INDUS INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL, Pune

MYP 4 (Grade- 9)

Subject- Physics
 INDEX

1) Command Terms
2) Glossary
3) Assessment Criteria with strands
4) Topics covered during the units and to be assessed in RCA
5) TASK
6) Additional Reading material, links, resources.

***********************************************************
Command Terms:
Content:

 Introduction to Space
 Solar system models (Geo-centric, Helio-centric)
 Solar system (Planets, asteroid belt)
 Solar and Lunar Eclipse.
 Phases of Moon
 Nuclear fusion in Sun
 Newton’s Law of Gravitation
 Kepler’s Laws
 Doppler effect
 Red Shift and Blue Shift
 Hubble’s Law

Unit Name- Astrophysics
Key Concept- System
Related Concept- Consequences , Evidence, Models
Global Context- Scientific and technical innovation
Exploration: Opportunity, risk and responsibility
SOI- Consequences of human interactions pose risks for various systems, which if handled
responsibly can be turned into opportunities for a better future.

Introduction to Space

Space is an almost perfect vacuum, nearly void of matter and with extremely low pressure. In
space, sound doesn't carry because there aren't molecules close enough together to transmit
sound between them. Not quite empty, bits of gas, dust and other matter floats around
"emptier" areas of the universe, while more crowded regions can host planets, stars and
galaxies.
From our Earth-bound perspective, outer space is most often thought to begin about 62 miles
(100 kilometers) above sea level at what is known as the Kármán line. This is an imaginary
boundary at an altitude where there is no appreciable air to breathe or scatter light. Passing
this altitude, blue starts to give way to black because oxygen molecules are not in enough
abundance to make the sky blue.
No one knows exactly how big space is. It's difficult to determine because of what we can see
in our detectors. We measure long distances in space in "light-years," representing the
distance it takes for light to travel in a year (roughly 5.8 trillion miles (9.3 trillion
kilometers)).

From the light that is visible in our telescopes, we have charted galaxies reaching almost as
far back as the Big Bang, which is thought to have started our universe about 13.8 billion
years ago. This means we can "see" into space at a distance of almost 13.8 billion light-years.
But the universe continues to expand, making "measuring space," even more challenging.
Additionally, astronomers are not totally sure if our universe is the only one that exists. This
means that space could be a whole lot bigger than we even think.
The key difference between geocentric and heliocentric models is that according to the
geocentric model, the Earth is at the centre of the cosmos or Universe whereas according
to the heliocentric model, the Sun is the centre and planets revolve around the Sun.
What is the Geocentric Model?

Geocentric model, in astronomy, is a concept that describes that Earth is the centre of the
Universe. In other words, this is a suspended description of the Universe with Earth at
the centre. Under this model, the Sun, moon, stars, and other planets orbit around the
Earth. This was the predominant description of the cosmos in many ancient civilizations,
including Aristotle in Classical Greece.

Figure 01: An Illustration of the Ancient Geocentric Model

There are two major observations that were used in developing this model:

1. The Sun appears to revolve around the Earth once per day when observing from
anywhere on Earth.
2. An earthbound observer sees no movement of Earth because it feels solid, stable and
stationary.

Ancient Greeks, ancient Romans, and medieval philosophers tried to combine the geocentric
model with the concept of spherical Earth instead of the model of flat Earth. This model entered
the Greek astronomy and philosophy at very early times. E.g. pre-Socratic philosophy. In 4the
century BC, Plato and his student Aristotle developed a structure for Universe based on the
geocentric model. It included the Earth as a sphere which is stationary at the centre of the
Universe. There were the stars and planets carried around the Earth on spheres or circles that
were arranged in the order of Moon, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and some
other fixed stars.
What is the Heliocentric Model?

Heliocentric model in astronomy is an astronomical model in which the Earth and planets move
around the Sun at the centre of the Solar system. This model is the opposite of the geocentric
model. The concept of Earth revolving around the Sun was developed as early as the 3rd century
BC by Aristarchus of Samos. However, a proper mathematical heliocentric model was not
proposed until the 16th century. It was presented by the mathematician, astronomer, and
Catholic cleric Nicolas Copernicus. This was named as Copernicus revolution. This
development led to the following introduction of elliptical orbits by Johannes Kepler and
supporting observations made using a telescope by Galileo Galilei.

Figure 02: Geocentric vs Heliocentric Models

Later, the scientists, William Herschel and Friedrich Bessel made observations and realized
that the Sun is not the centre of the Universe but only in the Solar system.
Geocentric and heliocentric models are very important in astrophysics. These models are
useful in describing the occurrence of Sun and planets in the Universe.

PLANETS IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM

The inner four planets closest to the sun — Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars — are often
called the "TERRESTRIAL PLANETS" because their surfaces are rocky. Pluto also has a
rocky, albeit frozen, surface but has never been grouped with the four terrestrials.
The four large outer worlds — Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune — are sometimes
called the Jovian or "Jupiter-like" planets because of their enormous size relative to the
terrestrial planets. They're also mostly made of gases like hydrogen, helium and
ammonia rather than of rocky surfaces, although astronomers believe some or all of
them may have solid cores.

Jupiter and Saturn are sometimes called the gas giants, whereas the more distant
Uranus and Neptune have been nicknamed the ice giants. This is because Uranus and
Neptune have more atmospheric water and other ice-forming molecules, such as
methane, hydrogen sulfide and phosphene, that crystallize into clouds in the planets'
frigid conditions. For perspective, methane crystallizes at minus 296 Fahrenheit (minus
183 degrees Celsius).
What is the asteroid belt?

The asteroid belt is a region of space between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where most of
the asteroids in our Solar System are found orbiting the Sun. The asteroid belt probably
contains millions of asteroids. Astronomers think that the asteroid belt is made up of material
that was never able to form into a planet, or of the remains of a planet which broke apart a
very long time ago. The asteroids in the asteroid belt come in a variety of sizes. Some are
very small (less than a mile across), while others are quite large. The largest asteroid is called
Ceres. It is about one-quarter the size of our moon. It is a dwarf planet.
Solar Eclipse

Also known as the eclipse of the sun, it occurs when the moon comes in between the sun and
the earth. As a result, the moon blocks the light of the sun from reaching the
earth’s surface and casts a shadow on it. This occurs in a new moon phase. We can observe
up to 5 solar eclipses per year.

Depending on the distance of the moon from the earth during the event, different types of
solar concealment can be observed. They can be categorized as:

 Partial: When the moon does not align completely with the sun, and so only a portion
of the sunlight is blocked from reaching the earth.
 Annular: When the moon covers the sun, but the sun can be seen around the edges
of the moon, giving an impression that the sun is a bright ring surrounding the dark
disc of the moon.
 Total: When the sun is completely covered by the moon. The sky becomes so dark that
it appears to be night. Only a small area of the earth can witness it.
On 26th December, an annular solar eclipse occurred when the Sun rose as a “ring of fire.
Lunar Eclipse

Also known as the eclipse of the moon, it occurs when the earth comes in between the sun
and the moon. As a result, the earth blocks the light of the sun from reaching the moon’s
surface and casts its shadow on the moon. It occurs on a full moon day. We can observe up to
3 lunar eclipses per year.

Depending on how the sun, the moon, and the earth line up, lunar eclipse too can be
categorized as:

 Partial: When only a part of the moon moves into the shadow of the earth.
 Total: When the earth passes directly in front of the moon and casts its shadow on
the full moon.
PHASES OF MOON

1. New Moon 🌑
• The Moon is between the Earth and the Sun.
• The side facing Earth is completely dark because it is not receiving sunlight.
• The Moon rises and sets with the Sun, so it is not visible at night.
• This marks the beginning of the lunar cycle.
• Sometimes, a solar eclipse occurs during a New Moon when the Moon blocks the Sun.

2. Young Moon

• This refers to the first visible appearance of the Moon after the New Moon.
• It occurs 1-2 days after the New Moon.
• Only a thin crescent is visible near the western horizon just after sunset.
• This phase is culturally significant in some traditions, such as marking the beginning
of an Islamic month.

3. Waxing Crescent 🌒

• The Moon is increasing (waxing) in brightness.

• A thin crescent is visible on the right side (in the Northern Hemisphere).
• The illuminated part grows larger each night.
• Visible in the western sky after sunset.
4. Waxing Quarter (First Quarter) 🌓

• Half of the Moon is illuminated (right half in the Northern Hemisphere).

• The Moon has completed ¼ of its orbit around Earth.
• The Sun, Earth, and Moon form a 90° angle.
• It is called "First Quarter" because it marks ¼ of the way through the lunar cycle.
• Rises around noon, sets around midnight.

5. Waxing Gibbous 🌔

• More than half of the Moon is illuminated, but it is not yet full.
• The shape is bulging (hence "gibbous").
• The Moon continues to grow in brightness.
• Rises in the afternoon, visible in the evening and night.

6. Full Moon 🌕

• The entire face of the Moon is illuminated.

• The Earth is between the Sun and Moon.
• The Moon is opposite the Sun, so it rises at sunset and sets at sunrise.
• The brightest phase of the cycle.
• Sometimes, a lunar eclipse occurs if Earth’s shadow falls on the Moon.

7. Waning Gibbous 🌖

• The Moon starts shrinking (waning) after the Full Moon.

• More than half is still lit, but the illuminated portion is decreasing.
• Rises late at night, visible in the early morning.

8. Waning Quarter (Last Quarter) 🌗

• Half of the Moon is visible (left half in the Northern Hemisphere).

• The Moon has completed ¾ of its orbit around Earth.
• The Sun, Earth, and Moon form another 90° angle.
• Rises around midnight, sets around noon.
• It signals that the lunar cycle is nearing its end.

9. Waning Crescent 🌘

• A thin crescent is visible on the left side (in the Northern Hemisphere).
• The Moon continues shrinking toward the New Moon.
• Visible just before sunrise in the eastern sky.

10. Old Moon

• This refers to the last visible phase before the New Moon.
• It occurs 1-2 days before the New Moon.
• It appears as a very thin crescent in the early morning sky.
• Sometimes called the “Balsamic Moon”, symbolizing rest and preparation for the
new cycle.
Nuclear fusion in the Sun

Figure 1. The proton-proton fusion process that is the source of energy from the Sun.
The energy from the Sun - both heat and light energy - originates from a nuclear
fusion process that is occurring inside the core of the Sun. The specific type of fusion that
occurs inside of the Sun is known as proton-proton fusion.

Inside the Sun, this process begins with protons (which is simply a lone hydrogen nucleus)
and through a series of steps, these protons fuse together and are turned into helium. This
fusion process occurs inside the core of the Sun, and the transformation results in a release of
energy that keeps the sun hot. The resulting energy is radiated out from the core of the Sun
and moves across the solar system. It is important to note that the core is the only part of the
Sun that produces any significant amount of heat through fusion (it contributes about
99%). The rest of the Sun is heated by energy transferred outward from the core.

Steps

The overall process of proton-proton fusion within the Sun can be broken down into several
simple steps. A visual representation of this process is shown in Figure 1. The steps are:

1. Two protons within the Sun fuse. Most of the time the pair breaks apart again, but
sometimes one of the protons transforms into a neutron via the weak nuclear force.
Along with the transformation into a neutron, a positron and neutrino are formed. This
resulting proton-neutron pair that forms sometimes is known as deuterium.
 2. A third proton collides with the formed deuterium. This collision results in the
formation of a helium-3 nucleus and a gamma ray. These gamma rays work their way
out from the core of the Sun and are released as sunlight.
3. Two helium-3 nuclei collide, creating a helium-4 nucleus plus two extra protons that
escape as two hydrogen. Technically, a beryllium-6 nuclei forms first but is unstable
and thus disintegrates into the helium-4 nucleus.
The final helium-4 atom has less mass than the original 4 protons that came together
(see E=mc2). Because of this, their combination results in an excess of energy being released in
the form of heat and light that exits the Sun, given by the mass-energy equivalence. To exit the
Sun, this energy must travel through many layers to the photosphere before it can actually
emerge into space as sunlight. Since this proton-proton chain happens frequently - 9.2 x
1037 times per second - there is a significant release of energy. Of all of the mass that undergoes
this fusion process, only about 0.7% of it is turned into energy. Although this seems like a small
amount of mass, this is equal to 4.26 million metric tonnes of matter being converted to energy
per second. Using the mass-energy equivalence, we find that this 4.26 million metric tonnes of
matter is equal to about 3.8 x 1026 joules of energy released per second.

NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION

Sir Isaac Newton’s universal law of gravitation (F=Gmm/r2) is an equation representing the
attractive force (F) of two masses (m) separated at distance (r). It was first published as a part
of Newton’s works on classical mechanics in the late 1600s. Force is proportional to mass
and distance, related by a proportionality symbol known as the gravitational constant
(G). The force of gravity occurs even at the smallest of particles, yet at this scale, force and
motion is dominated by the electric force. Only when the electric force is neutralized, such as
in atoms, can the presence of gravity be detected. Gravity is so weak, that it takes trillions and
trillions of atoms, such as large bodies like planets, before the force is significant.
KEPLER’S LAWS

Kepler’s First Law (Law of Ellipses)

📌 Statement: A planet orbits the Sun in an elliptical path, with the Sun at one of the two foci.

🔹 Explanation:

 The shape of a planet’s orbit is not a perfect circle, but an ellipse.

 The Sun is located at one focus of the ellipse, not at the center.
 This means that the distance between a planet and the Sun changes as the planet
moves in its orbit.

Example: Earth's distance from the Sun varies between perihelion (closest point) and
aphelion (farthest point).

Kepler’s Second Law (Law of Equal Areas)

📌 Statement: A line connecting a planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal time
intervals.

🔹 Explanation:

 A planet moves faster when it is closer to the Sun and slower when it is farther from
the Sun.
 This means that a planet covers more distance in a shorter time when near the Sun
and moves more slowly when farther away.
 The area swept by the imaginary line from the planet to the Sun is the same in equal
time periods, even though the planet's speed varies.

Example: Earth moves faster in January (perihelion) and slower in July (aphelion).

Kepler’s Third Law (Law of Harmonies)

📌 Statement: The square of the orbital period (T²) of a planet is proportional to the cube of
its average distance from the Sun (r³).

🔹 Mathematical Formula:

T2∝r3
where:

 T = Orbital period (time to complete one orbit)

 r = Average distance from the Sun

🔹 Explanation:

 Planets that are farther from the Sun take longer to complete an orbit.
 This law helps astronomers determine the distances and orbital periods of celestial
bodies.

Example: Jupiter, which is farther from the Sun than Earth, takes about 12 years to complete
one orbit, whereas Earth takes 1 year.

DOPPLER EFFECT AND RED SHIFT

The Doppler Effect with light

Light is a wave and earlier you learnt how you can study the properties of one wave and apply
the same ideas to another wave. The same applies to sound and light. We know the Doppler
Effect is relevant in the context of sound waves when the source is moving. Therefore, in the
context of light (EM waves), the frequency of observed light should be different to the
emitted frequency when the source of the light is moving relative to the observer.

A frequency shift of light in the visible spectrum could result in a change of colour which
could be observable with the naked eye. There will still be a frequency shift for frequencies of
EM radiation we cannot see.

We can apply all the ideas that we learnt about the Doppler effect to light. When talking about
light we use slightly different terminology to describe what happens. If you look at the colour
spectrum (more details in Chapter 12) then you will see that blue light has a shorter
wavelength than red light. Since for light, c=fλ shorter wavelength equals higher frequency.
Relative to the middle of the visible spectrum (approximately green light) longer wavelengths
(or lower frequencies) are redder and shorter wavelengths (or higher frequencies) are bluer.
So we call shifts towards longer wavelengths "redshifts" and shifts towards shorter
wavelengths "blueshifts".

Blue light has a shorter wavelength than red light.

A shift in wavelength implies that there is also a shift in frequency. Longer wavelengths of
light have lower frequencies and shorter wavelengths have higher frequencies. From the
Doppler effect we know that when the source moves towards the observer any waves they
emit that you measure are shifted to shorter wavelengths (blue shifted). If the source moves
away from the observer, the shift is to longer wavelengths (redshifted).

Red Shift and the expanding universe

Stars emit light, which is why we can see them at night. Galaxies are huge collections of stars.
An example is our own Galaxy, the Milky Way, of which our sun is only one of the billions of
stars!

Using large telescopes like the Southern African Large Telescope (SALT) in the Karoo,
astronomers can measure the light from distant galaxies. The spectrum of light can tell us
what elements are in the stars in the galaxies because each element has unique energy levels
and therefore emits or absorbs light at particular wavelengths. These characteristic
wavelengths are called spectral lines because the lines show up as discrete frequencies in the
spectrum of light from the star.

A subset of the spectral lines of hydrogen

If these lines are observed to be shifted from their usual wavelengths to shorter wavelengths,
then the light from the galaxy is said to be blue shifted. If the spectral lines are shifted to
longer wavelengths, then the light from the galaxy is said to be redshifted. If we think of the
blue shift and redshift in Doppler Effect terms, then a blue shifted galaxy would appear to be
moving towards us (the observers) and a redshifted galaxy would appear to be
moving away from us.

1. If the light source is moving away from the observer (positive velocity) then the
observed frequency is lower and the observed wavelength is greater (red shifted).

2. If the source is moving towards the observer (negative velocity), the observed
frequency is higher and the wavelength is shorter (blue shifted).
HUBBLE’S LAW

Edwin Hubble (20 November 1889 - 28 September 1953) measured the Doppler shift of a
large sample of galaxies. He found that the light from distant galaxies is redshifted and he
discovered that there is a proportionality relationship between the redshift and the distance to
the galaxy. Galaxies that are further away always appear more redshifted than nearby
galaxies. Remember that a redshift in Doppler terms means a velocity of the light source
directed away from the observer. So why do all distant galaxies appear to be moving away
from our Galaxy? None of them seem to be moving towards us.

Figure 6.3: The distance to galaxies plotted against their speed away from us. The distance Mpc
is a megaparsec which is very big, 1 Mpc = 3.3 million light years. A light year is the distance
that light can travel in one year, 365 days×24 hours×60 minutes×60 s×3×108 m/s =9.5 × 1015 m

The reason is that the universe is expanding! Some of the galaxies will be moving in our
direction but more slowly than the space between us and them is expanding. The expansion is
so large that it is the primary effect that we observe. The primary reason the light is redshifted
isn't actually because all of the Doppler effect, it is redshifted because the space is expanding,
the waves are being stretched out. If the Doppler effect were a larger effect then some of the
galaxies would still be blue shifted (just less than if space were not expanding).

Hubble's Law is:

v=H0×d
Where latest value of H0 is 67.4 ± 0.5 kilometres per second per mega parsec
(km/s/Mpc). (Rate of expansion of the Universe). Latest value from Planck mission, 2013.
Additional Links

1. https://eyes.nasa.gov/apps/solar-system/
2. https://www.space.com/16080-solar-system-planets.html
3. https://science.nasa.gov/moon/moon-
phases/#:~:text=These%20shifts%20are%20called%20moon,month%20(every%
2029.5%20days).
4. https://science.nasa.gov/moon/eclipses/
5. https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/kuiper-belt/
6. https://science.nasa.gov/missions/hubble/new-hubble-constant-measurement-
adds-to-mystery-of-universes-expansion-rate/
7. https://science.nasa.gov/resource/orbits-and-keplers-laws/

QUESTIONS

1. What is the primary cause of the phases of the Moon?

2. Identify and describe the phase of the Moon when it is fully illuminated.

3. How long does the Moon take to complete one full cycle of phases?

4. A student wants to investigate the time taken for the Moon to move from the First Quarter
to the Full Moon.

a) State a hypothesis for this investigation.

b) List two variables that need to be controlled to ensure accurate results.
c) Describe a method to observe and record the phases of the Moon over a month.

5. A researcher observes a celestial object that does not undergo sustained hydrogen fusion
but emits some infrared radiation.

a) What could this object be?

b) Suggest a way astronomers can confirm its identity.

6. The table below shows the number of days taken for different phases of the Moon:

a) Calculate the approximate number of days taken to move from the Full Moon
to the Waning Crescent.
b) Comment on whether the time taken between each phase is equal.
c) What conclusion can you draw from this data about the Moon’s orbit?

7. The Moon’s phases impact life on Earth in various ways. Discuss two ways in which the
Moon’s phases affect natural or human activities.
8. How does Kepler’s Second Law explain the changes in a planet’s speed as it moves around
the Sun?

9. How does the amount of redshift observed in a galaxy’s spectrum help astronomers
determine its speed and distance?

10. Why do more distant galaxies show greater redshift compared to closer ones?

SOLUTIONS

1. What is the primary cause of the phases of the Moon?

Answer: The phases of the Moon are caused by the changing positions of the Moon, Earth,
and Sun, which affect how much of the Moon’s illuminated side is visible from Earth.

2. Identify and describe the phase of the Moon when it is fully illuminated.
Answer: The phase of the Moon when it is fully illuminated is the Full Moon. This occurs
when the Earth is positioned between the Sun and the Moon, allowing the entire face of the
Moon to be lit and visible from Earth.

3. How long does the Moon take to complete one full cycle of phases?
Answer: The Moon takes approximately 29.5 days to complete one full cycle of phases,
known as a lunar month or synodic month.

4. A student wants to investigate the time taken for the Moon to move from the First
Quarter to the Full Moon.

a) State a hypothesis for this investigation.

Answer: If the Moon follows a predictable cycle, then it will take approximately 7.4 days to
move from the First Quarter to the Full Moon.

b) List two variables that need to be controlled to ensure accurate results.

Answer:

1. Observation time: The Moon should be observed at the same time each day to ensure
consistency in phase comparison.
2. Observation location: The same location should be used to minimize differences in
atmospheric conditions and horizon visibility.

c) Describe a method to observe and record the phases of the Moon over a month.
Answer:

1. Begin observations on the day of the First Quarter Moon and record the date.
2. Observe the Moon daily at the same time (e.g., 8 PM) and note its shape.
3. Take photographs or draw sketches of the Moon’s appearance each night.
4. Continue observing until the Full Moon is reached and record the date.
5. Calculate the time taken from the First Quarter to Full Moon by finding the
difference between the two dates.

5. A researcher observes a celestial object that does not undergo sustained hydrogen
fusion but emits some infrared radiation.

a) What could this object be?

 Answer: The object could be a brown dwarf, as brown dwarfs do not sustain hydrogen
fusion but emit infrared radiation due to residual heat.

b) Suggest a way astronomers can confirm its identity.

Answer:

1. Infrared Spectroscopy: Using telescopes like the James Webb Space Telescope to
analyze the object’s infrared emission and look for molecular signatures like methane
and water, which are common in brown dwarfs.
2. Mass and Size Measurement: Determining the object's mass and radius using
gravitational interactions or direct imaging. A mass between 13–80 Jupiter masses
suggests a brown dwarf.

6. The table below shows the number of days taken for different phases of the Moon:

a) Calculate the approximate number of days taken to move from the Full Moon
to the Waning Crescent.
b) Comment on whether the time taken between each phase is equal.
c) What conclusion can you draw from this data about the Moon’s orbit?

a) Calculate the approximate number of days taken to move from the Full Moon to the
Waning Crescent.

Answer:

 The Waning Crescent phase occurs just before the next New Moon, which happens
at 29.5 days.
 The transition from Full Moon (14.8 days) to the Waning Crescent phase (~26
days) takes:

29.5−14.8=14.7 days

 However, the Waning Crescent phase itself lasts for about 3-4 days before the New
Moon.
 Therefore, the approximate time from Full Moon to Waning Crescent is 10–12 days.

b) Comment on whether the time taken between each phase is equal.

Answer:

 No, the time taken between each phase is not exactly equal.
 The time between some phases (e.g., New Moon → First Quarter and First
Quarter → Full Moon) is roughly 7.4 days, but
 The time between Full Moon → Last Quarter (7.3 days) and Last Quarter → New
Moon (7.4 days) shows slight variations.
  This suggests that the Moon's motion is not perfectly uniform due to gravitational
effects and orbital mechanics.

c) What conclusion can you draw from this data about the Moon’s orbit?

Answer:

1. The Moon takes about 29.5 days to complete one full cycle, confirming the lunar
month (synodic month).
2. The variation in time between phases indicates that the Moon's orbit is slightly
elliptical, rather than a perfect circle, leading to differences in speed (Kepler’s laws).

7. The Moon’s phases impact life on Earth in various ways. Discuss two ways in
which the Moon’s phases affect natural or human activities.

Answer. The phases of the Moon impact life on Earth in several ways, influencing both
natural phenomena and human activities. Two key effects include:

1. Tides and Marine Life:

o The gravitational pull of the Moon causes ocean tides, which are strongest
during the New Moon and Full Moon (spring tides) and weaker during the
First and Last Quarters (neap tides).
o Many marine species, such as fish and coral, rely on the lunar cycle for
spawning, migration, and feeding behaviours.
2. Cultural and Agricultural Practices:
o Some cultures follow the lunar calendar for festivals, religious observances,
and timekeeping (e.g., Islamic, Chinese, and Hindu calendars).
o In agriculture, farmers historically used the Moon’s phases to determine
planting and harvesting times. It is believed that planting crops during the
waxing Moon leads to better growth, while harvesting during the waning
Moon prevents spoilage.

8. How does Kepler’s Second Law explain the changes in a planet’s speed as it moves
around the Sun?

Answer: Kepler’s Second Law (Law of Equal Areas):

"A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals."

Why Does a Planet’s Speed Change?

Since the area swept out by the planet-Sun line remains constant for equal time intervals, the
planet must move faster when it is closer to the Sun (perihelion) and slower when it is
farther from the Sun (aphelion) to maintain this balance.

Explanation Using Physics

 When the planet is closer to the Sun, the gravitational force is stronger, pulling the
planet inward and increasing its velocity.
 When the planet is farther from the Sun, the gravitational force is weaker, causing
it to move more slowly.

Real-World Example
 Earth moves fastest in January (when it is closest to the Sun) and slowest in July
(when it is farthest).
9. How does the amount of redshift observed in a galaxy’s spectrum help astronomers
determine its speed and distance?

How Redshift Helps Determine a Galaxy’s Speed and Distance

1. Understanding Redshift:
Redshift occurs when light from a galaxy or other celestial object is stretched to longer
(redder) wavelengths as the object moves away from Earth. This is due to the Doppler Effect
(for nearby galaxies) and cosmological expansion (for distant galaxies).

2. Determining Speed (Velocity):

The amount of redshift (z) is related to the speed at which a galaxy is receding:

A higher redshift means the galaxy is moving away faster.

3. Determining Distance (Hubble’s Law) :

Edwin Hubble discovered a relationship between a galaxy’s redshift and its distance:

v=H0 d

where:

 v is the recession velocity,

 H0 is Hubble’s constant (~70 km/s per megaparsec),
 d is the galaxy’s distance in megaparsecs (Mpc).

d=v/ H0
10. Why do more distant galaxies show greater redshift compared to closer ones?

Why Do More Distant Galaxies Show Greater Redshift?

The greater redshift of distant galaxies is due to the expansion of the universe, as explained
by Hubble’s Law and the cosmological redshift effect.

1. Hubble’s Law: The Universe is Expanding

Edwin Hubble discovered that galaxies are moving away from us, and their recession
velocity is proportional to their distance:

v=H0 d

where:

 v = recession velocity,
 H0 = Hubble’s constant (~70 km/s per megaparsec),
 d = distance to the galaxy.

This means farther galaxies move away faster than closer ones, causing a greater redshift.

2. Cosmological Redshift: Space Itself is Stretching

Unlike the Doppler effect (motion through space), cosmological redshift occurs because
space itself is expanding. As light travels across the universe, the fabric of space stretches the
light waves, increasing their wavelength (redshift). The farther the light has travelled, the
more it has stretched.

3. Evidence for the Big Bang Theory

The fact that distant galaxies show higher redshift supports the idea that the universe
originated from a single point and has been expanding ever since.

Conclusion

 Distant galaxies show greater redshift because space is expanding, stretching

light waves over time.
 This follows Hubble’s Law: farther galaxies recede faster, increasing redshift.
 The higher the redshift, the older the light, helping astronomers look back in time to
study the early universe.

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