FUNDAMENTALS OF

GIS
(PRACTICAL)
B.A. (HONS.) GEOGRAPHY

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
SWAMY SHRADHANAND COLLEGE
UNIVERSITY OF DELHI, NEW DELHI, INDIA

SUBMITTED TO: SUBMITTED

BY:
DR. AVIJIT MAHALA RANGNO CHEDA
 23081513046

INDEX
1 GIS
1.1 definition and of gis
1.2 GIS COMPONENTS
1.3 types of gis software
1.4 IMPORTANCE and emerging
traits of gis
2 GIS DATA
STRUCTURE
2.1 DIFFERENT TYPES OF GIS DATA
( SPATIAL AND NON SPATIAL )
2.2 AREA,POINT AND LINE
2.3 VECTOR AND RASTER
2.4 DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
3 GIS DATA ANALYSIS-1
3.1 data input : method AND
CONCEPT
3.2 georefrencing
3.3digitisation
3.4 input of attribute table
3.5 data editing
3.6 advanced geoprocessing tool
4 GIS DATA ANALYSIS-II
4.1 QUERY
4.2 OVERLAY
4.3 MAPLAYOUT(TYPES OF MAPS)
5 APPLICATION OF GIS
LAND USE/LAND COVER CHANGE
MORPHOMETRY ANALYSIS
URBAN STUDIES

6 QGIS PRACTICAL
WORK
 UNIT – 1
1 .GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

1.1 DEFINATION

A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based tool for

managing, analyzing, and visualizing spatial data, linking location data
with descriptive information. It allows users to capture, store,
manipulate, analyse, and display geographic information. GIS is a
framework that integrates various data types, analyzes spatial
location, and organizes information layers into maps and 3D scenes.
1.2 Overview of GIS:
 Spatial Data Integration:
GIS connects data to a map, combining location data (where things
are) with descriptive information (what things are like there).
 Visualization and Analysis:
It provides powerful tools for visualizing, analyzing, and interpreting
spatial data, revealing patterns, relationships, and geographic
context.
 Decision Support:
GIS helps users make informed decisions by presenting data in a
spatial context, enabling them to understand geographic
relationships and trends.
 Applications:
 GIS is used across various fields, including urban planning,
environmental management, resource management, logistics, and
more.

1.3 GIS: COMPONENTS

 Hardware:
Computers, servers, GPS receivers, scanners, and printers are
essential for data collection, storage, and processing.
 Software:
GIS software provides tools for creating, editing, analyzing, and
visualizing geographic data.
 Data:
GIS uses spatial data, including raster and vector data, and associated
attributes.
 People:
GIS requires skilled individuals to manage, analyze, and utilize the
system effectively.
 Methods:
GIS employs various analytical techniques, including spatial queries,
statistical analysis, and geoprocessing, to derive meaningful insights.

1.4 Types of GIS Software:

 Desktop GIS:
Software like ArcGIS (Esri) and QGIS (open-source) are used for local
analysis and map creation.
 Spatial Data Base Management Systems (SDBMS):
Software like CARIS GIS (marine mapping) and Felt (for visualization)
are used for managing large spatial datasets.
 Web Map Servers:
Google Earth Engine (cloud-based) is used for sharing maps and data
over the internet.
 Server GIS:
Software like Carto (web mapping) is used for creating and managing
web-based GIS applications.
 Web GIS Clients:
Software like CARIS GIS (marine mapping) and DIVA-GIS (free
software) are used for accessing and interacting with GIS data online.
 Mobile GIS:
Software like Felt (for visualization) is used for capturing and
analyzing data in the field using mobile devices.
 Libraries and Extensions:
Google Earth Engine (cloud-based) and CARIS GIS (marine mapping)
are used for adding GIS capabilities to other software.
1.5 IMPORTANCE of GIS:
 Improved Communication:
GIS helps visualize complex data and communicate geographic
information effectively.
 Enhanced Decision-Making:
GIS enables users to make informed decisions based on spatial
analysis and visualization.
 Efficiency and Cost Savings:
GIS can optimize processes, reduce costs, and improve resource
management.
  Resource Management:GIS helps manage natural resources,
plan infrastructure development, and address environmental
challenges.
1.6 Emerging trends of GIS
1. AI-Driven Geospatial Analysis:
 AI and machine learning (ML) are transforming data analysis
and interpretation in GIS.
 AI algorithms can process vast datasets, extract meaningful
patterns, and automate complex tasks.
 This leads to improved decision-making and insights in various
fields.
2. Integration of IoT with GIS:
 The Internet of Things (IoT) provides real-time data that can be
integrated into GIS systems.
 This allows for more dynamic and responsive applications, such
as smart city management and real-time traffic monitoring.
 Miniaturization of sensors and the ability to collect data from
various sources are key enablers.
3. Cloud-Based GIS Solutions:
 Cloud-based GIS platforms offer scalability, accessibility, and
collaboration capabilities.
 They enable users to access and analyze geospatial data from
anywhere, anytime.
 This facilitates easier data sharing and collaboration among
different stakeholders.
4. Advancements in 3D GIS and Digital Twins:
 3D GIS and digital twins are creating more realistic and
interactive representations of the real world.
 These technologies can be used for urban planning,

infrastructure management, and disaster risk assessment.
 They provide a more comprehensive understanding of complex
spatial environments.
5. Growth of Location Intelligence:
 Location intelligence leverages GIS data to make informed
decisions based on location.
 This is used in various applications, such as retail, logistics, and
emergency management.
 It helps businesses and organizations optimize operations and
improve efficiency.
6. Enhanced Mobile GIS Applications:
Mobile GIS applications are becoming increasingly

sophisticated, allowing users to access and interact with
geospatial data on the go.
 This is particularly useful for field work, disaster response, and
resource management.
 Mobile GIS applications can be used to collect data in the field
and visualize it in real-time.
7. Geospatial Blockchain Applications:
 Blockchain technology can be used to create secure and
transparent systems for managing geospatial data.
 This can improve data integrity and traceability, especially in
applications like land registration and resource management.
 Blockchain can also facilitate secure data sharing and
collaboration.
8. Extreme Climate Events and Environmental Monitoring:
GIS plays a crucial role in monitoring and responding to

extreme climate events, such as floods, droughts, and wildfires.
 Real-time geospatial data can be used to assess vulnerability,
plan evacuation routes, and coordinate emergency response
efforts.
 GIS can also be used to monitor environmental changes and
assess the impact of climate change.
 UNIT-2
2.STUCTURE GIS DATA
2.1 In the field of data analysis and geospatial science, two terms
commonly used are spatial data and non-spatial data. While both
types of data play crucial roles in various industries, it is important to
understand the key differences between them. In this article, we will
explore the characteristics, applications, and difference between
spatial and non spatial data.
Spatial data refers to information that is tied to specific geographical
locations, such as coordinates on a map. Non-spatial data, on the
other hand, does not have a direct connection to a specific location.
patial data refers to information that has a geographic or spatial
component. It represents the physical location, size, and shape of
objects on the Earth’s surface.
Spatial data can be captured through various sources such as satellite
imagery, GPS devices, aerial photographs, or surveys. This data is
typically stored and analyzed using Geographic Information Systems
(GIS).
Characteristics of Spatial Data
Spatial data, also known as geospatial data, is any kind of data that
represents objects, events, or phenomena that are located in space –
that is, any object or matter that is described in terms of a location
on, above, or below the earth’s surface. Here are the primary
characteristics of spatial data:
1. Location: This is the primary feature of spatial data, indicating
where exactly an object or phenomenon is located on the
earth’s surface. This is usually represented by geographic
coordinates (longitude and latitude), or by an address that can
be geocoded to geographic coordinates.
2. Attribute: This is the data or information that describes the
object or phenomenon at the given location. For example, in a
spatial dataset of a city’s buildings, the attributes might include
the building’s name, its use (commercial, residential, etc.), its
height, and the number of floors it has.
3. Topology: This is the spatial relationship between different
features in the dataset. This can include information about
which features are adjacent to each other, which ones are
contained within others, and so forth.
4. Scale/Resolution: Spatial data is always collected or
represented at a certain scale or resolution. This indicates the
level of detail of the data: for instance, a map might be drawn
at a scale of 1:100,000 (meaning that 1 unit on the map equals
100,000 units on the ground), or a satellite image might have a
resolution of 30 meters (meaning that each pixel in the image
represents a 30m x 30m area on the ground).
5. Projection: Because the earth is a three-dimensional sphere,
and maps and data screens are two-dimensional, some method
must be used to “flatten” the earth’s surface for representation.
The system used to do this is called a projection. Different
projections can maintain accurate representations of area,
distance, shape, or direction, but no single projection can
maintain accuracy in all four.
6. Time: Spatial data can also have a temporal dimension,
representing changes in the spatial characteristics of objects or
phenomena over time. This is often important in fields like
 environmental monitoring, disaster management, and urban
planning.
7. Accuracy and Precision: The accuracy of spatial data
refers to how closely it matches the real world, while precision
refers to the level of detail or exactness of the data. For
example, if a building’s location is recorded as being within 1
meter of its true location, the data is highly accurate. If the
building’s location is recorded down to a tenth of a meter, the
data is highly precise.
These are the general characteristics of spatial data. The specifics
may vary depending on the data model used (like raster or vector),
the type of data being represented (like physical features or human-
made structures), and the purpose of the data collection or
representation.
Examples of Spatial Data In GIS
We encounter spatial data in our everyday lives. Examples include:
 Navigation maps like Google Maps.
 Geolocation tags on social media posts.
 Satellite images.
Definition of Non-Spatial Data
Non-spatial data, in contrast, lacks any geographical components.
This data represents the information that is independent of any
spatial constraints.
Characteristics of Non-Spatial Data
Non-spatial data, also known as attribute data, refers to information
that doesn’t include a spatial or geographic component. This type of
data can be found in many disciplines and contexts, ranging from a
list of students in a school to the items sold in a supermarket. Here
are the primary characteristics of non-spatial data:
1. Categorical/Numerical: Non-spatial data can be categorical or
numerical. Categorical data includes descriptions like colors,
types, names, labels, etc., and is often divided into nominal
data (with no order or priority) and ordinal data (with a clear
order or rank). Numerical data represents quantities or counts,
and is often divided into interval data (with consistent scale but
no true zero point, like temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit)
and ratio data (with a consistent scale and a true zero point, like
weight or height).
2. Discrete/Continuous: Non-spatial data can be discrete or
continuous. Discrete data takes specific, separate values (like
the number of children in a family), while continuous data can
take any value within a certain range (like the temperature of a
room).
3. Univariate/Bivariate/Multivariate: Non-spatial data can involve
one variable (univariate), two variables (bivariate), or more
than two variables (multivariate). For example, a dataset of
students’ heights is univariate, a dataset of students’ heights
and weights is bivariate, and a dataset of students’ heights,
weights, and grades is multivariate.
4. Scalability: Non-spatial data can vary in size, from a few data
points to millions or billions. This can impact the storage,
processing, and analysis of the data.
5. Quality: This includes several aspects, such as accuracy (how
closely the data matches reality), precision (the level of detail),
completeness (whether any data is missing), consistency
(whether the data is the same across different sources or
times), and reliability (whether the data is trustworthy).
6. Temporal Dimension: Non-spatial data can also have a time
component, showing how data changes over time. For example,
a company’s sales data might include a record of how many of
each product was sold each day.
 7. Structure: Non-spatial data can be structured (with a clear,
predictable format, like a database table or CSV file), semi-
structured (with some level of organization, like a JSON or XML
file), or unstructured (with no specific format, like a text
document or email).
These characteristics help to determine the best methods for storing,
processing, and analyzing non-spatial data. It’s also worth noting that
while spatial data includes a geographic component, it also includes
many of these characteristics of non-spatial data as part of its
attribute data.
Examples of Non Spatial Data In GIS
Some instances where we encounter non-spatial data include:
 Text in books, articles, or social media posts.
 Numerical data, like your age or the number of likes on a
Facebook post.
 Dates, like your birth date or the date of an event.

2.2 POINTS, LINE AND AREA

Points:
 Representation: Individual locations on the map.
 Examples: Cities, landmarks, trees.
 Creation: Use the "Add point feature" tool in the editor mode of
a point layer.
Lines:
 Representation: Paths, boundaries, or networks.
 Examples: Roads, rivers, contour lines.
  Creation: Use the "Add line feature" tool in the editor mode of
a line layer.
Areas (Polygons):
 Representation: Enclosed regions, shapes.
 Examples: Countries, buildings, lakes.
 Creation: Use the "Add polygon feature" tool in the editor
mode of a polygon layer.

2.3 VECTOR AND RASTER

Raster data represents geographic information as a grid of cells or
pixels, while vector data uses points, lines, and polygons to represent
features, each with its own advantages and disadvantages.
Raster Data:
 Representation:
Raster data divides space into a grid of cells, with each cell holding a
value representing a specific attribute (e.g., elevation, temperature,
or color).
 Examples:
Satellite imagery, aerial photographs, and elevation models are
common examples of raster data.
 Advantages:
Well-suited for representing continuous data and spatial analysis over
large areas.
 Disadvantages:
Can be less accurate than vector data, and requires more storage
space for high-resolution data.
Vector Data:
 Representation:
Vector data uses points, lines, and polygons to represent geographic
features.
 Examples:
Roads, buildings, and property boundaries are often represented as
vector data.
 Advantages:
More accurate than raster data, and allows for efficient storage and
editing of discrete features.
 Disadvantages:
Less suitable for representing continuous data and spatial analysis
over large areas.

2.4 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

In GIS, a Database Management System (DBMS) is a software that manages
and organizes spatial and attribute data for mapping and analysis. This includes
storing, retrieving, and manipulating geographic data like points, lines, areas,
and their associated attributes. GIS uses DBMS to handle large datasets
efficiently and accurately, enabling spatial analysis, visualization, and decision-
making.
What is a DBMS in GIS?
 Data Organization:
DBMS structures and organizes data in a way that allows for easy access and
manipulation.
 Spatial Data Handling:
DBMS in GIS is designed to handle spatial data, including the location and
shape of geographic features.
 Attribute Data Management:
DBMS also manages attribute data, which describes the characteristics of those
geographic features.
 Querying and Analysis:
DBMS enables users to query the database, perform spatial analysis, and create
maps.
 Collaboration and Data Sharing:
DBMS supports multiple users accessing and sharing data simultaneously,
facilitating collaboration.
Types of DBMS used in GIS:
 Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS):
These are widely used in GIS, such as PostgreSQL, Microsoft SQL Server and
Oracle.
 Geodatabases:
These are specialized GIS databases that provide additional features for
managing spatial data, like topology and versioning.
 Open Source DBMS:
PostgreSQL and MySQL are examples of open-source RDBMS that can be used
in GIS.
Benefits of using DBMS in GIS:
 Data Integrity: DBMS ensures data accuracy and consistency.
 Efficient Retrieval: DBMS provides fast and efficient data retrieval.
 Spatial Analysis: DBMS supports complex spatial queries and analysis.
 Collaboration: DBMS facilitates data sharing and collaboration among
multiple users.
 Data Management: DBMS helps manage large datasets and track
changes
 UNIT-3
3. GIS DATA ANALYSIS -1

3.1 DATA INPUT : METHODS AND CONCEPT

Data input in GIS involves converting real-world information into a
digital format that can be processed by a GIS system. This process
includes both spatial data (location) and non-spatial data
(attributes). Common methods include digitizing, scanning, and
converting existing digital data.
Key Concepts:
 Data Input:
The process of encoding data from various sources into a digital
format and writing it into a GIS database.
 Spatial Data:
Information about the location of features on Earth, like points, lines,
and areas.
 Non-spatial Data (Attributes):
Descriptive or numeric information associated with spatial features,
such as population, elevation, or land use.
 Data Formats:
GIS data can be stored in vector format (points, lines, polygons) or
raster format (grids of cells/pixels).
 Data Sources:
Information can be collected from various sources, including maps,
aerial photographs, satellite imagery, and existing digital databases.
 Methods of Data Input:
1. Digitizing:
o Digitizing Tablet: A special table with a grid of fine wiring
behind the face, used to trace maps and convert them
into digital data.
o Heads-up Digitizing: A manual digitizing technique where
the user traces features on a computer screen after
scanning an image.
2. Scanning: Converting analog maps, images, or photographs into
digital formats.
3. Entry of Coordinates: Entering geographic coordinates directly
into the GIS system using coordinate geometry.
4. Conversion of Existing Digital Data: Importing data from other
GIS systems or databases.
5. Remote Sensing: Capturing data from satellites or aircraft, often
used to create raster data layers.
6. Field Data Collection: Using devices like GPS to collect data in
the field and integrate it with existing GIS data.
Data Input Process:
1. Source Identification: Determine the type of data needed and
the sources from which it will be obtained.
2. Data Acquisition: Collect the required data from various
sources.
3. Data Preparation: Prepare the data for input, which may involve
editing, cleaning, or transforming the data.
4. Data Input: Use appropriate methods (digitizing, scanning, etc.)
to convert the data into a digital format and store it in the GIS
database.
 5. Data Validation and Editing: Verify the accuracy and
completeness of the data, and correct any errors.
6. Data Management: Organize and manage the data within the
GIS system.
Example:
Imagine you want to create a GIS map of land use in Faridabad,
Haryana. You could use aerial photographs or satellite imagery as a
data source, then use digitizing or scanning techniques to convert the
imagery into a digital map layer. You could also collect data about
land use from field surveys and input it into the GIS system. Once the
data is in the GIS, you can perform various analysis and visualization
tasks to map land use patterns.

3.2 GEOREFERENCING
Geographic location is the element that distinguishes spatial data
with non-spatial data. Methods for specifying location on the
earth’s surface for geographical data in a map is called as
georeferencing. The primary requirements of a georeferenced are
that it should be unique, so that there is only one location
associated with a given georeferenced (e.g., Hyderabad – one in
India another in Pakistan). It should stay constant through time,
because it could create confusion if it changes (e.g., Madras –
Chennai). Data in a GIS must contain a geographic reference to a
map, such as latitude and longitude. The GIS cross-references the
attribute data with the map data.
Importance of Geo-Referencing

• Georeferencing is crucial for making aerial and satellite

imagery, usually raster images, useful for mapping as it
explains how other data, such as the above GPS points,
relate to the imagery.
• Different maps use different projection systems.
Georeferencing tool contain methods to combine and
overlay these maps with minimum distortions.
 • This technique helps in flattening the curved area of a
small region into a flat surface for referencing purposes.
• Data obtained from the surveying may be given at a point
of reference from topographic maps by this application.
• It may be required to establish the significant relationship
between the social survey results by the Georeferencing
application.
Steps Involved in Geo-Referencing

Step 1: Click on the icon of QGIS 3.16 (π) from the taskbar. Wait for some
time, as it takes a while for it to load.
Step 2: QGIS 3.16 open as shown below.
Step 3: Georeferencing in QGIS is done via the ‘Geo-reference
GDAL’ plugin. This is a core plugin - meaning it is already part of
your QGIS installation. This plugin is installed in the Raster Menu.
Click on Raster > Georeferenced to open the plugin.

Step4: Now we will open the image which is to be georeferenced in the

JPG format. Go to File‣ Open Raster. Browse to the downloaded image
of the scanned map and click Open.
Step 5: Browse to the downloaded image to be geo-referenced which is in
JPEG format of the scanned map and click Open.
Step 6: The Geo-reference window is further into two divisions. The top
section is where the raster is displayed and the bottom section is the GCP
Table window where the table showing the
GCPs will appear. Next, we have to choose the raster’s Coordinate
Reference System (CRS).
This is done to specify the projection and datum of the control points.

• Go to Transformation Settings.
• Then click on Target SRS.
• If the coordinates are from GPS in WGS84 coordinate system
then, you can choose the EPSG: 4326 CRS.
• Step 7: Now, we have to assign coordinates to at least 4
points on this map. If we look closely, we will see coordinate
 grid with markings. Using this grid, we have to determine the
X and Y coordinates of the points where the grids intersect.
Click on Add Point in the toolbar.
Step 8: A window will pop-up, in which we have to enter the coordinates. X is
Longitude, Y is Latitude. Then click OK. The GCP table below will be updated
with the first GCP.
Similarly, we have to add at least 4 more GCP points which would
cover the whole image. More the number of points, more accurate
will be the image registered to the target coordinates. Step 9: Once
you have at least 4 to 5 points, click on Settings, then go to
Transformation settings . When the Transformation settings dialog
box pops up, choose the Transformation type as linear. Then name
your output raster, here it is, Kerala modified file. Choose
EPSG:4326WGS 84 as the target SRS so the resulting image is in a
widely compatible datum. Make sure the Load in QGIS when done
option is checked. Click Ok to continue the procedure.

Step 10: Go back to the Georeferenced window, and select File, then Start
Geo-referencing.
This will start the process of warping the image using the GCPs and
creating the target raster.

Step 11: After this process is finished, the georeferenced image will
be loaded in QGIS.
 3.3 DIGITISATION
In the context of Geographic Information Systems (GIS),
digitization refers to the process of converting non-digital
geographic data, such as maps, aerial photographs, or
other analog formats, into digital formats that can be used
in GIS software for analysis and mapping. This involves
capturing the spatial features and attributes of geographic
data and representing them as digital coordinates,
commonly in vector format (points, lines, or polygons).
Key aspects of digitization in GIS:
 Data Conversion:
Digitization transforms analog data into digital
representations suitable for GIS software.
 Vector Data Creation:
The process creates vector datasets (points, lines,
polygons) from raster images or maps.
 Feature Tracing:
Features are traced and digitized, capturing their spatial
locations and attributes as digital coordinates.
 Georeferencing:
Digitized data needs to be georeferenced, meaning its
coordinates are linked to a real-world coordinate system.
 Applications:
Digitized data is used for various GIS tasks, including map
creation, analysis, and spatial modeling.
 Scope:
 Digitization encompasses a wide range of activities,
including data capture, editing, cleaning, analysis, and
dissemination.
 Methods:
Digitization can involve manual tracing, scanning, or even
automatic digitization from raster data.
 3.4 INPUT OF ATTRIBUTE TABLE
In the context of geographic information systems (GIS), the
input of an attribute table refers to the data that defines
the characteristics of spatial features. This data is typically
stored in a tabular format, where each row represents a
feature and each column represents a characteristic or
attribute of that feature. The input can be a variety of
formats, including .dbf files, raster’s with attribute tables,
or tables used in other mosaic datasets.

3.5 DATA EDITING

Data editing in GIS involves creating, modifying, and deleting
features and related data on map layers. This process includes
correcting errors, applying spatial rules, and managing data
quality. It can be done through desktop applications like ArcGIS
Pro or web-based tools like ArcGIS Web Editor.
Here's a more detailed look at data editing in GIS:
1. Why is Data Editing Important?
 Data Quality:
Ensuring the accuracy and completeness of GIS data is crucial
for reliable analysis and decision-making.
 Data Integrity:
Data editing helps maintain the logical consistency of features,
ensuring they connect correctly and adhere to predefined
rules, says LinkedIn.
 Workflow Efficiency:
Automating tasks and using tools like snapping and scripts can
streamline the editing process, says ArcGIS Architecture
Centre.
 Collaboration:
In multi-user environments, versioning and editor tracking help
manage changes and ensure data integrity, says ArcGIS
Architecture Centre.

3.6 ADVANCED GEOPROCESSING TOOL

Advanced geoprocessing tools in GIS software like ArcGIS
Pro and QGIS offer a range of functionalities for spatial
analysis, data management, and model building. These
tools go beyond basic operations, enabling users to
automate tasks, perform complex spatial modelling, and
analyze large datasets efficiently.
Types of Advanced Geoprocessing Tools:
 Model Builder:
Allows users to create and manage complex workflows by
connecting various geoprocessing tools.
 Script Tools:
Enable users to write and execute custom Python scripts
for advanced geoprocessing tasks.
 Raster Functions:
Provide tools for directly processing raster data on the fly,
without writing output to disk.
 Spatial Analyst tools:
Offer a comprehensive suite of tools for performing various
spatial analyses, such as spatial statistics, overlay analysis,
and surface modelling.
 Image Analyst tools:
 Provide tools for advanced image processing, including
map algebra, radiometric correction, and image
classification.
 Network Analysis tools:
Enable users to perform route optimization, service area
analysis, and location-allocation analysis.
 3D Analyst tools:
Offer tools for creating and analysing 3D models and
surfaces.
 Geoprocessing services:
Allow users to share their geoprocessing models and
scripts as web services, making them accessible to others.
Examples of Advanced Geoprocessing Applications:
 Spatial modelling:
Creating models to simulate ecological processes, urban
growth, or flood risk.
 Data integration:
Combining data from multiple sources to create a unified
dataset.
 Data manipulation:
Transforming and cleaning data for analysis, such as
resampling raster data or generalizing feature classes.
 Automated analysis:
Running complex analysis workflows automatically using
Model Builder and script tools.
 Remote sensing analysis:
Processing satellite imagery to derive land cover maps,
monitor deforestation, or track climate change.
VARIOUS VECTOR GEOPROCESSING TOOLS
IN QGIS

1. Clip
Purpose: Cut out a portion of a layer using the boundaries
of another layer.
Example: Clip forest cover layer using the boundary of a
state.
2. Union
Purpose: Combine two layers into one — keeps all areas
from both layers.
Example: Combine wetlands and agricultural lands into one
dataset, showing overlaps too.
3. Intersect
Purpose: Extract only the overlapping areas between two
layers.
Example: Find regions where protected forests and mineral
deposits overlaps.
 4. Difference
Purpose: Subtract one layer from another.
Example: Remove water bodies from a land-use map to
analyze only dry land.
5. Dissolve
Purpose: Merge adjacent polygons sharing a common
attribute into one big shape.
Example: Combine all districts of the same state into one
state boundary.
6. Buffer
Purpose: Create a zone around a feature at a set distance.
Example: Create a 500-meter buffer zone around rivers to
study pollution impacts.

7. Convex Hull
Purpose: Draw the smallest polygon that contains all points
or features.
Example: Create the outer boundary for a group of wildlife
sightings.
8. Symmetrical Difference
Purpose: Keep only the parts that do not overlap between
two layers.
Example: Find areas exclusive to forests or agriculture but
not common to both.
9. Erase (also called "Difference" in some menus)
Purpose: Remove features of one layer based on the
boundaries of another

UNIT-4
4. GIS DATA ANALYSIS -II
4.1 QUERY
In Geographic Information Systems (GIS), queries are used to extract
specific information from spatial databases based on defined
criteria. These queries can be either attribute queries, which focus on
non-spatial data like characteristics of a feature, or spatial queries,
which focus on location and geometry. GIS allows for powerful
combinations of both types of queries, enabling users to filter and
analyze data effectively.
Types of Queries in GIS:
 Attribute Queries:
 These queries select records based on attribute values (non-spatial
data). For example, finding all parcels with a land value greater than a
certain amount.
 Spatial Queries:
These queries select features based on their location or spatial
relationship to other features. Examples include:
 Finding all stores within a specific radius of a customer's location.
 Identifying parcels within a certain distance of a park.
 Finding features that intersect or overlap a particular polygon.
 4.2 OVERLAY
In Geographic Information Systems (GIS), overlay analysis is a
powerful technique that combines two or more spatial datasets to
create a new composite layer, highlighting spatial relationships and
identifying features that meet specific criteria. It's essentially a way
to stack and analyze multiple layers of data on top of each other,
revealing how different datasets overlap and interact.
 How Overlay Analysis Works:
1. Combining Datasets:
Overlay analysis involves merging data from two or more layers,
usually with a common geographic extent.
2. Identifying Relationships:
By overlaying different layers, you can see where they intersect,
overlap, or are located in relation to each other.
3. Creating New Features:
The overlay process can generate new features or attributes that
combine information from the input layers, allowing for the creation
of more complex analyses.
4. Examples:
Common uses include finding suitable locations for development,
identifying areas susceptible to risk, or analyzing land-use patterns.

4.3 MAP LAYOUT (TYPES OF MAP)

In GIS, map layout refers to the arrangement of a map's elements on a
page or screen, while map types are classifications based on the data they
represent or the information they convey. Common map elements in
layout include the map frame, scale bar, north arrow, legend, and
title. GIS map types encompass various categories like category, heat,
cluster, bubble, and quantity maps, each suited for different analytical and
visualization needs.
Map Layout:

 Definition:
Map layout, or map composition, is the process of arranging the map's
core image (map frame) with supplementary elements like legends, scale
bars, and titles on a page or screen.
  Elements:
 Map Frame: The area where the map itself is displayed, containing
the spatial data.
 Scale Bar: Indicates the ratio between map distance and real-world
distance.
 North Arrow: Shows the orientation of the map.
 Legend: Explains the symbols and colors used on the map.
 Title: Provides a descriptive name for the map.
 Other elements: May include inset maps, data sources, and other
relevant information.
 Considerations:
Layout design principles, like balance, gestalt, and visual hierarchy, guide
the arrangement of elements for clarity and effectiveness.

Types of Maps in GIS:

  Category Maps:
Used to display categorical data, where different areas are assigned to
distinct categories (e.g., soil types, land use classifications).
 Heat Maps:
Visualize the concentration of a variable over a geographic area, often
showing patterns of intensity or density (e.g., population density, crime
rates).
 Cluster Maps:
Group data points that are close to each other, highlighting areas of high
concentration or similarity.
 Bubble Maps:
Represent quantitative data using bubbles, where the size of the bubble
corresponds to the magnitude of the value.
 Quantity Maps:
Display numerical data using different symbols or colors to represent
values (e.g., choropleth maps, where areas are shaded according to data
values).
 Other Types:
Include topographic maps (depicting terrain), political maps (showing
boundaries), thematic maps (representing specific themes), and more.
 UNIT -5
5.APPLICATION OF GIS
5.1 LAND USE /LAND COVER CHANGE
Land use and land cover change analysis in GIS involves using
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software and remote sensing
data to map and analyze shifts in land use and land cover over
time. This analysis helps understand how the Earth's surface is being
used and how it is changing due to both human activities and natural
processes.
Key aspects of Land Use and Land Cover Change Analysis in GIS:
 Data Acquisition:
This involves collecting data from various sources, including satellite
imagery, aerial photographs, and field surveys.
 Data Processing:
This includes tasks like data correction, georeferencing, and
classification to create land use and land cover maps.
 Change Detection:
Comparing land use and land cover maps from different time periods
to identify changes in land cover types and their spatial distribution.
  Change Analysis:
Analyzing the magnitude, pattern, and causes of land use and land
cover changes.
 Modeling:
Developing models to predict future land use and land cover changes
based on observed trends and influencing factors.
Common GIS techniques used for LULC change analysis:
 Post-classification change detection:
Comparing classified maps of different time periods to identify
changes between land cover classes.
 Overlay analysis:
Overlaying different thematic layers (e.g., land use, slope) to analyze
the spatial relationships between them and identify areas of change.
 Change matrix:
A table that summarizes the changes in land cover between two time
periods, showing which land cover classes have been converted to
others.
 Change vector analysis:
Analyzing the change in spectral values (e.g., NDVI) of pixels over
time to identify changes in land cover.
Applications of LULC change analysis:
 Environmental monitoring: Tracking deforestation, urbanization,
and other land cover changes to assess environmental impact.
 Resource management: Understanding land use patterns to
support sustainable management of resources like water, forests,
and agricultural land.
 Urban planning: Monitoring urban expansion and its impact on
surrounding ecosystems.
 Disaster management: Assessing the impact of natural disasters on
land use and land cover.

5.2 MORPHOMETRY ANALYSIS

Morphometric analysis in GIS involves using Geographical
Information Systems (GIS) software to quantify and analyze the
shape, size, and spatial distribution of landforms, such as river basins
and watersheds. It helps understand the characteristics of these
features and their relationship to geomorphic processes, hydrology,
and environmental factors.
Key aspects of morphometric analysis in GIS:
 Data Input:
GIS software utilizes data like Digital Elevation Models (DEMs),
topographic maps, and remote sensing imagery to extract
information about the land surface.
  Parameter Extraction:
Various morphometric parameters are calculated from these data,
including:
 Linear parameters: Stream order, stream length, drainage
density, and stream frequency.
 Areal parameters: Basin area, basin perimeter, and shape
factors.
 Relief parameters: Basin relief, relative relief, and slope.
 Analysis and Interpretation:
These parameters are then analyzed and interpreted to understand
the geomorphic history, hydrological characteristics, and potential for
soil erosion or flooding within a specific area.
 Applications:
Morphometric analysis has applications in:
 Watershed management: Understanding runoff patterns and
drainage characteristics.
 Groundwater potential assessment: Identifying areas with
higher groundwater recharge potential.
 Soil erosion susceptibility mapping: Identifying areas prone to
soil erosion based on slope and other factors.
 Environmental and ecological studies: Analyzing the impact of
landforms on ecosystems and biodiversity.
 Software:
GIS software like ArcGIS, QGIS, and others provide tools for extracting
and analyzing morphometric parameters.
Benefits of using GIS for morphometric analysis:
 Efficiency and Accuracy:
 GIS software allows for automated and efficient calculation of
morphometric parameters, reducing the time and effort involved in
manual analysis.
 Spatial Visualization:
GIS provides tools for visualizing and mapping morphometric
parameters, making it easier to understand spatial patterns and
relationships.

5.3 URBAN STUDIES

GIS (Geographic Information Systems) is a powerful tool in urban
studies, enabling planners to visualize, analyze, and manage spatial
data related to cities and their development. It helps in making
informed decisions about land use, infrastructure, and environmental
issues. GIS allows for a comprehensive understanding of urban
dynamics, including population trends, transportation networks, and
resource allocation.
Here's how GIS is used in urban studies:
1. Land Use Planning and Zoning:
 GIS helps visualize and analyze existing land use patterns, identify
suitable areas for development, and assess the impact of
proposed land use changes.
 It allows planners to manage spatial distribution of land use and
zoning effectively.
 GIS can be used to determine future development areas and
analyze land use trends.
2. Infrastructure Planning:
 GIS facilitates the mapping and analysis of existing infrastructure,
such as roads, utilities, and public transportation systems.
 It helps identify infrastructure needs, optimize network designs,
and assess the impact of new infrastructure projects.
 GIS can be used to model traffic patterns and assess the impact of
transportation projects.
3. Environmental Management:
 GIS allows for the integration of environmental data, such as
pollution levels, green spaces, and natural hazards.
 It helps monitor environmental conditions, assess the impact of
urban development, and develop strategies for sustainable urban
development.
 GIS can be used to identify areas suitable for green spaces and
assess the impact of climate change on urban areas.
4. Demographic Analysis:
 GIS can be used to analyze population data, including
demographics, housing patterns, and socio-economic factors.
 This helps planners understand the needs of different
communities and develop targeted policies.
 GIS can be used to identify areas with high poverty rates or limited
access to services.
5. Smart City Development:
 GIS is a key component of smart city initiatives, enabling the
integration of data from various sources, such as sensors, social
media, and public data.
 It allows for the development of real-time monitoring and
management systems for urban infrastructure and services.
 GIS can be used to optimize resource allocation, improve public
safety, and enhance the quality of life for residents.