Module 2

Data Link Layer

Introduction

Data can be corrupted during transmission. Some application

require that errors be detected and corrected.
SERVICES OF DATALINK LAYER

Error Control

Framing

Flow control

Physical addressing

Access Control
 I. Error Control

Types of Errors
Single bit error
In a frame, there is only one bit, anywhere though, which is corrupt.

Multiple bits error

Frame is received with more than one bits in corrupted state.
 Burst error
Frame contains more than1 consecutive bits corrupted.
 REDUNDANCY
To detect or correct errors, we need to send extra bits with data.
ERROR DETECTION

VERTICAL REDUNDUNCY CHECK

LONGITUDINAL REDUNDANCY CHECK

CYCLIC REDUNDANCY CHECK

8
VERTICAL REDUNDANCY CHECK

• It is also known as parity check

• It is least expensive mechanism for error detection

• In this technique, the redundant bit called parity bit is appended to

every data unit so that the total number of 1’s in the unit becomes
even (including parity bit)

Rutvi Shah
9
VERTICAL
REDUNDANCY CHECK

1100001 Data

Checking function
1100001 | 1 Even – parity
Is total number generator
of 1s even ?

Receiver 1 VRC

Sender
Rutvi Shah
10
VERTICAL REDUNDANCY CHECK

Example :

1110110 1101111 1110010

- After adding the parity bit

11101101 11011110 11100100

Rutvi Shah
11
LONGITUDINAL REDUNDANCY CHECK(LRC)

■ In this method , a block of bits is organized in table (rows

and columns) calculate the parity bit for each column and
the set of this parity bit is also sending with original data.
■ From the block of parity we can check the redundancy.

Rutvi Shah
 LRC Example
11100111 11011101 00111001 10101001

11100111
11011101
00111001
10101001

LRC 10101010

11100111 1101101 00111001 10101001 10101010

Original data plus LRC

Rutvi Shah
 LRC Example
13
Suppose the following block is sent :
10101001 00111001 11011101 11100111 10101010
(LRC)
However, it is hit by burst of length eight and some bits are corrupted
(Red bits are changed) :
10100011 10001001 11011101 11100111 10101010
(LRC)
When the receiver checks the LRC, some of the bits are not follow
even parity rule and whole block is discarded (the non matching bits
are shown in red ) :
10100011 10001001 11011101 11100111 10101010
14 Advantage :
LRC of n bits can easily detect burst error of n
bits.
Disadvantage :
If two bits in one data units are damaged and two
bits in exactly same position in another data unit
are also damaged , the LRC checker will not
detect the error.

Rutvi Shah
15 CYCLIC REDUNDANCY CHECK (CRC)
In this method , a sequence of redundant bits, called the CRC or the CRC remainder,
is appended to the end of the unit. so that the resulting data unit become exactly
divisible by a second, predetermined binary number.

At its destination , the incoming data unit is divided by the same number. If at this
step there is no remainder ,the data unit assume to be correct and is accepted,
otherwise it indicate that data unit has been damaged in transmission and therefore
must be rejected.

The redundancy bits is used by CRC are derived by dividing the data unit by a
predetermined divisor. The remainder is the CRC.
16 CRC generator and checker

DATA CRC DATA 00…0

N bits

DIVISOR DATA CRC DIVIS0R

N+1 bits

REMAINDER CRC

Zero accept N bits

Nonzero reject

Receiver Sender
 Example :-
The CRC generator at sender end :
17
111101
1101 100100 0 0 0
1101
1000
1101
1010
1101
1110
1101
0110
0000
1100
1101
Rutvi Shah

001
 The CRC checker at receiver end :

18 111101
1101 100100 0 0 1
1101
1000
1101
1010
1101
1110
1101
0110
0000
1101
Rutvi Shah
1101
000
19 ERROR CORRECTION
Error correcting code is to include enough redundant information
along with each block of data sent to enable the receiver to deduce
what the transmitted character must have been.

Error Correction must be handled in two ways :

-When an error is discovered, the receiver can have the sender

retransmit the entire data unit.

-Receiver can use an error correcting code, which automatically

corrects certain errors.
In the digital world, error correction can be done in two ways:

Backward Error Correction When the receiver detects an error in the data received, it
requests back the sender to retransmit the data unit.

Forward Error Correction When the receiver detects some error in the data received,
it executes error-correcting code, which helps it to auto-recover and to correct some
kinds of errors.

Backward Error Correction, is simple and can only be efficiently used where
retransmitting is not expensive. For example, fiber optics. But in case of wireless
transmission retransmitting may cost too much.

To correct the error in data frame, the receiver must know exactly which bit in the
frame is corrupted. To locate the bit in error, redundant bits are used as parity bits for
error detection.
21
There are two types of Error Correcting techniques :

1. Single bit error correction.

2. Burst error correction.

Error Correction can be done with the help of HAMMING

CODE.

Rutvi Shah
22 HAMMING CODE
It is a technique developed by R.W. Hamming.

Hamming code can be applied to data units of any length and uses the
relationship between data and redundancy bits.

For e.g. A 7 bit ASCII code requires 4 Redundancy bits that can be added
to the end of the data unit or interspersed with the original data bits.

These bits are placed in positions 1,2,4 and 8. We refer to these bits as
r1,r2,r4 and r8.

Rutvi Shah
Positions of Redundancy Bits in Hamming Code

11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

d d d r d d d r d r r

Redundancy Bits

Rutvi Shah
 In the Hamming code, each r bit is the VRC bit for one combination of data
24 bits :

-r1 is the one combination of data bits.

-r2 is another combination of data bits.

and so on.

The combination used to calculate each of the four values for a 7 bit data
sequence are as follows :

-r1 : bits 1,3,5,7,9,11.

-r2 : bits 2,3,6,7,10,11.

-r4 : bits 4,5,6,7.

-r8 : bits 8,9,10,11.

25 Redundant Bit Calculation
 Example: Hamming Code
26
27
Receiver receives 10010100101
Huffman Coding
Huffman codes can be used to compress information

Like WinZip – although WinZip doesn’t use the Huffman algorithm

JPEGs do use Huffman as part of their compression process

The basic idea is that instead of storing each character in a file as an 8-bit
ASCII value, we will instead store the more frequently occurring characters
using fewer bits and less frequently occurring characters using more bits.

On average this should decrease the file size (usually ½)

Huffman Coding

As an example, lets take the string:

“duke blue devils”
We first to a frequency count of the characters:
e:3, d:2, u:2, l:2, space:2, k:1, b:1, v:1, i:1, s:1
Next we use a Greedy algorithm to build up a Huffman Tree
We start with nodes for each character
s
e d u k b v
l, p i, s,
, , , , , ,
2 , 1 1
3 2 2 1 1 1
2
Huffman Coding
s
e d u k b v
l, p i, s,
, , , , , ,
2 , 1 1
3 2 2 1 1 1
2
Huffman Coding
s
e d u k b v
l, p
, , , , , , 2
2 ,
3 2 2 1 1 1
2 i, s,
1 1
Huffman Coding
s
e d u k
l, p
, , , , 2 2
2 ,
3 2 2 1 b v
2 i, s,
, ,
1 1
1 1
Huffman Coding
s
e d u
l, p
, , , 3 2
2 ,
3 2 2 k
2 i, s,
, 2
1 1
1 b v
, ,
1 1
Huffman Coding
e d u
, , , 4 3 2
3 2 2 s
k
l, p i, s,
, 2
2 , 1 1
1 b v
2
, ,
1 1
Huffman Coding
e
, 4 4 3 2
3 s
d u k
l, p i, s,
, , , 2
2 , 1 1
2 2 1 b v
2
, ,
1 1
Huffman Coding
e
, 4 4 5
3 s
d u
l, p
, , 2 3
2 ,
2 2 k
2 i, s,
, 2
1 1
1 b v
, ,
1 1
Huffman Coding

7 4 5
s
e
l, p
, 4 2 3
2 ,
3 d u k
2 i, s,
, , , 2
1 1
2 2 1 b v
, ,
1 1
Huffman Coding

7 9
e
, 4 4 5
3 s
d u
l, p
, , 2 3
2 ,
2 2 k
2 i, s,
, 2
1 1
1 b v
, ,
1 1
Huffman Coding

1
6
7 9
e
, 4 4 5
3 s
d u
l, p
, , 2 3
2 ,
2 2 k
2 i, s,
, 2
1 1
1 b v
, ,
1 1
Huffman Coding

Now we assign codes to the tree by placing a 0 on every left branch

and a 1 on every right branch

A traversal of the tree from root to leaf give the Huffman code for
that particular leaf character

Note that no code is the prefix of another code

 e 00

Huffman Coding d 010

u 011
1 l 100
6
sp 101
7 9 i 1100
e s 1101
, 4 4 5 k 1110
3 s
d u b 11110
l, p
, , 2 3 v 11111
2 ,
2 2 k
2 i, s,
, 2
1 1
1 b v
, ,
1 1
II.FRAMING
The data link layer, needs to pack bits into frames, so that each frame is
distinguishable from another. The Data Link layer prepares a packet for transport
across the local media by encapsulating it with a header and a trailer to create a
frame.

The Data Link layer frame includes:

❖ Data - The packet from the Network layer

❖ Header - Contains control information, such as addressing, and is located at the

beginning of the PDU

❖ Trailer - Contains control information added to the end of the PDU

Fixed-Size Framing

In fixed-size framing, there is no need for defining the boundaries of the frames;
the size itself can be used as a delimiter.

Variable-Size Framing

variable-size framing is prevalent in local- area networks. In variable-size

framing, we need a way to define the end of the frame and the beginning of the
next.

Two approaches were used for this purpose:

character-oriented approach

bit-oriented approach.
Character-Oriented Protocols
The header, which normally carries the source and destination addresses and other
control information, and the trailer, which carries error detection or error
correction redundant bits, are also multiples of 8 bits.

To separate one frame from the next, an 8-bit (I-byte) flag is added at the
beginning and the end of a frame.
The flag, composed of protocol-dependent special characters, signals the
start or end of a frame . Any pattern used for the flag could also be part of
the information. To fix this problem, a byte-stuffing strategy was added to
character-oriented framing.

In byte stuffing (or character stuffing), a special byte is added to the data
section of the frame when there is a character with the same pattern as the
flag. The data section is stuffed with an extra byte. This byte is usually
called the escape character (ESC), which has a predefined bit pattern.

Whenever the receiver encounters the ESC character, it removes it from

the data section and treats the next character as data, not a delimiting flag.
Bit-Oriented Protocols
In addition to headers (and possible trailers), we still need a
delimiter to separate one frame from the other. Most protocols use a
special 8-bit pattern flag 01111110 as the delimiter to define the
beginning and the end of the frame.
If the flag pattern appears in the data, we need to somehow inform the
receiver that this is not the end of the frame.

We do this by stuffing 1 single bit (instead of 1 byte) to prevent the

pattern from looking like a flag. The strategy is called bit stuffing.

In bit stuffing, if a 0 and five consecutive 1 bits are encountered, an extra

0 is added.

This extra stuffed bit is eventually removed from the data by the receiver.
Note that the extra bit is added after one 0 followed by five 1s regardless
of the value of the next bit.

This guarantees that the flag field sequence does not inadvertently appear
in the frame.
The datalink layer of LAN is split into two sub layers.

Medium Access Control (MAC),

Logical Link Control Layer (LLC).

The IEEE 802 committee had formulated the standards for LAN.
LLC Frame Format
Destination Service Access Point (DSAP) - IEEE 802.2 header begins with a 1
byte field, which identifies the receiving upper-layer process.

Source Service Access Point (SSAP) – It is 1-byte address, which identifies the
sending upper-layer process.

Control - The Control field employs three different formats, depending on the
type of LLC frame used:

Information (I) frame - Carries upper-layer information and some control

information.

Supervisory (S) frame - Provides control information.

Unnumbered (U) frame - Used for control purposes

Data - Variable-length field

MAC Frame format
IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame Format:
III. Physical Address

It is known as the link address

It is the address of a node as defined by its LAN or WAN.

It contain 6 byte (48 bit) physical address that is imprinted on the

NIC.
 IV. Flow Control
When a data frame Layer−2 data is sent from one host to another over a single
medium, it is required that the sender and receiver should work at the same speed.

That is, sender sends at a speed on which the receiver can process and accept the
data.

If sender is sending too fast the receiver may be overloaded, swamped and data
may be lost.

Two types of mechanisms can be deployed to control the flow:

Stop and Wait

Sliding Window
1. Stop and Wait
This flow control mechanism forces the sender after transmitting a data frame to
stop and wait until the acknowledgement of the data-frame sent is received.
Stop-and-wait ARQ
The following transition may occur in Stop-and-Wait ARQ:

The sender maintains a timeout counter.

When a frame is sent, the sender starts the timeout counter.

If acknowledgement of frame comes in time, the sender transmits

the next frame in queue.

If acknowledgement does not come in time, the sender assumes that

either the frame or its acknowledgement is lost in transit.

Sender retransmits the frame and starts the timeout counter. If a

negative acknowledgement is received, the sender retransmits the
frame.
2. Sliding Window
In this flow control mechanism, both sender and receiver agree on the
number of data frames after which the acknowledgement should be sent.

As we learnt, stop and wait flow control mechanism wastes resources, this
protocol tries to make use of underlying resources as much as possible.
2.1 Go-Back-N ARQ
Stop and wait ARQ mechanism does not utilize the resources at their best.

When the acknowledgement is received, the sender sits idle and does nothing.

In Go-Back-N ARQ Method, both sender and receiver maintain a window.

The sending-window size enables the sender to send multiple frames without

receiving the acknowledgement of the previous ones.

The receiving-window enables the receiver to receive multiple frames and

acknowledge them. The receiver keeps track of incoming frame’s sequence

number.
When the sender sends all the frames in window, it checks up to what

sequence number it has received positive acknowledgement.

If all frames are positively acknowledged, the sender sends next set of

frames. If sender finds that it has received NACK or has not receive any

ACK for a particular frame, it retransmits all the frames after which it does

not receive any positive ACK., both sender and receiver maintain a

window.
2.2 Selective Repeat ARQ
In Go-back-N ARQ, it is assumed that the receiver does not have any buffer space
for its window size and has to process each frame as it comes. This enforces the
sender to retransmit all the frames which are not acknowledged.

In Selective-Repeat ARQ, the receiver while keeping track of sequence numbers,

buffers the frames in memory and sends NACK for only frame which is missing
or damaged.

The sender in this case, sends only packet for which NACK is received.
V. ACCESS CONTROL
1. Random Access Protocol
In Random access or contention methods, all stations have same
superiority that is no station has more priority than another station.
Any station can send data depending on medium’s state( idle or
busy). It has two features:

There is no fixed time for sending data. Transmission is random.

There is no fixed sequence of stations sending data. Stations

compete with one another to access the medium.
(a) ALOHA
It was designed for wireless LAN but is also applicable for shared medium. In this,
multiple stations can transmit data at the same time and can hence lead to collision and
data being garbled.

PURE ALOHA

Each station sends a frame whenever it has a frame to send. Only one channel to share,
there is the possibility of collision between frames from different stations.

When a station sends data it waits for an acknowledgement. If the acknowledgement

doesn’t come within the allotted time then the station waits for a random amount of time
called back-off time (Tb) and re-sends the data. Since different stations wait for different
amount of time, the probability of further collision decreases.
Procedure for pure ALOHA protocol

12.76
Slotted Aloha:
It is similar to pure aloha, except that we divide time into slots and
sending of data is allowed only at the beginning of these slots. If a
station misses out the allowed time, it must wait for the next slot.
This reduces the probability of collision.
(b) Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
Carrier Sense Multiple Access ensures fewer collisions as the station is
required to first sense the medium (for idle or busy) before transmitting data.

If it is idle then it sends data, otherwise it waits till the channel becomes idle.

However there is still chance of collision in CSMA due to propagation delay.

For example, if station A wants to send data, it will first sense the medium. If
it finds the channel idle, it will start sending data. However, by the time the
first bit of data is transmitted (delayed due to propagation delay) from station
A, if station B requests to send data and senses the medium it will also find it
idle and will also send data. This will result in collision of data from station A
and B.
The behavior of three persistence methods when a station finds a channel busy.

1-persistent: The node senses the channel, if idle it sends the data, otherwise it
continuously keeps on checking the medium for being idle and transmits
unconditionally(with 1 probability) as soon as the channel gets idle.

Non-Persistent: The node senses the channel, if idle it sends the data, otherwise it
checks the medium after a random amount of time (not continuously) and
transmits when found idle.

P-persistent: The node senses the medium, if idle it sends the data with p
probability. If the data is not transmitted ((1-p) probability) then it waits for some
time and checks the medium again, now if it is found idle then it send with p
probability. This repeat continues until the frame is sent. It is used in Wifi and
packet radio systems.
Flow diagram for three persistence methods

12.82
Carrier sense multiple access with collision
detection (CSMA/CD)
Stations can terminate transmission of data if collision is detected.
Stations can terminate transmission of data if collision is detected.
Flow diagram for the CSMA/CD

12.84
Energy level
Zero level- channel is idle
Normal level- station successfully captured the channel and sending its frame.
Abnormal level- collision occur and level of energy is twice the normal level.
Carrier sense multiple access with collision
avoidance(CSMA/CA)
The process of collisions detection involves sender receiving
acknowledgement signals. If there is just one signal(its own) then the data is
successfully sent but if there are two signals(its own and the one with which
it has collided) then it means a collision has occurred.
CSMA/CA avoids collision by:

Interframe space – Station waits for medium to become idle and if found idle it does
not immediately send data (to avoid collision due to propagation delay) rather it waits for
a period of time called Interframe space or IFS. After this time it again checks the
medium for being idle. The IFS duration depends on the priority of station.

Contention Window – It is the amount of time divided into slots. If the sender is ready
to send data, it chooses a random number of slots as wait time which doubles every time
medium is not found idle. In CSMA/CA, if the station finds the channel busy, it does not
restart the timer of the contention window; it stops the timer and restarts it when the
channel becomes idle.

Acknowledgement – The sender re-transmits the data if acknowledgement is not

received before time-out.
Flow diagram for CSMA/CA

12.88
2. Controlled Access protocol

In controlled access, the stations seek information from one another to

find which station has the right to send. It allows only one node to send at
a time, to avoid collision of messages on shared medium.
The three controlled-access methods are:

Reservation

Polling

Token Passing
Reservation
In the reservation method, a station needs to make a reservation before sending
data.

If there are M stations, the reservation interval is divided into M slots, and each
station has one slot.

Suppose if station 1 has a frame to send, it transmits 1 bit during the slot 1. No
other station is allowed to transmit during this slot.

The stations which have reserved their slots transfer their frames in that order.

After data transmission period, next reservation interval begins.

Since everyone agrees on who goes next, there will never be any collisions.
The following figure shows a situation with five stations and a five slot reservation frame.
In the first interval, only stations 1, 3, and 4 have made reservations. In the second
interval, only station 1 has made a reservation
Polling

In this, one acts as a primary station(controller) and the others are secondary
stations. All data exchanges must be made through the controller.

The message sent by the controller contains the address of the node being selected
for granting access.

Although all nodes receive the message but the addressed one responds to it and
sends data, if any. If there is no data, usually a “poll reject”(NAK) message is sent
back.

Problems include high overhead of the polling messages and high dependence on
the reliability of the controller.
 Poll function

If the primary wants to receive data, it asks the secondaries if they have anything to
send.

Select Function

If the primary wants to send data, it tells the secondary to get ready to receive.
Select and poll functions
Token Passing
In token passing scheme, the stations are connected logically to each
other in form of ring and access of stations is governed by tokens.

A token is a special bit pattern or a small message, which circulate

from one station to the next in the some predefined order.

In Token ring, token is passed from one station to another adjacent

station in the ring whereas incase of Token bus, each station uses the
bus to send the token to the next station in some predefined order.
In both cases, token represents permission to send. If a station has a frame queued
for transmission when it receives the token, it can send that frame before it passes
the token to the next station. If it has no queued frame, it passes the token simply.

After sending a frame, each station must wait for all N stations (including itself) to
send the token to their neighbors and the other N – 1 stations to send a frame, if
they have one.

There exists problems like duplication of token or token is lost or insertion of new
station, removal of a station, which need be tackled for correct and reliable
operation of this scheme.
Wired LANs: Ethernet
IEEE STANDARDS

In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a project, called

Project 802, to set standards to enable intercommunication among
equipment from a variety of manufacturers.

Project 802 is a way of specifying functions of the physical layer

and the data link layer of major LAN protocols.
802.1 Internetworking
802.2 LLC
802.3 CSMA/CD
802.4 Token Bus LAN
802.5 Token Ring LAN
802.6 MAN
802.7 Broad band Technical Advisory group
802.8 Fiber-Optic Technical Advisory Group
802.9 Integrated Voice/Data Networks
802.10 Network Security
802.11 Wireless Networks
802.12 Demand Priority Access LANs
IEEE standard for LANs

13.100
HDLC frame compared with LLC and MAC frames

13.101
Ethernet evolution through four generations
Standard Ethernet

The original Ethernet was created in 1976 at Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Center (PARC).
Since then, it has gone through four generations : standard Ethernet , fast Ethernet ,
gigabit Ethernet ,10-gigabit Ethernet

MAC sub layer

Governs the operation of the access method

Frames data received from the upper layer and passes them to the physical layer
FRAME FORMAT
802.3 MAC frame
PREAMBLE: the first field of the 802.3 frame contain 7 bytes . The pattern provides
only an alert and timing pulse.
START FRAME DELIMITER(SFD):this one byte field signals the beginning of the
frame . It alerts the receiver that the next field is the destination address.
DESTINATION ADDRESS(DA): this field 6 bytes and contain the physical address of
the destination station .
SOURCE ADDRESS(SA):this field is also 6 bytes and contain physical address of
sender .
LENGTH/TYPE : defined as type field or length field . Defines the number of bytes in
the data field
DATA : carries data encapsulated from the upper layer protocol .
CRC : error detection
 FRAME LENGTH

Minimum: 64 bytes (512 bits)

Maximum: 1518 bytes (12,144 bits
 The Ethernet address is 6 bytes(48 bits),normally written in hexadecimal notation
Example of an Ethernet address in hexadecimal notation

ADDRESSING
Unicast and multicast addresses

The least significant bit of the first byte defines the type of address.

If the bit is 0, the address is unicast; otherwise, it is multicast.

Broadcast address

The broadcast destination address is a special case of the multicast in

which all bits are 1s.
Categories of Standard Ethernet
10Base5: Thick Ethernet
10Base2: Thin Ethernet
10BaseT: Twisted pair Ethernet
10BaseF: Fiber Ethernet
10 base 5:
The first implementation is called 10 base 5,thick ethernet , or thicknet
The nick name derives from the size of the cable , which is roughly the size of a garden
hose and too stiff to bend with your hands
10 base 5 was the first ethernet specification to use a bus topology
10 base 2:
The second implementation is called 10 base 2 , thin ethernet or cheaper net
10 base 2 also uses a bus topology , but the cable is thinner and flexible
10 base-T:twisted pair ethernet
The third implementation is called 10 base-T or twisted pair ethernet
10 base-T uses a physical star topology
The stations are connected to a hub via two pairs of twisted cable.
10 base-F:fiber ethernet
It uses the star topology to connect stations to ahub
 FAST ETHERNET
Fast Ethernet was designed to compete with LAN protocols such as FDDI or Fiber
Channel. IEEE created Fast Ethernet under the name 802.3u. Fast Ethernet is
backward-compatible with Standard Ethernet, but it can transmit data 10 times
faster at a rate of 100 Mbps.

Goals are:-

1) Upgrade the data rate to 100 Mbps.

2) Make it compatible with standard Ethernet

3) Keep the same 48 bit address

4) Keep the same frame format

5) Keep the same minimum and maximum frame length.

Fast Ethernet topology

13.117
Fast Ethernet implementations

13.118
Encoding for Fast Ethernet implementation

13.119
Summary of Fast Ethernet implementations

13.120
GIGABIT ETHERNET
The need for an even higher data rate resulted in the design of the Gigabit Ethernet protocol
(1000 Mbps). The IEEE committee calls the standard 802.3z.

The goals of gigabit Ethernet are:

Upgrade the data rate 1gbps
Make it compatible with standard Ethernet
Use the same 48 bit address
Use the same frame format
Keep the same minimum and maximum frame length
To support autonegotiation as defined in fast Ethernet
 MAC SUBLAYER

Gigabit Ethernet has two distinctive approaches for medium access:

full duplex:
In the full-duplex mode of Gigabit Ethernet, there is no collision;the maximum length of the
cable is determined by the signal attenuation
in the cable
Half duplex:
In the half-duplex mode of Gigabit Ethernet, there is collision;
Switch is replaced with hub and the maximum length of the network is totally dependent on
the minimum frame size
Three methods have been defined:
Traditional:
Minimum length of the frame is 512 bits. maximum length of the
network 25 m
Carrier extension:
for a longer network we increase the minimum frame length. Maximum
length of the network 200m
Frame bursting:
To improve efficiency, frame bursting was proposed
Instead of adding an extension to each frame multiple frames are sent
PHYSICAL LAYER

The physical layer in gigabit Ethernet is more complicated than that

in standard or fast Ethernet

Topology

If there are only 2 stations, they can be connected point-to-point

If there are 3 or more stations need to be connected in a star

topology with a hub
Implementation

Gigabit Ethernet can be categorized as:

Two-wire implementation

Four wire implementation

The two wire implementation use fiber optic

cable(1000base-sx,1000base-lx,1000 base-cx,1000 base-t)
 Encoding
Encoding in Gigabit Ethernet implementations
Summary of Gigabit Ethernet implementations
TEN GIGABIT ETHERNET

The goals of design are:

Upgrade the data rate 10gbps
Make it compatible with standard Ethernet and gigabit ethernet
Use the same 48 bit address
Use the same frame format
Keep the same minimum and maximum frame length
Allow the interconnection of the existing LANs into MAN OR WAN
MAC LAYER
Operates only in full duplex mode
Physical layer :
Designed for using fiber optic cable over long distances.
Three implementations ;10GBase-S,10Gbase-L,and 10GBase-E
Summary
Wireless LANs

IEEE 802.11

IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN, called IEEE
802.11, which covers the physical and data link layers.

Architecture

The standard defines two kinds of services:

1) The basic service set (BSS)

2) The Extended service set (ESS)

Basic Service Set

It is the basic building block of a wireless LAN.

It is made up of stationary or mobile wireless stations and an optional

central base station, called access point(AP).

A BSS without an AP is called an ad hoc network.

A BSS with an AP is called an infrastructure network.

Basic service sets (BSSs)

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Extended Service Set

It is made up of two or more BSS with APs.

BSS connected through distribution system.
Figure 14.2 Extended service sets (ESSs)

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Station types

No-transition – Station either stationary or moving only inside a BSS.

BSS-transition – Station can move from one BSS to another.

ESS- transition – Station can move from one ESS to another.

MAC layers in IEEE 802.11 standard

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Distributed coordination Function

DCF uses CSMA/CA as the access method.

CSMA/CA flowchart

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CSMA/CA and NAV

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Point Coordination Function (PCF)

PCF has a centralized, contention-free polling access method.

Example of repetition interval

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Frame format
Subfields in FC field

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Frame types

Management frame – use for initial communication between station

sand access points.
Control frames – used for accessing the channel and acknowledging
frames.
Data frames – used for carrying data and control information.
Control frames

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Values of subfields in control frames

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Addresses
BLUETOOTH

Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of

different functions such as telephones, notebooks, computers (desktop
and laptop), cameras, printers, coffee makers, and so on.

Bluetooth technology is the implementation of a protocol defined by the

IEEE 802.15 standard. The standard defines a wireless personal-area
network (PAN) operable in an area the size of a room or a hall.
 ARCHITECTURE

Bluetooth defines two types of networks:

piconet
scatternet
 PICONETS

A Bluetooth network is called a piconet, or a small net. A piconet can

have up to eight stations, one of which is called the primary, the rest are
called secondaries.

All the secondary stations synchronize their clocks and hopping

sequence with the primary.

Note that a piconet can have only one primary station.

 SCATTERNET

Piconets can be combined to form what is called a scatternet. A

secondary station in one piconet can be the primary in another piconet.

This station can receive messages from the primary in the first piconet
(as a secondary) and, acting as a primary, deliver them to secondaries in
the second piconet.

A station can be a member of two piconets.

Scatternet
Bluetooth layers

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RADIO LAYER

The radio layer is roughly equivalent to the physical layer of

the Internet model. Bluetooth devices are low-power and have
a range of 10 m.
BASEBAND LAYER
The baseband layer is roughly equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs.

The access method is TDMA.

The primary and secondary communicate with each other using time slots.

The length of a time slot is exactly the same as the dwell time, 625 µ s.

This means that during the time that one frequency is used, a sender sends a
frame to a secondary, or a secondary sends a frame to the primary.

Note that the communication is only between the primary and a secondary;
secondaries cannot communicate directly with one another.
FRAME FORMAT TYPES
L2CAP

The Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol, or L2CAP (L2 here means
LL), is roughly equivalent to the LLC sublayer in LANs.

It is used for data exchange on an ACL link; SCQ channels do not use L2CAP.

The I6-bit length field defines the size of the data, in bytes, coming from the
upper layers. Data can be up to 65,535 bytes.

The channel ID (CID) defines a unique identifier for the virtual channel created
at this level.
L2CAP data packet format

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