metal, paper, plastic…

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13) Loudspeakers/headphones

 Sound is produced from a computer by passing the digital data through a digital to analogue
converter (DAC).
 Sound is then passed through an AMPLIFIER and finally the sound emerges from a loudspeaker.
 The sound is produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the speaker housing at
different frequencies and amplitudes.
14) Flat panel displays

Main Features of LCD+LED (Flat panel displays) and OLED

 Low power consumption

 High resolution image
 Display is thinner
 Bright images/colours

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 No Flicker
Liquid crystal display (LCD)
 The display is made up of pixels that are arranged together as a matrix
 Each pixel has three filters, red, blue and green
 Shades of colour are achieved by mixing red, blue and green
 LCD monitors uses a cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) as the backlighting method
 Light is shone through the liquid crystals
eg
Light –emitting diode (LED)
The LED display is a more advanced version of the LCD. LED display works the same as an LCD except that the
pixels are backlit with light emitting diodes. (How it works ??)
Benefits of using LED technology:

 reaches maximum brightness quickly / no need to warm up

 colours are vivid / Brighter image than LCD
 good colour definition/contrast can be achieved / higher resolution than LCD
 screens can be thin / screens are thinner than LCD
 more reliable as LED’s are long lasting
 consume less power/energy than LCD
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Organic Light emitting diodes (OLEDS)
 No form of backlighting is required. This allows for very thin screens.
 It also means that there is no longer a need to use LCD technology, since OLED is a self-contained
system.
 It is now possible, using OLED technology, to bend screens to any shape.
Advantages of using OLED compared with existing LEDs and LCDs include:
 The plastic, organic layers of an OLED are thinner, lighter and more flexible than the crystal structures
used in LEDs or LCDs
 OLEDs give a brighter light than LEDs
 OLEDs do not require backlighting like LCD screens so they use much less power
 OLEDs have a wider viewing angle than LEDs and LCDs
15) Digital projectors: A display device connected to a computer that is used to project a digital
video output onto a flat are such as a wall, projector screen or interactive whiteboard.

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LCD projector DLP projector

 Contains 3 separate LCD glass panels one for each  Uses millions of tiny mirrors to reflect light
RGB colours in an image. towards the projection lens.
 As the light passers through the LCD panels,  Mirrors are laid out in a grid/matrix
individual pixels can be opened to allow light to  Each mirror creates a pixel in the image
pass or closed to block the light.  Mirrors can tilt toward or away from light source
 LCD projectors are useful when contrast and  The mirrors reflect light toward a projection lens
brightness is important.  Colour is produced using a colour wheel
 Can be used to display an image on a wall/screen
 Extra point: The micro mirrors can switch ON or
OFF several thousand times a second creating
various grey shades.

DLP projectors create images with less contrast and brightness

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DLP projectors are smaller and more portable than LCD equivalents.

16) Actuator is responsible for powering and moving a motor in machinery, such as a
robot arm in a factory.
eg RAM (Random Access Memory)
RAM is Volatile ROM is Non-Volatile
ROM (Read Only Memory)

Data can be read from and written to RAM (data can be Data can only be read from ROM (data can’t be edited). Data
edited) cannot be written to ROM.
RAM holds data for processing and ROM holds boot up instructions/ start-up instructions/ BIOS
programs/instructions that are currently in use.
RAM is Temporary ROM is (semi) permanent
RAM has a larger capacity than ROM – Both ROM and RAM are primary storage (directly accessible by the CPU)
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Primary Storage Secondary Storage Off-line storage
RAM & ROM HDD & SSD DVD, CD, Blue-ray disc, USB flash
purpose of secondary storage : 1) For memory and removable HDD,
non-volatile/permanent storage of magnetic tape
files/data 2) To store data that is not
currently required by the CPU
Directly accessed by CPU Def: Storage Not directly Non-volatile memory that can
accessed by CPU and is necessary removed from a computer system. It
for more permanent storage of is not directly accessible by the CPU.
data
Internal to computer Internal to the computer

ROM Stores boot-up instructions and RAM Stores files/software

holds data while being processed
Faster access speed Slower access speed
RAM is volatile & ROM is Non-volatile Secondary is non-volatile Non-volatile

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Explain how HDD (magnetic storage) works?

 HDD is a magnetic storage device where data is stored in a digital format on magnetic surface
discs called platters
 Each platter has two surfaces where data can be stored. Data is stored on the surface in
sectors and tracks
 A number of read–write heads can move very quickly to access data in different tracks
 HDD is a magnetic storage device that can read, write and erase data by using electromagnets
and magnetic fields to control tiny magnetic dots of data. The dots represent binary

Main problem when using HDD:

Large number of head movements leads to LATENCY therefore SSD removes this issue considerably
as there are no moving parts and all data is retrieved at the same rate

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Problem with Magnetic tapes: Data is stored serially on a magnetic tape, this means if the data
required is near the point at which the tape starts being read, then the data will be quickly found and
transferred. However, if the data is far away from that point, the tape has to loop around to the correct
place first.

Explain how SSD/USB flash memory (solid state storage) works?

 They have no moving parts and all data is retrieved at the same rate.
eg 


High speed flash memory is used to store data (or stores data by flashing it into chips)
Data is stored by controlling the movement of electrons within NAND chips.
Either uses high speed flash memory which uses NAND chips or EEPROM which uses NOR
chips.
 Transistors are used as control gates and floating gates.

NOR chips are faster in operation but more expensive why faster? EEPROM also allows data to be
read or erased in single bytes at a time but the use of NAND only allows blocks of data to be read or
erased.
Advantages of SSD over HDD:
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 More reliable/durable as they have no moving parts (ideal for portable devices)
 SSD has lower power consumption (so the battery can last longer)
 SSD has faster random access (no latency)
 SSD runs quieter and runs cooler so will not overheat
 SSD is more compact and lighter (ideal for portable devices)
Benefits of HDD over SSD:
 Cheaper for larger amounts of storage space
 Greater longevity for read/write functions
 Read/write speed is sufficient even though it is slower than SSD
 Trusted technology as it has been traditionally used for many years
 No requirement for portability as a server doesn’t need to be moved (only write it when
talking about servers)

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Explain how CD/DVD (optical storage) works? Explain how data is written to
 Red laser is used optical storage media:
 Laser beams shines onto the surface of the disc
 Surface is covered in a track that spirals from the centre  The disc is rotated/spun
 Data is represented on the surface using pits and lands  Laser beam is used
 Pits reflect light back differently from lands  The laser beam makes
 Optical devices can determine the binary value from light indentations on the surface of
reflection the disc/pits and lands
 The data is written in a
DVDs works in the same way as CDs but has larger storage capacity spiral/concentric tracks
because:  The pits and lands represent
binary values/1s and 0s
 The use of dual layering
 It is called burning data to the disc
 Pit size and track width are both smaller


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DVDs user shorter wavelength (650 nm while CDs uses 780 nm)
and the shorter the wavelength of the laser light, the greater the storage capacity

Explain how DVD-RAM works?

 Uses a number of concentric tracks instead of a single spiral track
 Use of concentric tracks allows simultaneous read and write operations

Advantages of DVD-RAM:
eg


Allows numerous simultaneous read and write operations because of concentric tracks
Great longevity which makes them ideal for archiving
Direct access because of concentric tracks
When comparing between Optical
Explain how blu-ray discs work?
storage: Think about Red/Blue laser –
Same as CD/DVD but with larger storage capacity: Capacity – No. of layers. – Trasfer rate

 Blue laser is used to carry out read and write operations

 Pits and lands are smaller so it can store up to 5 times more than normal DVD
 Blu-ray disc has a faster transfer rate than DVD
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2 additional points

 Blu-ray discs have a built-in secure encryption system

 Blu-ray disc uses only one layer so it doesn’t suffer from birefringence as DVDs

USB:
 Uses solid state technology
 Very small and light weight devices which make them ideal for transferring files between
computers.
 Can be used as small back-up devices
 Complex or expensive software, such as an Expert System, often uses memory sticks as a
DONGLE. Without this dongle, the software won’t work properly. It therefore prevents
illegal or unauthorized use of the software.

SD card is an example of solid-state technology

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Factors to take into account when choosing an appropriate storage medium:

Capacity -- Transfer speed -- Portability -- Durability -- Cost

Device Capacity
HDD Up to 8 TB Optical Media Track pitch

Magnetic tape Up to 185 TB CD >1 micrometre

CD 700 MB
DVD <1 micrometre
DVD 4.7-9.4 GB
Blu-ray disc <1 micrometre
Blu-ray 25-128 GB
USB RAM stick Up to 1 TB
SSD Up to 4 TB

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SD card Up to 2 TB

Situation Storage medium Reasons

Storage operating system, HDD Large capacity

Data and programs
SSD High transfer speed
eg
Distribution of software CD
Data can be read and written

Cheap

DVD Easily duplicated

Portable

Once written data cannot be erased or changed

Distribution of films DVD Larger capacity to deal with large file size of films

Blu-ray disc Easily duplicated

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Portable + Once written data cannot be erased or changed

Transferring data from USB RAM stick Cheap

one computer to another
SD card Very portable

Backing up data Magnetic tape Large capacity

Portable HDD Easy to remove and store elsewhere for safe keeping

Data can be overwritten to make a new backup

Archiving data CD Easy to remove and store elsewhere for safe keeping

DVD Once written data cannot be erased or changed

Blu-ray disc

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Virtual a memory management system that makes use of secondary storage and software to enable a
Memory computer to compensate for the shortage of actual physical RAM memory

If the amount of available RAM is exceeded due to multiple programs running, it is likely to cause a
system crash. This can be solved by utilising the hard disk drive (or SSD) if we need more memory. This
is the basis behind virtual memory.

RAM  physical memory

Virtual Memory  RAM + swap space on the hard disk or SSD
 This will require moving data out of RAM into HDD/SSD and then allowing other data to be moved
out of HDD/SSD into RAM.
 All of this will continue to occur until RAM is no longer being over-utilised by the competing
programs running in memory.
 Even though RAM is full, data can be moved in and out of the HDD/SSD to give the illusion that

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there is still memory available (unlimited memory).
 Paging is a key part of how virtual memory works allowing data blocks (pages) to be moved in and
out of a HDD/SSD. However, accessing data in virtual memory is slower so, as mentioned earlier
on in this chapter, the larger the RAM the faster the CPU can operate.

Describe how virtual memory is created and used:

 The hard drive is partitioned to create virtual memory

eg 


When RAM is full, pages of data that are not required are transferred from RAM to virtual
memory
When the data is required again the pages are transferred back to RAM

Paging used by memory management in operating systems to store and retrieve data from HDD/SSD and copy it into RAM

Page a fixed-length consecutive (or contiguous) block of data utilised in virtual memory systems

The main benefits of virtual memory are (Why virtual memory is necessary ?)
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 programs can be larger than physical memory and still be executed
 There is no need to waste memory with data that isn’t being used (e.g. during error handling)
 It reduces the need to buy and install more expensive RAM memory (although as mentioned
earlier there are limits to the value of doing this).

disk thrashing a problem in a hard disk drive (HDD) caused by excessive swapping in and out of data
(HDD) causing a high rate of head movements during virtual memory operations

thrash point the point at which the execution of a program comes to a halt because the system is so
busy moving data in and out of memory rather than actually executing the program

How to prevent thrashing?

 Installing more RAM

 Reducing the number of programs running at a time or reducing the size of the swap file
 make use of a solid state drive (SSD) rather than using HDD

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Cloud Storage consisting of servers that are often in a remote location. These servers are
Storage often maintained/backed up by a third-party company. Cloud storage is normally
accessed using a network (often the internet)

Data the unnecessary storing of the same data on several storage devices at the same time
Redundancy

There are three common systems:

» Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the customer/client and cloud storage provider
are different companies

» Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated environment behind a company firewall;
customer/client and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate as a single entity

» Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above environments; some data resides in the

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private cloud and less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed from a public cloud storage
provider.
eg
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Summary Chapter 5 (Cyber security)

It is possible for data to be accidentally, or intentionally, changed or deleted. Computer security is
the protection of computer from unauthorized access and the protection of data from loss, deletion,
change and corruption.

Unintentional (accidental) data loss examples:

 Human error – for example, accidental deletion or overwriting of files.

 Physical damage – for example, fire or water damage to equipment.
 Power failure – resulting in data in volatile memory (RAM) not being saved to permanent
memory
 Hardware failure – for example, a damaged hard disk drive
 Software malfunction – for example, windows crashes, incompatible software installed in the

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system
 Misplacing portable media – for example, DVDs and memory sticks
 Theft – for example, having a laptop or smartphone stolen.

How to protect from accidental (unintentional data loss)???

 Use of back-ups to retrieve data in case data is lost or corrupted (recovery method) (A backup: The
data is copied onto a separate storage medium and this is kept separate from the main system. We
eg
can back up data onto various storage media e.g. Magnetic media, Optical media, Solid-state media
and Cloud storage)
 Use of password and user-IDs (set access rights) to restrict unauthorized access (safeguard)
 Use of Verification, Verification is a check that asks the user to confirm whether or not they wish to
go ahead with an instruction. e.g. a message to ask the user if he definitely wants to delete the file.
 Use of UPS to prevent power loss causing hardware malfunction (safeguard)
 Save data on regular basis in case the software suddenly “crashes” (safeguard)
 Correct training procedures to reduce incorrect operation of equipment (e.g. correct shut-down
procedures) (safeguard)

Security and protection against risks

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1) Physical Security

It prevents users without permission to access the system and the data. Ways:

 Locks – The computer systems and data can be kept in a locked room
 CCTV – Cameras can be used to monitor who physically accesses a system
 Security guards - prevent users without permission to access the system

2) Authentication

Authentications is the security which prevents access to a computer even if the user has a physical
access. Authentications is used to verify that data comes from a trusted source. It works with
encryption to strengthen internet security. Examples:
a. Passwords: A password is a secret word or series of characters, known only by the user. Only a
correct combination of user ID and password allows access to the system.
b. Biometrics

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Biometric Description Advantages Disadvantages

methods
Fingerprint scans Scanner compares the image of the  Cheap Unsuitable for children as child’s
fingerprint taken with the stored one  Reliable fingerprint pattern alters as they grow

Iris (Retina) scans Scanner compares the image of the iris Highly Expensive
(retina) taken with the stored one reliable
(Camera)
Face recognition Scanner compares the image of face taken Reasonably Can fail if poor lighting causes facial
with the stored one (Camera) reliable features to be incorrectly measured.

Voice recognition Computer compares voice pattern with Fairly reliable Can fail in noisy environments or if the
the one stored (Microphone) person has a cold or sore throat

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In all these methods the input is converted to digital format by the appropriate device (camera/microphone)
and the key features are checked/compared using computer/microprocessor if the image/voice matches the
stored one then the person is correctly identified.

Text-based password Biometric password

A number of characters that can be typed at a keyboard  A stored physical measurement e.g. fingerprint, voice
eg
and is set/changed by the user recognition
 that is compared to a previously scanned human
measurement
Text-based passwords are easier to hack than biometric passwords

Biometric passwords are unique to the individual and cannot be shared

Biometric passwords allow quicker access as no need to input/remember password

3) Anti-virus: Anti-virus cannot prevent an attack happening to a computer system, but they can
only detect viruses, malware and spyware by scanning the computer’s hard drive and then
removing these harmful programs.
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Tasks carried out by the anti-virus software:

 Scans files for viruses and delete them

 Checks data before it is downloaded and stops download if virus found/warns user may contain
virus
 Can constantly run in the background
 can run a scheduled scan
 Can automatically update virus definitions (When new viruses are discovered, anti-virus software
developers release an update for the computers to detect it.)
4)

 Will prevent data being relayed to a third part

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5) Firewall 6) Proxy Server

Definition: Firewall can be either software or Definition: Intermediary server sits between the user’s
hardware. It sits between the user’s computer and an computer and the web server to protect the server by
external network (e.g. the internet) and filters preventing direct access to the server itself
information ingoing and outgoing traffic.

Functions: Functions:

1. Can prevent viruses or hackers gaining access. 1. Can be used to help prevent DoS attack
2. Examines/monitors traffic coming into and out of a 2. Acts as a firewall (with the same functions starting from
computer system number 2)
3. User can set criteria/rules for traffic 3. Proxy can hide user’s IP address – this clearly improves
4. Firewall blocks/filters traffic that doesn’t meet the security

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criteria/rules. (check functions 5&6 in proxy) 4. can speed up access to information by using CACHE
5. Allows a set blacklist / whitelist and can block Differences between Firewall and Proxy. Proxy can hide
certain IP addresses. user's IP address, firewall does not • Proxy intention is to
6. It warns a user of any unauthorised divert attack from server, firewall is to stop unauthorised
software/access/unauthorised outgoing traffic. access • Proxy protects a server/network, firewall protects
7. It keeps a log of all traffic (that can be examined) network/individual computer • Proxy filters access from
items such as websites, firewall blocks port
7) Encryption
eg Encryption A way to modify the data to make it difficult to be understood by any unauthorized user.
Encryption requires an encryption key to encrypt and decrypt the data.
Encryption doesn’t prevent data from being accessed (hacked). It only prevents the data the data
being understood by unauthorized user if it is accessed.
Two Types of Encryption:
Symmetric encryption: the same key is used to encrypt or decrypt the message.
Asymmetric encryption: uses two keys that work as a pair (public key and a private key). The first key
is used to encrypt the message. A message encrypted with the first key cannot be decrypted with that
same key. It can only be decrypted with the second key. Similarly, a message encrypted with the
second key can only be decrypted with the first key.
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Ahmed wants to e-mail personal information and wants to make sure that if the personal
information is intercepted, it cannot be understood. State how Ahmed could email his personal data
more securely and describe how your chosen solution works

 Encryption is used
 The original data (his personal details) before encryption is the plain text
 The original data/plain text/his personal details is encrypted using an encryption algorithm
to scramble data
 The original data/plain text/his personal details is encrypted using an encryption key
 The encrypted text is called cypher/cipher text
 The key is transmitted separately (from the text)
 The key is used to decrypt the cypher text (after transmission)
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Explain one method that could be used to increase the level of security provided by the encryption:

 Increase the key length / more bits used for key. This will generate more possibilities for key.
Therefore, less chance of decryption by brute force method.
 Another method (write it as a second point not the 1st point) is to use a more complex
encryption algorithm.
Explain ways that the malware could have been introduced to the company’s network.

 A hacker could have hacked the network and downloaded the malware onto the network
 Clicking a link/attachment/downloaded a file from an email/on a webpage the malware
could have been embedded into the link/attachment/file
 Inserting an infected portable storage device when the drive is accessed the malware is
downloaded to the network
 Firewall has been turned off so malware would not be detected/checked for when entering

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network
 Anti-malware has been turned off so malware is not detected/checked for when files are
downloaded
Extra Method for protecting from Hacking and spyware:
Two-step verification // Two-factor authentication
 Extra data is sent to device, pre-set by user making it more difficult for hacker to obtain it
 Data has to be entered into the same system so if attempted from a remote location, it will
eg not be accepted

8) Security Protocols
http and https (check chapter 2) + SSL and TLS
How to know that the website is secure??
 Protocol is HTTPS
 Padlock icon is locked
 Can view website digital certificate (SSL certificate)
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) (Encryption + Authenticity)

SSL is a security protocol that allows data to be sent and received securely between the computers over the
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internet. It uses asymmetric encryption. SSL uses https. (SSL benefit: Data is encrypted )

 The user’s web browser sends a message so that it can connect with the required website which
is secured by SSL
 The web browser then requests that the web server identifies itself
 The web server responds by sending a copy of its SSL/digital certificate to the user’s web
browser
 If the web browser can authenticate/validate this certificate, it sends a message back to the
web server to allow communication to begin
 Once this message is received, the web server acknowledges the web browser, and the SSL-
encrypted two-way data transfer begins

SSL is used to secure (SSL & TLS applications):

 Online banking / Online shopping
 Web-based mail
 Cloud-based storage systems
 Instant messaging (IM) // Social networking

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Security risk Description Possible effect of the security risk Methods to remove security risk

Hacking The act of gaining illegal access to a computer system without the  This can lead to identity theft or gaining  Use of Firewalls
user’s knowledge personal information  Use of strong passwords and user ids
 Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted.  Use of Biometrics
Virus Program that can replicate itself with the intention of deleting or  Same as description  Install Anti-virus Software
corrupting files, or cause the computer to crash  Do not download software from
unknown sources
 Use of a Firewall

-Software that gathers information by monitoring key presses on a user’s keyboard How Effect is the saame as description  Use of anti-spyware software

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Spyware/
the spyware or virus is dowloaded on the computer ?
-The data is sent back to the originator of the software − The user could have been sent an email with an attachment / link  Use data entry methods such as drop-
key-logging -The key logs were analysed containing the spyware/virus down boxes/ onscreen keyboard so key
software -A common pattern / word in the key logs could have allowed a password to be identified − The user could have clicked a link on an untrusted website logger can't collect data leading to
− When the attachment / link was clicked the spyware/virus was
downloaded onto the user’s computer minimizing the risk
Phishing The creator sends out a legitimate looking e-mail; as soon as the  Same as description  Do not open e-mail/attachments from
recipient clicks on a link in the e-mail/attachment, the user is sent to  Website can obtain personal/financial unknown sources
a fake website. information about the user  Some firewalls can detect fake websites

eg
Pharming Malicious code installed on the user’s hard drive or on the web server;  Same as description  Some anti-spyware can identify and
the code will redirect the user to a fake website without their  Website can obtain personal/financial remove the pharming code from the hard
knowledge information about the user drive
 Same effect as phishing  Only trust secure websites, e.g. look for
secure websites
War-driving The act of locating and using wireless internet connections illegally; it  It’s possible to steal a user’s internet  Use of WEP encryption
only requires a laptop/portable device, a wireless network card and time/allocation by downloading large files(e.g.  Protect the use of the wireless devices
an antenna to pick up wireless signals movie files) by having complex passwords before the
 It is possible to hack into the wireless network internet can be accessed
and steal a user’s password and other personal  Use of firewalls to prevent outside users
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details from gaining access
Denial of  A large number of requests are sent to a server all at a once. Signs if they are victim of one attacks include:  Using an up-to-date malware/virus checker
service  This is designed to flood the server with useless requests.  Slow network performance  Setting up a firewall to restrict traffic to and
attack (DoS)  The server will stop trying to deal with requests.  Inability to access particular websites from the internet server or user’s computer
 This prevents the users from gaining access to the website/server.  Large amounts of spam mail reaching the  Applying email filters to manage or filter out
user’s email account unwanted traffic or spam emails.
Spam  Junk / unwanted email sent to large numbers of people
 Used for advertising / spreading malware
 Fills up mail boxes
Hacking is breaking into a computer system to steal personal data without the owner’s consent or knowledge (e.g. to steal a password file) by breaking through security methods.
Cracking is where someone edits a program source code. This is usually done for a malicious purpose (e.g. legitimate software could be altered by a cracker to perform a different task e.g. send a user
to a specific website or not paying a fee for using the software). Cracking can be minimized by 1) setting strong passwords 2) Encrypting data
White hat hacker (ethical hacker): Hired by organizations to test their own systems and discover any system that exists (lawfully - legal).
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Malware: A software program that is designed to damage or disrupt a computer e.g. virus, spyware
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Security risk Description Possible effect of the security risk Methods to remove security risk
Brute force attacks A ‘trial and error’ method used by cybercriminals to crack passwords by finding all possible  Use longer passwords
combinations of letters, numbers and symbols until the password is found. Brute-force  Use a greater variation of characters
attacks target weak passwords created by users. (letters, number, special characters,
etc.)
Data Interception an attempt to eavesdrop on a wired or wireless network transmission; cybercriminal often Obviously, encryption of data makes life more
use packet sniffing (wired networks) or access point mapping/wardriving to intercept data difficult for the hacker. While it doesn’t stop
(wireless netwrosk) the data being intercepted or altered in some
packet sniffing – a method used by a cybercriminal to examine data packets being sent over way, encryption will make the data

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a wired network and to find the contents of a data packet, which are sent back to the incomprehensible to the hacker if they don’t
cybercriminal have access to a decryption key. + Check war
wardriving – using a laptop, antenna, GPS device and software to intercept Wi-Fi signals and driving in the summarized notes
illegally obtain data; sometimes called Access Point Mapping
Trojan horses Software that is disguised as authentic software, they replace all or part of the legitimate Firewalls and other security systems are often
software with the intent of carrying out some harm to the user’s computer system like useless since the user can overrule them and
deleting data or damaging hardware. initiate the running of the malware.
Worms A stand-alone type of malware that can self-replicate; It takes up bandwidth/storage space. Same as viruses

eg
Unlike viruses, worms don’t need an active host; they can spread throughout a network
without the need for any action by an end-user. (Same effect as viruses)
Adware Software that floods a user’s computer  highlight weaknesses in a user’s security
with unwanted advertising; Some may defences
contain spyware. Some when clicked may  be hard to remove – it defeats most anti-
link to a virus. Advertising is usually in the malware software since it can be difficult to
form of pop-ups but can frequently appear determine whether or not it is harmful
in the browser address window  hijack a browser and create its own default
redirecting the browser to a fake website search requests.
which contains the promotional adverts.  install tracking cookies, often without user
permission.

Ransomware Programs that encrypt the data on a user’s computer; a decryption key is sent back to the  Regular backups of key files in order to
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user once they pay a sum of money (a ransom). They are often sent via a Trojan horse or avoid having to pay a ransom
by social engineering. Once a ransomware is executed, it is almost impossible to reverse  Avoid phishing emails
the damage caused.
Extra Notes

 In a distributed denial of service (DDoS) the spam traffic originates from many different computers, which makes it hard to block the
attack. These computers are known as a botnet. Aims of carrying out a DoS/DDoS attack?  Revenge  To affect a company’s reputation
 Entertainment value  To demand a ransom to stop it  To test a system’s resilience

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 In Viruses: Viruses need an active host program on the target computer or an operating system that has already been infected, before
they can actually run and cause harm (that is, they need to be executed by some trigger before starting to cause any damage).

Social Engineering: Manipulating people into breaking normal security procedures (such as giving away their password) in order to gain illegal
access to computer systems or to place malware on their computer. There are five types of threat that commonly exist:

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Instant messaging Malicious links are embedded into instant messages; for example, an important software upgrade (relies on user’s curiosity)
Scareware (for This is often done using a pop-up message that claims that the user’s computer is infected with a virus; the user is told they need to download
example, fake anti- the fake anti-virus immediately (relies on user’s fear)
virus that looks real)
Emails/phishing The user is tricked by the apparent genuineness of an email and opens a link in the email; this redirects their browser to a fake website (relies on
scams user’s trust of well-known companies)
Baiting The cybercriminal leaves a malware-infected memory stick somewhere where it can be found; the finder picks up the memory stick and plugs it

eg
into their computer (just to see who it belongs to) and unwittingly downloads malicious malware (relies on user curiosity)
Phone calls For example, a so-called IT professional calls the user on their mobile claiming their device has been compromised in some way; the user is
advised to download some special software that allows the cybercriminal to take over the user’s device giving them access to personal
information (relies on fear
Social Engineering is based on the exploitation of certain human emotions; the three most common ones to exploit are: Fear (Scareware),
curiosity (Baiting), empathy and trust.

Social Stage 1: The victims are identified; information about victim gathered and method of attack decided
Engineering Stage 2: At this stage the victim is being targeted (either through email, phone call, Trojan horse and so on; it all depends on who the victim is)
scam Stage 3: The attack on the victim is now executed allowing the cybercriminal to obtain the information or to cause the disruption decided on at Stage 1
stages Stage 4: – When the cybercriminal has decided they have what they wanted they try to remove all traces of the malware to cover their tracks
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Solutions to keep data safe:

Access levels: Definition: Providing users with different permission for the data: 1) Limiting access to reading data limiting the data that can be
viewed 2) Limiting access to editing data. Access level is normally linked to a username. Different levels of access in a computer system allowing
a hierarchy of access levels depending on user’s level of security. An area where access levels are very important is social networks. There are
usually four access levels: 1) public access 2) friends) 3) custom 4) data owner (this is data only the owner of the data can see).

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Anti-spyware software is based on one of the following methods:

 rules – in this case, the software looks for typical features which are usually associated with spyware thus identifying any potential security
issues.
 file structures – in this case, there are certain file structures associated with potential spyware which allows them to be identified by the
software.

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**Anti-spyware is now often part of a generic malware bundle that contains an anti-virus, anti-spyware and a personal firewall.

Automatic software updates mean software on computers and mobile phones/ tablets is kept up-to-date. Sometimes this is done overnight or
when you log off the device. These updates are vital since they may contain patches that update the software security (to protect against malware)
or improve the software performance (for example, removal of bugs and addition of new features). The only downside to this is the potential for
updates to disrupt your device following installation.

eg
Checking the spelling and tone of communication and URL links.

When emails are sent to you, there are three actions you always need to take before opening them or activating any links in them.

 Check out the spellings in the email and in the links; professional, genuine organisations will not send out emails which contain spelling or
major grammatical errors (for example, Amazzon.com). Typo squatting is the use by cybercriminals of subtle spelling errors in website
addresses used to trick users into visiting their fake websites
 Carefully check the tone used in the email message; if it is rushing you into doing something or if the language used seems inappropriate
or incorrect, then it could be a phishing email or worse
 Suspicious links; destination addresses should match the rest of the email.
 since the company involve online payments, it’s very likely to use secure links therefore you would expect to see https » the spelling of
the company is incorrect » it is more likely to see .com since they are a large company.
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Privacy settings: controls available on social networking and other websites which allow users to limit who can access their profile or what they
are allowed to see. Privacy settings can refer to:

 a ‘do not track’ setting; the intention here is to stop websites collecting and using browsing data which leads to improved security
 a check to see if payment methods have been saved on websites; this is a useful safety feature which prevents the need to type in payment
details again (every time you have type in financial details, there will be a risk of data interception)
 safer browsing; an alert is given when the browser encounters a potentially dangerous website (the undesirable website will be in a
‘blacklist’ stored on the user’s computer)

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Summary Ch.6 (Automated and emerging tech.)

Automated System It is a combination of software and hardware (for example, sensors, microprocessors and actuators)
that is designed and programmed to work automatically without the need of any human intervention.
However, such systems often involve human monitoring.

Advantages Disadvantages

 More efficient  Maintenance is required for consistent performance which is

expensive
 Can store and deal with vast amounts of data  Software failures will impact the computer system
 Lead to more consistent results and  Expensive to set up in the first place as equipment is needed
performance and more consistent products
 Reduced labour costs  Subject to cyberattacks no matter how good the computer is

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 Safer in dangerous environments  always possible for a set of conditions to occur that were never
considered during testing which could have safety implications

Robotics Robotics is a branch of computer science that incorporates the design, construction and operation of robots.
Examples include factory equipment, domestic robots and drones

To be classified as a robot, a system should have the following characteristics:

eg 1) Mechanical structure or framework: A robot should be a piece of machinery that usually has some movable parts. It
can be large or small.
2) Electrical components: a robot should have a combination of sensors, a microprocessor and actuators.
3) Being programmable as a robot has a programmable controller, which receives data from sensors and determine the
action to be taken to perform a specific task. (In another words: The robot should also be able to be programmed by a
human to carry out various tasks in a repetitive fashion until complete.)

Advantages Disadvantages
Higher accuracy than humans (Fewer errors) Fewer job opportunities as humans are replaced by
machinery
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Can work without the need to stop  Higher productivity than Robots technology can be expensive.
humans
Reduced running costs (fewer staff are required) Encourage a more sedentary lifestyle in humans.
Capable of working in conditions that may be hazardous to humans

artificial a collection of rules and data which gives a computer system the ability to reason, learn and adapt to
intelligence (AI) external stimuli (very important: Check March 23 question 6d)
expert system a form of AI that has been developed to mimic a human’s knowledge and expertise
explanation part of an expert system which informs the user of the reasoning behind its conclusions and
system recommendations
inference a kind of search engine used in an expert system which examines the knowledge base for information that
engine matches the queries. It makes decisions by applying the rules/logic to the facts/knowledge to provide a
result/diagnosis
inference rules rules used by the inference engine and in expert systems to draw conclusions using IF statements

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knowledge base a repository of facts which is a collection of objects and attributes (very important: Check Sp23 vB question 6d)
object an item stored in the knowledge base
attribute something that defines the objects stored in a knowledge base
rules base Stores the inference rules for the system for the inference engine to use and it is used to link the facts in the
knowledge base
machine learning a sub-set of AI in which algorithms are trained and learn from past experiences and examples. Machine learning is
when a program has the ability to automatically adapt its own processes and data.
web scraping a method of obtaining data from websites
cognitive relating to the mental processes of the human brain involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding through
thought, experiences and input from the five senses
User interface Allows the user to interact with the expert system using dialogue boxes and command prompts
Typical Structure of Expert Systems

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Setting up an expert system
 Information needs to be gathered from human experts or
from written sources
 Information gathered is used to populate the knowledge
base that needs to be first created
 A rules base needs to be created; this is made up of a series
of inference rules so that the inference engine can draw
eg conclusions
 The inference engine itself needs to be set up; it is a
complex system since it is the main processing element
making reasoned conclusions from data in the knowledge
base
 The user interface needs to be developed to allow the user
and the expert system to communicate
 Once the system is set up, it needs to be fully tested by
running the system with known outcomes so that results
can be compared and any necessary changes can be made
AI Machine Learning
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Represents simulated intelligence in machines This is the practice of getting machines to make decisions without
being programmed to do so
The aim is to build machines that are capable of The aim is to make machines that learn through data acquisition, so
thinking like humans that they can solve new problems

Digital Currency

 Digital currency exists only in an electronic format. It has no physical form.

 Digital currency is an accepted form of payment to pay for goods or services.
 Money in digital currency only exists as data on a computer system, but it can be transferred
into physical cash if we need it.
 Digital currency relies on a central banking system.

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Cryptocurrency

The problem with centralisation is maintaining confidentiality and security. However, one example
of digital currency, known as cryptocurrency, has essentially overcome these issues by introducing
decentralization.

 Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to track transactions; it was created to address the

problems associated with the centralisation of digital currency.
 Traditional digital currencies are regulated by central banks and governments. This means
all transactions and exchange rates are determined by these two bodies.


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Cryptocurrency has no state control and all the rules are set by the cryptocurrency
community itself.
 Unlike existing digital currencies, cryptocurrency transactions are publicly available and
therefore all transactions can be tracked and the amount of money in the system is
monitored.
 The cryptocurrency system works by being within a blockchain network which means it is
much more secure.
eg
Blockchaining

 Blockchain, in its basic form, is a digital ledger, that is a time-stamped series of records that
cannot be altered.
 Blockchain is a decentralised database. The blockchain consists of a number of
interconnected computers but they are not connected to a central server.
 All transaction data is stored on all computers in the blockchain network.
 Whenever a new transaction takes place, a new block is created.
 A new hash value is created each time a new block is created. This hash value is unique to
each block and includes a timestamp, which identifies when an event actually takes place.
 Whenever a new transaction takes place, all the networked computers get a copy of the
transaction  it cannot be changed without the consent of all the network members 
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removes the risk of security issues such as hacking.
What is a block in a blockchain?

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Sensors

 Describe how the sensors and a microprocessor are used to monitor a process:
1. …………… sensors send signals to microprocessor.
2. Analogue signals are converted to digital (using ADC).
3. Microprocessor compares input values (readings from the sensor) to stored values.
4. If out of range/matches stored values
5. Microprocessor sends signal to display a warning message/Sound alarm.
6. If out of range/matches stored values
7. The no action is taken
8. The process is continuous (until turned off/stopped)

 Describe how the sensors and a microprocessor are used to control a process.
1. …………. sensors send signals to microprocessor.
2. Analogue signals are converted to digital (using ADC).

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3. Microprocessor compares input values (readings from the sensor) to stored values.
4. If out of range/matches stored values (e.g. if the temperature is too low)
5. Microprocessor sends signal to actuator to cause an action to occur (e.g. turn on the heater)
6. If out of range/matches stored values (e.g. if the temperature is too high)
7. Microprocessor sends signal to actuator to cause an action to occur (e.g. turn off the heater)
8. The process is continuous.
eg Side note: Actuator is responsible for powering and moving a motor in machinery, such as a robot
arm in a factory.

Anti-lock braking systems on cars

Describe how sensors and microprocessor are used to control the braking systems in the car.

 ANTI-LOCK BRAKING SYSTEMS (ABS) on cars uses magnetic field sensors to stop the wheels locking up
on the car if the brakes have been applied too sharply.
 When one of the car wheels rotates too slowly (i.e. it is locking up), a magnetic field sensor sends
signals to the microprocessor.
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 Signal is converted from analogue to digital using ADC
 Microprocessor compares the rotation speed of that wheel with the other 3 wheels
 If the other 3 wheels are rotating faster
 Microprocessor sends signals to the braking system and the braking pressure to the affected wheel is
reduced and its rotational is increased to match the other 3 wheels.
 If one of the wheels is rotating too quickly, braking pressure is increased to that wheel until it matches
the other three.
 Process is continuous (until turned off/stopped)

Examples of monitoring systems include:

 Monitoring of intruders in a burglar alarm system.
 Monitoring pollution levels in a river.
Examples of control systems include:
 Turning street lights on at night and turning them off again during daylight
 Regulating the temperature in a central heating/air conditioning system

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