Unit 5

TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE

MEASURING DEVICES

2019/2020 1
 Temperature
 Temperature is one of the basic engineering variables.
 Therefore,temperature measurement is essential to
the proper operation of engineering plant.

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TEMPERATURE MEASURING DEVICES
Liquid-in-glass (LIG) thermometer
A liquid-in-glass thermometer is widely used due to its
accuracy for the temperature range -200 to 600°C.
Compared to other thermometers, it is simple and no
other equipment beyond the human eye is required.
 In the LIG thermometer the thermally sensitive
element is a liquid contained in a graduated glass
envelope.

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 The principle used to measure temperature is
that of the apparent thermal expansion of the
liquid. It is the difference between the
volumetric reversible thermal expansion of the
liquid and its glass container that makes
it possible to measure temperature.

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Description of the liquid- in- glass thermometer
 It comprises of a bulb, a reservoir in which the working liquid can
expand or contract in volume and a stem, a glass tube containing a
tiny capillary connected to the bulb and enlarged at the bottom
into a bulb that is partially filled with a working liquid.
 The tube's bore is extremely small - less than 0.02 inch (0.5
millimeter) in diameter.
 A temperature scale is fixed or engraved on the stem
supporting the capillary tube to indicate the range and the value of
the temperature.

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Description of the liquid- in- glass thermometer
 The liquid-in-glass thermometer is usually
calibrated against a standard thermometer and at
the melting point of water.

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Description of the liquid- in- glass thermometer
 The reference point, a calibration point, the most common
being the ice point. The working fluid is usually mercury or
alcohol.
 An inert gas is used for mercury intended to high
temperature.
 The thermometer is filled with an inert gas such as argon or
nitrogen above the mercury to reduce its volatilization.
 The accuracy of measurement depends mainly on the
extent of immersion of the thermometer into the medium
- not just the bulb but also the stem.
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Parts of a liquid in Glass
Thermometer

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Description of the liquid- in- glass thermometer
 Thereare three types of immersion, as shown in the
following figure: total, partial and complete
immersion, depending on the level of contact
between the medium and the sensor.

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Reading of the Liquid in Glass Thermometer

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 The response of the thermometer depends on the bulb volume, bulb
thickness, total weight and type of thermometer.

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 To reduce the response time, the bulb should be small and the bulb
wall thin.
 The sensitivity depends on the reversible thermal expansion of the
liquid compared to the glass. The greater the fluid expansion, the
more sensitive the thermometer.
 Mercury was the liquid the most often used because of its good reaction
time, repeatability, linear coefficient of expansion and large
temperature range. But it is poisonous and so other working liquids are
used.
 Common organic liquids are toluene, ethyl alcohol, pentane; their
expansion is high but not linear and they are limited at high
temperature. They need to be dyed, the most common colours being
red, blue and green.

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 During calibration the thermometer must be correctly
immersed in the calibration bath to ensure accurate
measurements and to avoid a systematic error linked to the
height of the emergent column above the surface of the bath.
 For precise work, the measurement can be performed with a
microscope attached to the thermometer.
 For very high or very low temperatures, as well as for very
accurate measurements, liquid-in-glass thermometers are not
suitable. Various types of electrical thermometers are used
instead because they are more robust and can be digitized
and automated.

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Calibration of a Liquid in Glass Thermometer

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Thermocouple
 Thermocouples are a widely used type of
temperature sensor for measurement and control and
can also be used to convert heat into electricity.
 Thermocouples are widely used in science and
industry; applications include temperature
measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel
engines, and other industrial processes.

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Description of the Thermocouple
 A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that
produces a voltage related to a temperature difference.
 They are inexpensive and interchangeable, are supplied fitted with
standard connectors, and can measure a wide range of
temperatures.
 The main limitation is accuracy: system errors of less than one degree
Celsius (C) can be difficult to achieve.
 Any junction of dissimilar metals will produce an electric potential
related to temperature
 Thermocouples for practical measurement of temperature are
junctions of specific alloys which have a predictable and repeatable
relationship between temperature and voltage.
 18
 Properties such as resistance to corrosion may also be
important when choosing a type of thermocouple.
 Where the measurement point is far from the measuring
instrument, the intermediate connection can be made by
extension wires which are less costly than the materials used
to make the sensor.
 Thermocouples are usually standardized against a reference
temperature of 0 degrees Celsius; practical instruments use
electronic methods of cold-junction compensation to adjust
for varying temperature at the instrument terminals.

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 Electronic instruments can also compensate for the varying
characteristics of the thermocouple, and so improve the
precision and accuracy of measurements.

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Principle of Operation of the Thermocouple
 When any conductor is subjected to a thermal gradient, it will
generate a voltage. This is now known as the thermoelectric
effect or Seebeck effect.
 Any attempt to measure this voltage necessarily involves
connecting another conductor to the "hot" end. This additional
conductor will then also experience the temperature
gradient, and develop a voltage of its own which will oppose
the original.
 Fortunately, the magnitude of the effect depends on the
metal in use.

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 Using a dissimilar metal to complete the circuit creates a
circuit in which the two legs generate different voltages,
leaving a small difference in voltage available for
measurement.
 That difference increases with temperature, and is between
1 and 70 microvolts per degree Celsius (µV/°C) for
standard metal combinations.

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 The voltage is not generated at the junction of the two
metals of the thermocouple but rather along that portion of
the length of the two dissimilar metals that is subjected to a
temperature gradient.
 Because both lengths of dissimilar metals experience the
same temperature gradient, the end result is a measurement
of the temperature at the thermocouple junction.

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Operations of a thermocouple

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Varying Resistance methods
 Resistance thermometers are constructed in a number of forms and offer
greater stability, accuracy and repeatability in some cases than
thermocouples.
 While thermocouples use the Seebeck effect to generate a voltage,
resistance thermometers use electrical resistance and require a power source
to operate. The resistance ideally varies linearly with temperature.
 Resistance thermometers are usually made using platinum, because of its
linear resistance-temperature relationship and its chemical inertness.
 A platinum wire or film is supported on a former in such a way that it gets
minimal differential expansion or other strains from its former, yet is
reasonably resistant to vibration.

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 RTD assemblies made from iron or copper are also used
in some applications.
 Measurement of resistance requires a small current to
be passed through the device under test.
 This can cause resistive heating, causing significant loss of
accuracy if manufacturers' limits are not respected, or the
design does not properly consider the heat path.
 Mechanical strain on the resistance thermometer can also
120 cause inaccuracy.

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Description of the Resistance Thermometers
 There are many categories; carbon resistors, film, and wire- wound
types are the most widely used:
 Carbon resistors
 • are widely available and very inexpensive.
 • have very reproducible results at low temperatures.
 • are the most reliable form at extremely low temperatures.
 • generally do not suffer from significant hysteresis or strain
 gauge effects.
 • have been used for many years because of their advantages.

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 Film thermometers
 Film thermometers have a layer of platinum on a substrate;
the layer may be extremely thin, perhaps one micrometer.
 Advantages of this type are relatively low cost (the high cost
of platinum being offset by the tiny amount required) and
fast response.
 • Such devices have improved performance although the
different expansion rates of the substrate and platinum give
"strain gauge" effects and stability problems.

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Film thermometers

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Wire-wound thermometers
 Wire-wound thermometers can have greater accuracy, especially for
wide temperature ranges.
 The coil diameter provides a compromise between mechanical stability
and allowing expansion of the wire to minimize strain and
consequential drift.

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 Coil elements have largely replaced wire-wound elements in
industry.
 This design has a wire coil which can expand freely over
temperature, held in place by some mechanical support
which lets the coil keep its shape.
 This design is similar to that of a SPRT, the primary standard
upon which ITS-90 is based, while providing the durability
necessary for industrial use.

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 The current international standard which specifies tolerance
and the temperature-to-electrical resistance relationship for
platinum resistance thermometers is IEC 60751:2008.
 By far the most common devices used in industry have a
nominal resistance of 100 ohms at 0 °C, and are called Pt100
sensors ('Pt' is the symbol for platinum).
 The sensitivity of a standard 100 ohm sensor is a nominal
0.385 ohm/°C. RTDs with a sensitivity of 0.375 and 0.392
ohm/°C as well as a variety of others are also available.

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Advantages of the Resistance Thermometer
Advantages of platinum resistance thermometers:
• High accuracy
• Low drift
• Wide operating range
• Suitable for precision applications

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Disadvantages:
RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 °C.
 • At temperatures above 660 °C it becomes increasingly difficult to
prevent the platinum from becoming contaminated by impurities
from the metal sheath of the thermometer.
 This is why laboratory standard thermometers replace the metal
sheath with a glass construction.
 • Compared to thermistors, platinum RTDs are less sensitive to
small temperature changes and have a slower response time.
 • However, thermistors have a smaller temperature range and
stability.

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Thermistors and Optical pyrometers
 A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly
with temperature, more so than in standard resistors.
 The word is a portmanteau of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are
widely used as inrush current limiters, temperature sensors, self-
resetting over current protectors, and self-regulating heating elements.
 Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTD) in that
the material used in a thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer,
while RTDs use pure metals.
 The temperature response is also different; RTDs are useful over larger
temperature ranges, while thermistors typically achieve a higher
precision within a limited temperature range [usually −90 °C to 130 °C].

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Principles of Operation of the Thermistors
 Assuming, as a first-order approximation, that the
relationship between resistance and temperature is linear,
then:

 where
 ΔR = change in resistance
 ΔT = change in temperature
 k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance

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 Thermistors can be classified into two types, depending on the
sign of k.
 If k is positive, the resistance increases with increasing
temperature, and the device is called a positive temperature
coefficient (PTC) thermistor, or posistor.
 If k is negative, the resistance decreases with increasing
temperature, and the device is called a negative temperature
coefficient (NTC) thermistor.
 Resistors that are not thermistors are designed to have a k as
close to zero as possible (smallest possible k), so that their
resistance remains nearly constant over a wide temperature
range.

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 NTC thermistor, bead type, insulated wires

 Instead of the temperature coefficient k, sometimes the temperature coefficient of resistance α

(alpha) or αT is used.
 It is defined as

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Application of the Thermistors
1. PTC thermistors can be used as current-limiting devices for
circuit protection, as replacements for fuses.
 Current through the device causes a small amount of resistive
heating.
 Ifthe current is large enough to generate more heat than the device
can lose to its surroundings, the device heats up, causing its
resistance to increase, and therefore causing even more heating.
 Thiscreates a self-reinforcing effect that drives the resistance
upwards, reducing the current and voltage available to the device.
 NTC thermistors are used as resistance thermometers in low-
temperature measurements of the order of 10 K.

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 2.NTC thermistors can be used as inrush-current
limiting devices in power supply circuits.
 They present a higher resistance initially which
prevents large currents from flowing at turn-on, and
then heat up and become much lower resistance to
allow higher current flow during normal operation.
 These thermistors are usually much larger than
measuring type thermistors, and are purposely
designed for this application.

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 3. NTC thermistors are regularly used in automotive
applications. For example, they monitor things like coolant
temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine and
provide data to the ECU and, indirectly, to the dashboard.
 4. NTC thermistors can be also used to monitor the
temperature of an incubator.
 5. Thermistors are also commonly used in modern digital
thermostats and to monitor the temperature of battery packs
while charging.

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Pyrometer
 Description of the Pyrometer
 A pyrometer is a non-contacting device that intercepts and measures
thermal radiation, a process known as pyrometry
 This device can be used to determine the temperature of an object's
surface.
 The word pyrometer comes from the Greek word for fire, "πυρ" (pyro),
and meter, meaning to measure.
 Pyrometer was originally coined to denote a device capable of
measuring temperatures of objects above incandescence (i.e. objects
bright to the human eye).

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An optical pyrometer

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Principle of operation of the Pyromete
 A pyrometer has an optical system and detector.
 The optical system focuses the thermal radiation onto the detector.
 The output signal of the detector (Temperature T) is related to the
thermal radiation or irradiance j* of the target object through the
Stefan–Boltzmann law, the constant of proportionality σ, called the
Stefan-Boltzmann constant and the emissivity ε of the object.

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 This output is used to infer the object's temperature.
Thus, there is no need for direct contact between the
pyrometer and the object, as there is with
thermocouple and Resistance temperature detector
(RTDs).

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Application of the Optical Pyrometer
 Pyrometers are suited especially to the measurement of moving objects
or any surfaces that cannot be reached or cannot be touched.
 Smelter Industry
 • Temperature is a fundamental parameter in metallurgical furnace
operations. Reliable and continuous measurement of the melt
temperature is essential for effective control of the operation.
 • Thermocouples were the traditional devices used for this purpose, but
they are unsuitable for continuous measurement because they rapidly
dissolve.

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Over-the-bath Pyrometer
 Salt bath furnaces operate at temperatures up to 1300°C and
are used for heat treatment.
 • At very high working temperatures with intense heat
transfer between the molten salt and the steel being treated,
precision is maintained by measuring the temperature of the
molten salt.
 • Most errors are caused by slag on the surface which is
cooler than the salt bath.

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Steam boilers
 A steam boiler may be fitted with a pyrometer to measure the steam
temperature in the super heater.
 Hot Air Balloon
 A hot air balloon is equipped with a pyrometer for measuring the
temperature at the top of the envelope in order to prevent overheating
of the fabric.
 Pyrometry of gases
 Pyrometry of gases presents difficulties.
 These are most commonly overcome by using thin filament pyrometry or
soot pyrometry.
 Both techniques involve small solids in contact with hot gases.

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Introduction to Pressure measuring device

A lot of procedures and techniques have been

developed for the measurement of pressure.
 However, for the purposes of this course we are
going to discuss the Bourdon pressure gauges
and Manometers

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Bourdon Pressure Gauges
 Bourdon tubes measure gauge pressure, relative to
ambient atmospheric pressure, as opposed to absolute
pressure;
 The bourdon pressure gauge was invented by Eugene
Bourdon in 1849.
 Typical high-quality modern gauges provide an
accuracy of ±2% of span, and a special high-precision
gauge can be as accurate as 0.1% of full scale.

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Bourdon Pressure Gauge

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Description of the Bourdon Pressure Gauges
 In practice, a flattened thin-wall, closed-end tube is
connected at the hollow end to a fixed pipe containing
the fluid pressure to be measured.
 As the pressure increases, the closed end moves in an
arc, and this motion is converted into the rotation of a
segment of a gear by a connecting link which is usually
adjustable.
 A small diameter pinion gear is on the pointer shaft,
so the motion is magnified further by the gear ratio.

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Description of the Bourdon Pressure
Gauge
 The positioning of the indicator card behind the
pointer, the initial pointer shaft position, the linkage
length and initial position, all provide means to
calibrate the pointer to indicate the desired range of
pressure for variations in the behaviour of the Bourdon
tube itself.

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Parts of the Bourdon Tube Gauge
 1: The Gear.
 2: The Sector.
 3. A Pin
 4: The Link.
 5: Bourdon Tube.
 6. Pointer
 7. Socket
 8. Pressure Inlet

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Principle of Operation of the Bourdon Tube
 The Bourdon pressure gauge operates on the principle that,
when pressurized, a flattened tube tends to straighten or
regain its circular form in cross-section.
 Although this change in cross-section may be hardly
noticeable, and thus involving moderate stresses within the
elastic range of easily workable materials, the strain of the
material of the tube is magnified by forming the tube into a
C shape or even a helix, such that the entire tube tends to
straighten out or uncoil, elastically, as it is pressurized.

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Principle of Operation of the Bourdon Tube

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Calibration of a Bourdon Pressure Gauge

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Manometers
 Description of the Manometers
 The U-tube manometer measures the differential
pressure, (𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ), according to the expression (𝑝1 −
𝑝2 ) = ℎ𝜌𝑔
A simple, common design is to seal a length of glass
tubing and bend the glass tube into a U-shape.
 The glass tube is then filled with a liquid, typically
mercury, so that all trapped air is removed from the
sealed end of the tube.

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Description of the Manometers
 Manometry measurements are functions of gravity and
the density of the liquid
 The glass tube is then positioned with the curved region
at the bottom.
 The mercury settles to the bottom (see the U-tube
manometer below).
 After the mercury settles to the bottom of the
manometer, a vacuum is produced in the sealed tube (the
left tube in the picture).
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Description of the Manometers
 The open tube is connected to the system whose pressure
is being measured. In the sealed tube, there is no gas to
exert a force on the mercury (except for some mercury
vapor).
 Ifthe tube is connected to the system, the gas in the
system exerts a force on the mercury.
 The net result is that the column of mercury in the left
(sealed) tube is higher than that in the right (unsealed)
tube.
 The difference in the heights of the columns of mercury
is a measure of the pressure of gas in the system.
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U-Tube Manometer

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Principle of operation of the Manometer
 The force exerted by the column of mercury in a tube arises
from the gravitational acceleration of the column of mercury.
 Newton's Second Law provides an expression for this force: F = mg
 In this equation, m is the mass of mercury in the column and g =
9.80665 𝑚/𝑠 2 is the gravitational acceleration.
 This force is distributed over the cross-sectional area of the
column (A).
 The pressure resulting from the column of mercury is thus
𝑚𝑔
 𝑃=
𝐴

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Principle of operation of the Manometer
 The mass of mercury
 𝑚𝐻𝑔 = 𝜌𝐻𝑔 × 𝑉𝐻𝑔
 For a cylindrical column of mercury,
 𝑉𝐻𝑔 = 𝐴𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 × ℎ𝐻𝑔
 Where
 𝐴𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑
 ℎ𝐻𝑔 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒

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Principle of operation of the Manometer
 These relationships produce the following equation.
𝑚𝑔 𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝑉𝐻𝑔 𝑔 𝜌𝐻𝑔 𝐴𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 ℎ𝐻𝑔 𝑔
𝑃 = = = = 𝜌𝐻𝑔 ℎ𝐻𝑔 𝑔
𝐴𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝐴𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝐴𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
 This equation clearly shows that the height of a column of
mercury is directly proportional to the pressure exerted by
that column of mercury

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Principle of operation of the Manometer
 Thedifference in heights of the two columns of
mercury in a manometer can thus be used to
measure the difference in pressures between the
two sides of the manometer.
 Therelation between torr and Pa is also clearly
evident. Using 𝜌𝐻𝑔 = 13.5951 g/𝑐𝑚3 ,
 onefinds that 1 torr = 133 Pa or 1 atm = 760 torr =
101 kPa.

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Worked Example
 Water flows through a pipeline which is connected to
a manometer. The manometer is used to measure
the pressure drop of flow through the pipe. The
difference in level was found to be 20cm. If the
manometric fluid is 𝐶𝐶𝑙4 , find the pressure drop in
S.I units (density of 𝐶𝐶𝑙4 =1.596 g/𝑐𝑚3 ). If the
manometric fluid is changed to mercury (𝜌𝐻𝑔 =13.6
g/𝑐𝑚3 ) what will be the difference in level

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Solution
 Data: ℎ𝑐𝑐𝑙4 = 20 𝑐𝑚 = 0.2 𝑚
𝑔
 𝜌𝑐𝑐𝑙4 = 1.596 3 = 1.596 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 𝐶𝐶𝐿4
𝑐𝑚
 𝜌𝐻𝑔 = 13.6 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

 Pressure drop, ∆𝑝 = 𝜌𝑐𝑐𝑙4 × 𝑔 × ℎ𝑐𝑐𝑙4

𝑵
 = 1.596 × 103 × 9.81 × 0.2 = 𝟑𝟏𝟑𝟏. 𝟑 𝟐 = 𝟑𝟏𝟑𝟏. 𝟑 𝑷𝒂
𝒎
 The difference in mercury level
𝜌𝑐𝑐𝑙4 1.596×103
 ℎ𝐻𝑔 = ℎ𝑐𝑐𝑙4 × = 0.20 × = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟑𝟒𝟕 𝒎 =
𝜌𝐻𝑔 13.6×103
𝟐. 𝟑𝟒𝟕 𝒄𝒎
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