MEKDELA AMBA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCE

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL SCIENCE

REVIEW ON LIVESTOCK FEED RESOURCES, AVAILABLITY AND

FEEDING SYSTEM IN ETHIOPIA

PREPARED BY;

No Name Id No
1, Nigusu Selemon Mau1401969
2, Lemlem Zerihun Mau1401603
3, Lemma Angasu Mau1401606
4, Fasil Wagnewu Mau1400717
5, Gobana Olika Mau1400860
6, Batire Guluma Mau1400340

ADVISOR: Medina Yassin (MSc)

Seminar Paper Submitted To the Department Of Animal Sciences in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Course Senior Seminar (AnSc- 422)
April, 2025
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, we would like to thanks the Almighty God who created and helped as to pass the
ups and downs of life till today and reach this level. Second, we would like to extend our
deepest and heartfelt gratitude Advisor Ms. Medina Yassin who has been advising and giving
all the necessary direction, corrective comments throughout may work. Also we would like to
thanks the mekdela Amba University or to support me by nicety such as internet service and
different books and also department of Animal science that gives this necessary course.

II
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.........................................................................................................II
LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS................................................................................................IV
LIST OF TABLE.......................................................................................................................V
ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................VI
1. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................2
1.1. Objectives............................................................................................................................3
1.1.1. General objective..............................................................................................................3
1.1.2. Specific objectives............................................................................................................3
2. LITERATURE REVIEW.......................................................................................................4
2.1. Availability of Animal feed resource in Ethiopia...............................................................4
2.1.1. Agro-industrial by-products.............................................................................................4
2.1.2. Milling by-products..........................................................................................................5
2.1.3. Brewery and winery by-products.....................................................................................5
2.1.7. Crop residues....................................................................................................................7
2.1.8. Fodder trees and shrubs....................................................................................................8
2.1.9. Improved pasture and forage crops..................................................................................8
2.2. Feeding system of livestock in Ethiopia..............................................................................9
2.2.1. Grazing System................................................................................................................9
2.2.2. Aftermath grazing...........................................................................................................10
2.2.3. Pastoral Grazing System and Agro-Pastoral Grazing System........................................10
2.2.4. Highland Grazing System..............................................................................................10
2.2.5. Lowland Grazing System...............................................................................................10
2.2.6. Wetland Grazing System................................................................................................10
2.2.7. Transhumant Grazing System........................................................................................11
2.2.8. Stall-Feeding (Confinement Feeding)............................................................................11
2.2.9. Mixed Feeding System...................................................................................................11
2.3. Constraints of animal feed in Ethiopia..............................................................................12
2.3.1. Prolonged and excessive rangeland use.........................................................................12
2.3.2. Recurrent drought...........................................................................................................12
2.3.3. Inefficient use of local available resources....................................................................12
2.3.4. Restricted livestock mobility..........................................................................................13
2.3.5. Invasive species encroachment......................................................................................13

III
2.3.6. Grazing pressure and fire ban. Land use change............................................................13
2.3.7. Weakening customary institutions.................................................................................14
2.3.8. Lack of sustained investment in rangeland improvement..............................................14
3. CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION.......................................................................15
3.1. Conclusions.......................................................................................................................15
3.2. Recommendations.............................................................................................................15
4. REFERENCES.....................................................................................................................16

IV
 LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS
ANRS Amhara National Regional State
CGL Common Grazing Land
CRV Central Rift Valley
CSA Central Statistical Agency
DM Dry Matter
GDP Gross Domestic Product
Ha Hectare
IAR International Agricultural Research
Kg Kilogram
m.a.s.l Meter above Sea Level
NGO Nongovernmental Organization
PGL Private Grazing Land

V
 LIST OF TABLE
Table 1: Agro-industrial byproducts and stats of production in Ethiopia..................................4

VI
 ABSTRACT

Livestock production is a crucial component of agriculture in Ethiopia, supporting the

livelihoods of many people. However, low productivity is a significant challenge, primarily
due to factors like genetics, inadequate nutrition, and limited veterinary care. The main
objectives to review on livestock feed resources, availablity and feeding system in Ethiopia.
Natural pasture is utilized during the wet season, while crop residues are essential for
ruminants during the dry season. Fodder trees and shrubs play a vital role in feeding
animals, particularly in arid, semi-arid, and mountainous regions when grasses are scarce.
Many farmers in Ethiopia do not use improved forages as animal feed, with only a few
incorporating them into their practices. Agro-industrial byproducts and non-conventional
feeds are underutilized. The livestock producers mainly adopt hay making and crop residue
as a conservation method and use for feeding at the time of feed scarcity. Even if there were
different types of feeds but not enough amounts availability in Ethiopia and feed shortage and
lack of materials unavailability were the major constraints for feed conservation. Therefore,
governmental and non-governmental organizations should be supporting and appreciating
farmers those use feed conservation and awareness creation to farmer for establishment of
improved forage.

VII
 1. INTRODUCTION
Ethiopia is known for its highest livestock population in Africa. The estimated domestic
livestock population is 66 million cattle, 38 million sheep, 46 million goats, 7 million camels,
41.35 million poultry, 2.14 million horses, 0.36 million mules and 10 million donkeys
(CSA,2022).
Feed is the most important input in livestock production and its adequate supply throughout
the year is an essential prerequisite for any substantial and sustained expansion in livestock
production (Yadessa et al., 2016).
Ethiopia possesses large number of livestock population, the production and productivity of
this sector is low due to many biotic and abiotic factors. The productivity of livestock is low
mainly due to several factors such as genetic makeup, poor nutrition and poor veterinary care.
But poor nutrition is the major limiting factor (Alemu, 2010).

Feed scarcity in both quantitative and qualitative dimensions is one of the major constraints
for the promotion of the livestock sub-sector in Ethiopia. In many areas of the country,
animals are kept on poor quality, natural pasture that commonly occur on permanent
grasslands, roadsides, pathways and spaces between cropped plots. Moreover, the available
grazing lands are decreasing in size and quality particularly in the highlands due to high
population pressure and encroachment of cropping on to communal grasslands. (Nandi and
Haque, 1988).

Increased livestock population and the subsequent rise in feed demand are expected to occur
largely in the country, where livestock feed production is already insufficient (Lulseged,
1995). This situation urges the use of appropriate technologies that can optimize utilization of
available feed resources and alternative technologies in utilizing improved forages (Nandi
and Haque, 1986).
The major problem to livestock productivity is scarcity of feeds in both quantity and quality,
especially in the dry season. Notwithstanding the continued reduction in the size of grazing
lands and forest areas to crop production to feed the ever-increasing human population,
ruminants will still continue to depend primarily on forages from natural pastures and crop
residues (Alemayehu etal 2017)

1
 Poor grazing management (e.g. continuous) has resulted in very low carrying capacities
brought about by replacement of productive and nutritious flora by unpalatable species and
reduction in vegetation cover (Alemayehu etal 2017).
Livestock feed supply from natural pasture is characterized by seasonal fluctuation in total
dry matter (DM) production and nutritional quality because of the distinct seasonal variation
in plant growth, in relation to the annual rainfall pattern (Ahmed, 2010).

Animals depend mainly on natural pastures for their feed requirements. Natural pastures,
which provide more than 90% of the livestock feed, are generally very poorly managed. Due
to poor management and overstocking, natural pastures are highly overgrazed resulting in
severe land degradation, loss of valuable species and dominance by unpalatable species
(Alemu, 1998).
Animal feeding system in these countries is mainly based on grazing native pastures which
are deteriorating in production and quality and also vary seasonally resulting in poor animal
performance. Despite the importance of cattle, inadequate cattle nutrition is a common
problem in the developing world, and a major factor affecting the development of viable
livestock production in developing countries (Sere et al., 2008).
Natural pasture is the main source of livestock feed in Ethiopia (Tolera et al., 2012).
However, it cannot fulfill the nutritional requirements of the animals, particularly during the
dry season, due to poor management and their inherent low productivity and quality.
Shortage of feed supply and poor nutritional quality of available feed resources are the major
constraints affecting livestock productivity in Ethiopia. Therefore, this paper was review the
major feed resources, availability and feeding systems and constraints of animal feed in
Ethiopia.

1.1. Objectives
1.1.1. General objective

Review on livestock feed resources, availability and feeding system in Ethiopia

1.1.2. Specific objectives

 To review the major livestock feed resources in Ethiopia.

 To review the feeding systems of livestock in Ethiopia.
 To review the major constraints of animal feed in Ethiopia

2
 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Availability of Animal feed resource in Ethiopia

The feed resources available for livestock in Ethiopia are natural grazing and browse, crop
residues, improved pasture, forage crops and agro-industrial by-products (Adugna, 2007;
Yayneshet, 2010; Solomon et al., 2017). Similarly, in the highland and mid altitude areas of
Ethiopia, cereal and pulse crop residues, and limited oil crops are providing considerable
quantity of dry season feed supply for livestock (Yayneshet, 2010).
According to Adugna, 2007, who reported that there are different types of feed resources are
available in Ethiopia. These are broadly grouped into concentrates and roughage feeds. The
main sources of concentrate feeds are agro-industrial by-products, whereas the main sources
of roughages are natural pastures, crop residues, and cultivated forage and pasture crops. The
description of these major feed resources is given in the following sections.

2.1.1. Agro-industrial by-products

Agro-industrial by-products are the by-products of the primary processing of crops. They
include flour mill by-products, oilseed cakes, brewery by-products, and molasses. These feed
ingredients are the main constituents of concentrate feeds (Alemayehu et al., 2017.)
Table 1: Agro-industrial byproducts and status of production in Ethiopia

SN Byproducts Production(ton)
1 Sugarcane tops 78000

2 Molasses 51000
3 Filter press cake 35000
4 Bagasse 300000
5 Milling byproducts 48240
6 Oil seed mills 40000
7 Sisal waste 2100
8 Brewery grains 5970
9 Grain screenings 30000
10 Sweet potato tops 60000
11 Banana waste 5000

3
2.1.2. Milling by-products
Milling by-products include bran and related by-products such as wheat short, wheat
middling, rice bran and screening. Wheat bran is the most common milling by-product used
for livestock feeding in Ethiopia. The other minor byproduct is wheat middling, which is
finer than wheat bran with higher energy and lower fiber contents. Wheat screenings are
broken or shriveled kernels plus some foreign materials such as cheat and weeds.(Alemayehu
etal 2017 )

2.1.3. Brewery and winery by-products

Brewer's grains are traditionally valued for lactating animal because of their palatability and
milk-producing property. In addition to commercial beer production at the more than nine
breweries are practiced in the country. Like:- Meta Brewery, Bedele Brewery–Spent grain
and Brewers’ yeast, Harar Brewery and Dashen Brewery–Spent malt (Tegegne and Assefa,
2010). Brewery, distillery, and winery by-products could be important sources of
supplementary feed in commercial livestock operations. This is particularly important for
farmers residing in the proximity of commercial breweries, distilleries, and wineries. The by-
products have moderately high crude protein and metabolizable energy contents and
digestibility(Alemayehu etal 2017)
Molasses and other by-products of sugar factories
Currently, four sugar factories produce sugar in the country. The factories produce significant
quantities of by-products such as molasses, bagasse, and cane tops that could potentially be
used as animal feed. Molasses contains high levels of sugars, which are readily digested in
the rumen (Alemayehu etal 2017).
It is also a good source of minerals such as calcium, potassium, sulphur and trace minerals,
but deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus. Molasses is a concentrated source of energy that
could be stored for a long period. Molasses is often used as a carrier for urea in molasses-urea
blocks since it is palatable and provides a wide range of minerals..(Alemayehu etal 2017)
2.1.4. Grain
Depending upon availability and price, cereal grains and grains damaged during processing
could be used as sources of high-energy feeds. Substantial amount of screenings and
damaged grains are produced during grain processing and seed cleaning (Tolera, 2007). Grain
represents a concentrated feed resource, which can be transported over a long distance with
relatively less expense. Maize, wheat, barley, oats, sorghum and rice are usually highly

4
digestible (80-85%), rich in energy and have a protein content of 8-12% of DM(Alemayehu
et al., 2017).

2.1.5. Poultry Litter

Poultry litter is a product obtained where poultry are raised on floor. It contains poultry
droppings, bedding material and spilled poultry feed. It may contain 15- 35% CP depending
upon the proportion and quality of the above constituents .(Alemayehu et al. 2017)
It has high ash content with high levels of the minerals calcium, phosphorus, potassium,
magnesium, sulphur, and copper. It can serve as a good source of fermentable nitrogen and
essential minerals (Hassen etal 2010).
Commercial poultry farms have a potential of producing a significant amount of poultry litter
that could be incorporated in the diet of ruminant animals. However, effective utilization of
the litter as a component of ruminant rations depends on the location of the poultry farm.
2.1.6. Natural pastures
Fekede et al., (2011), reported that natural pasture refers to naturally occurring grasses,
legumes, forbs, shrubs, and tree foliages used as livestock feed. Grazing lands accounting for
about 57% of the Ethiopia’s total land area contributes 80-90% of the total livestock feed
supply.
Grazing lands in Ethiopia are restricted to areas that have little value or farming potential
such as hill tops, swampy areas, roadsides, and other marginal lands (Yayneshet, 2010).
Livestock grazing is the predominant form of land use in pastoral areas, which account for
over 60% of Ethiopia‘s land cover and receive less than 600-700 mm annual rainfall
(Coppock, 1994).

The vegetation composition in the slightly better moisture regimes of the semi-arid areas of
southern and eastern Oromia, southern parts of SNNPR, and parts of Somali (southern and
western sections) regions, is predominantly Acacia commiphora bush lands with understory
perennial grass cover (Hassen etal 2010).
Natural pastures are continually decreasing due to rapidly increasing human population and
expansion of cropland. Hence, the contribution of natural pastures to the dietary needs of
animals is substantially decreasing from time to time.
The quantity and quality of feed obtainable from natural pastures particularly declines during
the dry season. The protein content and digestibility of most grass species decline rapidly

5
with advancing physiological maturity. In general, the productivity of natural pastures is very
low and usually does not exceed 0.5 to 2 tonnes/ha dry matter per year in the arid and semi-
arid areas.

2.1.7. Crop residues

Crop residues are abundantly produced in almost all parts of the country where there is crop
production. Cereal straws such as teff, barley, and wheat and pulse crop residues are stalked
after threshing and fed to animals during the dry season when the quality and quantity of
available feed from natural pasture declines drastically in different parts of the Ethiopian
highlands (Solomon B, 2004).

On the average, crop residues provide generally 10 to 15% of total feed intake in the mixed
crop-livestock producing areas (Alemayhu, 2004). In the central highlands of Ethiopia, but in
most intensively cultivated areas, crop residues and aftermath grazing account for above 60-
70% of the basal diet. Moreover, most of the crop residues used as livestock feed fluctuate in
seasonal supply and used without any treatment and/or strategic supplementation (Solomon,
2004). According to Yeshitila (2008), 48.9%and 37.2% of the farmers advocate millet and
teff respectively as feeds for livestock and only 1.1% of the farmers give preference to wheat
crop residues unless there is feed shortage.

Alemu et al (1991) further estimated that about 10.71 billion kg dry matters (DM) of crop
residues are estimated to provide about 40 to 50% of annual livestock feed requirement.
Crop residues represent a large part of feed resources, most of which are underutilized.
Similarly, Zinash and Seyoum (1991) have reported that in the survey conducted in the
central high land zone (Shewa administrative region) the available feed resources (grazing
and agricultural by- products) could only meet the maintenance requirements of the existing
animals and production requirements of half of the total herds of cows for a production level
of 5 liters per day.
Nevertheless, the nutritional values of crop residues vary according to the type of crop used.
The better productive utilization of crop residues can be achieved either through appropriate
supplementation (legumes, molasses, fruit pulps, poultry manure, urea, etc.) or chemical
pretreatment (urea/ammonia treatments) both, which facilitate the microbial break down of

6
the cell wall. Moreover, conservation and efficient or economic use of crop residues
improves and enhances their utilization (Getnet, 1999).

Feleke et al,(2015) stated that crop residues are the main feed sources during dry season in
that area ( or in hadiya zone) and 40% of the community use crop residues during dry season
where as 16.25% during wet season.Crop residues were used during rainy season to
supplement the limited supplies from CGL. Crop residue feeding mostly begins soon after
threshing crops especially in the low altitude zone, starting in December and extending up to
July.

2.1.8. Fodder trees and shrubs

Fodder trees and shrubs are potentially protein supplement feeds for livestock. Leaves and
fruits of fodder trees and shrubs used as supplements for ruminant animals in several regions
of the world (Kechero et al., 2012). Most browse species have the advantage of maintaining
their greenness and nutritive value throughout the dry season when grasses dry up and
deteriorate in quality and quantity (Rangnekar, 1992).

Fodder trees and shrubs are generally rich in protein, vitamins and mineral elements and can
be used as dry season feed sources and supplementary feeds in improving the nutritive value
of poor quality grasses and crop residues

2.1.9. Improved pasture and forage crops

Improved forages play varying role in different livestock production systems. In general,
however, they are important as adjuncts to crop residues and natural pastures and may be
used to fill the feed gaps during periods of inadequate crop residues and natural pasture
supply (Yeshitila, 2008).

In Ethiopia, most improved tropical species can be grown in the lowlands (1,500-2000
meters) except temperate species, which can grow in areas between 2,100 to 3,000 meters
above sea level (Alemayehu, 2002).
Improved forages have been grown and used in government ranches, state farms, farmer's
demonstration plots and dairy and fattening areas. Forage crops are commonly grown for
feeding dairy cattle with oats and vetch mixtures, fodder beet, elephant grass mixed with

7
siratro and desmodium species, Rhodes/Lucerne mixture, phalaris/trifolium mixture,
hedgerows of sesbania, leucaena and tree-Lucerne being common ones (Alemayehu, 2006).

Ahmed et al, (2010) also stated that, some of the farmers in the central highlands of Ethiopia
feed improved forages to crossbred cows in the form of cut and carry and hay.
According to ( Zewdie 2010) in the highlands and central rift valley of Ethiopia, the use of
improved forages as animal feed is not well adopted by farmers in all the areas. Other feed
resources
Livestock feed resources are classified as conventional and non-conventional (Alemayehu,
2003), where the non-conventional ones vary according to the feeding habit of the
community and others, e.g. vegetable refusals, sugar cane leaves, Enset leaves, fish offal and
etc are nonconventional feed types. (Yeshitila , 2008) also identified nonconventional feeds
and it includes like residues of local drinks coffee, areke, tela, chat left over called geraba,
fruits and vegetables reject.
According to Endale, 2015, who reported that Ethiopia, utilization of non-conventional feeds
other than local alcohol waste (Atella) is very low. Non-conventional feed supplements
Non-conventional feed resources refer to feeds that have not been traditionally used for
feeding livestock and are not commercially used in the production of livestock feeds. On-
conventional feeds vary according to the feeding habit of the community e.g. Vegetable
refusals; sugar cane leaves, Enset leaves, fish offal and etc. are non-conventional feed types.
Admassu (2008) who identified non-conventional feeds and it includes like residues of local
drinks, coffee, tela, fruits and vegetables leftover.

2.2. Feeding system of livestock in Ethiopia

2.2.1. Grazing System

There are different systems of grazing like:- controlled, continuous, deferred, rotational and
periodic grazing. Each of these systems has its merits and demerits. However, control of the
number of animals grazing under any system is of prime importance. This should be
determined on the basis of the carrying capacity of the grassland. Carrying capacity of
grassland is determined as the number of animals that can graze in a unit area without
overgrazing or under grazing in an average season. The productivity of animal may be
optimal at low stocking rates but this may result in low utilization of the pasture. At moderate

8
stocking rates, production per animal may decrease but production per unit area increases. At
high stocking rates production per animal as well pasture declines as animal demands exceed
the supply (Lazenby and Swain, 1972).

2.2.2. Aftermath grazing

Crop aftermath is also contributing to the ruminant feed supply especially in the dry season.
It was estimated that the grazing potential of crop aftermath for the altitude zone of 2,000 to
3,000 m.a.s.l in Ethiopia as 400kg/ha. On the other hand, (Mukasa, 1981) gave an estimate of
1260 kg/ha for the Ada district of highland Ethiopia.

2.2.3. Pastoral Grazing System and Agro-Pastoral Grazing System

Pastoral grazing system is primarily practiced by pastoralists who rely on livestock for their
livelihoods. It involves the movement of herds in search of pasture and water, often following
traditional migratory routes.( Hesse and Thébaud, 2006).

Agro-system, communities engage in both crop production and livestock rearing. Livestock
graze on crop residues and natural pastures, and farmers may practice rotational grazing to
optimize land use (Ayalew and Alemayehu 2012)

2.2.4. Highland Grazing System

Found in the Ethiopian highlands, this system involves the grazing of livestock on natural
pastures, often supplemented by cultivated fodder. The highlands are characterized by a
cooler climate and higher rainfall.( Solomon and Kassa, 2010)

2.2.5. Lowland Grazing System

Predominantly practiced in the lowland areas of southeastern and northeastern Ethiopia, this
system is characterized by extensive grazing on communal lands. It is often subject to
drought and resource competition.( Abebe and Haji, 2014)

2.2.6. Wetland Grazing System

This system utilizes wetlands and floodplains for grazing during the wet season. It supports a
variety of livestock and is crucial for maintaining biodiversity.( Kelemu and Mulugeta, 2015)

9
2.2.7. Transhumant Grazing System
This system involves seasonal migration between fixed summer and winter pastures. It is
common among certain ethnic groups in Ethiopia who adapt their grazing strategies based on
climatic conditions.( Mulugeta and Taffese, 2011)
Generally Ethiopia's grazing systems are shaped by a combination of ecological conditions,
cultural practices, and socio-economic factors. Understanding these systems is crucial for
developing sustainable land management practices and improving the livelihoods of pastoral
and agro-pastoral communities.

2.2.8. Stall-Feeding (Confinement Feeding)

Stall-feeding, or zero-grazing, is gaining popularity in Ethiopia, especially in urban and peri-
urban areas where land is limited. This system involves confining animals in a designated
area and providing them with a controlled diet of forage and concentrates.
Farmers provide supplementary feeds such as crop residues, hay, and commercial feed to
improve productivity. This system allows for better management of animal health and
nutrition, leading to increased milk production and growth rates (Mekonnen et al., 2020).

2.2.9. Mixed Feeding System

Many Ethiopian farmers employ mixed feeding systems that combine grazing with stall-
feeding. In these systems, livestock graze during the day and are brought back to stalls at
night or during certain seasons. This approach allows farmers to utilize both natural pasture
and cultivated feed resources.

Mixed systems can enhance feed availability and nutritional quality by integrating crop
residues and cultivated fodder. These systems can be more sustainable as they balance the use
of natural resources with improved feed management (Tadesse et al., 2021).

2.2.10. Total Mixed Ration (TMR) System

The Total Mixed Ration (TMR) system is an integrated feeding strategy that combines
various feed ingredients into a single, homogeneous mixture. This approach is particularly
beneficial for dairy cattle and has been gaining traction in Ethiopia, especially in intensive
dairy farming operations.

10
TMR consists of forages, grains, protein sources, vitamins, and minerals mixed together to
provide a balanced diet for livestock.The goal is to ensure that animals receive all necessary
nutrients in each bite, which can improve feed efficiency and overall productivity (Mekonnen
et al., 2020).

2.3. Constraints of animal feed in Ethiopia

The pastoral areas are faced with complex challenges constituting recurrent drought,
population pressure, continued loss of prime grazing lands, the weakening of customary
institutions and pervasive rangeland degradation threats (Coppock, 1994; Yemane and
Mesfin, 2000; Kamara et al., 2003; and Melesse et al., 2006).
The extent varies but almost all rangelands are under serious threats of vegetation and soil
loss, and concomitant state of ecological decline.
Compared to the highlands, the livestock feed insecurity is higher in the lowland parts of the
country.
Depletion of livestock asset through cyclic droughts has driven hundreds and thousands of
pastoralists into absolute destitution making them dependents on relief food aid.
The causes of rangeland degradation and the corresponding growing livestock feed
insecurity are many and complex. The most notable ones are indicated below.

2.3.1. Prolonged and excessive rangeland use

The growing population pressure, restricted mobility, and indiscriminate stock water
development schemes have led to prolonged and heavy grazing/browsing pressure of the
range resources (Coppock, 1994; Yemane and Mesfin, 2000; Gizachew, 2009).

2.3.2. Recurrent drought

In the arid and semi-arid environments, frequent and extended droughts are depleting soil-
seed bank and exhausting natural resource base.
The continued loss of vegetation cover is increasing soil erosion and undermining the
regeneration capacity of the rangelands with ultimate negative consequence upon livestock
feed security.

2.3.3. Inefficient use of local available resources

11
In situ utilization is the common form of rangeland use in pastoral and agro-pastoral
environments. Livestock keepers rarely conserve pasture and/or crop residues at times of
relative plenty.
The same applies for agro-industrial by-products such as molasses, brewers‘dry grain,
cottonseeds, and various types of oil seed cakes.
Efficient management and utilization of the above local feeds is tremendously important to
extend the period of modest feed availability with reasonable nutritional quality.

2.3.4. Restricted livestock mobility

For generations, pastoralists have dealt with the seasonal fluctuation in supply of forage and
water by adopting free mobility across the landscapes varying in the temporal availability of
the grazing resources (Coppock, 1994; Kamara et al., 2003; Gizachew, 2009).
The global arguments justifying the ecological suitability of mobile livestock keeping to the
arid and semi-arid environments are building momentum (WISP, 2008).
In many of the rangeland ecosystems, scarce resources are often the source of conflict as
periodically migrating pastoralists converge on areas where there is abundant pasture and
water supply. Due to livestock raiding and insecurity, large expanses of buffer zones with
substantial grazing reserves have been left unutilized along the interethnic territories even at
times of severe droughts. The cases in point are the Alaydege plains, the El-Gof grazing
reserve, and the pastureland along the Sagan River.

2.3.5. Invasive species encroachment

The rapid spread and proliferation of invasive plant species is posing a daunting challenge to
the rangelands of all regions (Coppock, 1994; Yemane and Mesfin, 2000; Gizachew, 2009).
Most of 16 these invasive species are indigenous. The exotic invasive species with serious
threat to the rangelands are the toxic annual herb Parthenium hysterohorus and the woody
species Prosopis juliflora.

2.3.6. Grazing pressure and fire ban. Land use change

Due to the adoption of crop cultivation by pastoralists and expansion of private agri-
businesses, the land uses of the rangelands are continually evolving (Coppock, 1994; Yemane
and Mesfin, 2000; Kamara et al., 2003; and Melesse et al., 2006).

12
2.3.7. Weakening customary institutions
Customary institutions and pastoral land use practices have largely become dysfunctional. A
number of factors have contributed to the weakening of the customary institutions.
Chief amongst these are the influences of parallel formal structures, the population growth
and drought induced ecologically unsustainable livelihoods; for example, crop farming,
unplanned water development schemes, and haphazard settlements patterns (Coppock, 1994;
Kamara et al., 2003).

2.3.8. Lack of sustained investment in rangeland improvement

In the late 1960s, 1970s and 1980s Ethiopian government piloted rangeland improvement
projects in the selected areas of the country. Most of these rangeland improvement initiatives
recorded little success due to limited grassroots participation and an overly alignment of the
scheme to the western ranching model. Since then investments for improvement and
rehabilitation of the rangelands have been negligible or at best sporadic

13
 3. CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION

3.1. Conclusions

The review showed that the major available feed resources in Ethiopia are natural pasture and
crop residues and also there are other feed resources such as, improved pasture and forage,
fodder trees, agro industrial by products like food and vegetable refusal. In most parts of the
country natural pasture is utilized during wet season. Crop residues are the most important
feed resources for ruminants during dry season in all over the country. Fodder trees and
shrubs are important animal feeds in Ethiopia especially in arid, semi-arid and mountain
zones throughout the dry season when grasses dry up. Most of the farmers in the country do
not establish and utilize improved forages as animal feed and in only some places of some
farmers planted and utilize improved forages. Agro-industrial by products and non-
conventional feeds utilization is uncommon and rarely used in the most parts of the country.
Improved forage development is unsatisfactory and limited success rates. The proportion of
land allocated for cultivated forage crops in Ethiopia is too small. Most of the Farmers in the
country do not use improved forage crops and improved feeds for their livestock.

3.2. Recommendations

 Farmers should utilize crop residues by using different techniques such as use of
urea treatments, nutrient block and silage making that will improve the quality of
feed for dry season.
 The contribution of improved forage in livestock feed is very low due to lack of
awareness in most parts of the country. To alleviate this problem, training sites
should be established to create awareness on farmers.
 Most of the farmers in Ethiopia do not use non-conventional feeds for their
livestock. They should be used these types of feeds by the help of extension
service by creating awareness.
 Implement sustainable grazing management practices to prevent overgrazing and
land degradation. This includes rotational grazing systems that allow pastures to
regenerate.
 Increase investment in research focused on livestock nutrition and feed resource
management. Collaborative research initiatives between universities, government
agencies, and international organizations can foster innovation.

14
 4. REFERENCES
Agricultural Sample Survey, (2012/13). Volume II: Report on Livestock and livestock
characteristics (Private peasant holdings).Statistical Bulletin 570. Addis Ababa:
Alemayehu Mengistu (1985). Feed resources in Ethiopia. PP.35. In: Animal feed resources
for small scale livestock producers, Proceedings of the second
Alemayehu Mengistu (2004). Pasture and Forage Resource profiles of Ethiopia. PP.19.
Ethiopia/FAO. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Alemayehu Mengistu (2006). Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles: Ethiopia.
Alemayehu Mengistu, (1997). Conservation based forage development for Ethiopia: Institute
for Sustainable Development. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Pp 1-2.
Alemayehu Mengistu, Getnet Assefa, Gezahagn Kebede and Fekede, Feyissa, (2016).
Review on the Evolution of Forage Seed Production in Ethiopia: Experiences,
Constraints and Options.
Alemayehu N. (2010). Multi-stakeholder Platforms Strengthening Selection and use of
Fodder Options in Ethiopia.
Alemayehu, Mengistu (1985). Feed resource in Ethiopia. In: Proceedings of a Workshop on
Animal FNE News letter, No.2, ILCA, Ethiopia, Pp 24-32.
Alemayehu, Mengistu (1998). Natural Pasture Improvement Study around Small Holder
Dairy Areas. Smallholder Diary Development Project (SDDP), MOA, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia.
Alemayehu, Mengistu (2002). Forage Production in Ethiopia: a Case Study with Implications
for Livestock Production. Ethiopia Society of Animal Production (ESAP), Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia.
Alemayehu, Mengistu (2003). Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles.
Alemayehu, Mengistu (2004). Participatory innovation and research lesson for livestock
development. In: Proceedings of the 12th Conference of the Ethiopian Society of
Animals Production (ESAP), August 12-14, 2004, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Pp251-
259.
Alemu, G., Alemayehu, M., Sendros, D., Seyoum, B. and Alemu, T. (2011): Status of dairy
research in Ethiopia: prospects for improving dairying in Ethiopia. In:
Proceedings of a Workshop on the Role of Village Dairy Cooperatives in Dairy
Development, 22-24 April, 1998,

15
Central statistical agency (CSA) (2013). Ethiopia is a home for about 54 million cattle, 25.5
million sheep and 24.06 million goats.
Central Statistical Agency (CSA), Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia; 2012\13.
Resources under smallholder farmer’s conditions in Bale highlands of Ethiopia.
Tropical and Sub tropical Agro-ecosystems, 8: 107-114.
Central Statistical Agency (CSA), Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia; (2012\13).
Resources under smallholder farmer’s conditions in Bale highlands of Ethiopia.
Tropical and Sub tropical Agro-ecosystems, 8: 107-114.
Getnet, A. (1999). Feed Resource Assessment and Evaluation of Forage Yield, Quantity and
Intake of Oats and Vetches Grown in Pure Stands and in Mixtures in the
Highlands of Ethiopia. MSc. Thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Science,
Uppsala, Sweden.
Mulugeta, E., Taffese, S. (2011). Transhumance in Ethiopia: Patterns and Implications for
Livestock Production. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 6(19), 4483-4490.
Rangnekar, D. (1992). Fodder trees as a renewable energy source for biomass quantification.
In:Speedy, A. and Pugliese, P. L. (eds), Legume Trees and Other Fodder Trees as
Protein Sources for Livestock, Animal Production and Health Paper, No.102, Pp
309-315.
Seyoum, B. and Zinash, S. (1989). The Composition of Ethiopian Feeds. Research Report
No. 6. , Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Seyoum, B., A. Getinet, T. Abate and F. Dereje, (2001). Present status and future direction of
feed resources and nutrition research targeted for wheat based crop livestock
production system in Ethiopia. In Wheat and weed: Food and Feed: Ed., P.C.
Wall, Proceedings of two stakeholder workshop on improving the productivity of
crop-livestock system in Ethiopia.
Solomon, B. (2004). Assessment of Livestock Production Systems and Feed Resource Base
in Sinana Dinsho District of Bale Highlands Southeast of Oromia. MSc Thesis,
Alemaya University, Ethiopia.
Solomon, G., Kassa, H. (2010). Livestock Production Systems in Ethiopia: A Review.
Livestock Research for Rural Development, 22(12).
Yeshitila Admassu, Tessema Zewdu, and Azage Tegene. "Availability of livestock feed
resources in Alaba Woreda, Southern Ethiopia." Proceedings of the 16th annual
conference of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP) held in Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia, October. Vol. 8. 2008.

16
Yeshitila, A, (2008). Assessment of livestock feed resources utilization in Alaba woreda,
southern Ethiopia feed resources utilization and management as influenced by
altitude in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia.
Zinash, S. and Seyoum, B. (1991). Utilization of feed resources and feeding systems in the
central zone of Ethiopia.
Alemayehu, G., Tadesse, D., Abebe, Y. (2019). "Livestock Production Systems in Ethiopia:
Challenges and Opportunities." *Ethiopian Journal of Animal Production*, 19(1),
1-14.

Mekonnen, H., Melesse, A., Assefa, A. (2020). "Stall-Fed Dairy Cattle Production in Urban
and Peri-Urban Areas of Ethiopia: Opportunities and Challenges." *International
Journal of Livestock Production*, 11(2), 18-25.

Tadesse, D., Tadele, T., Bulti, K. (2021). "Mixed Farming Systems in Ethiopia: An
Overview." *Journal of Agricultural Science*, 13(4), 56-67.

17