CHAPTER 1

LECTURE – 1

Learning Objective: To understand the fundamental concepts, evolution, and modern

advancements in manufacturing systems.

Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to explain manufacturing processes, identify

different manufacturing systems, and recognize the role of automation and CAD/CAM in
production.

1. MANUFACTURING CONCEPTS

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Manufacturing is the economic process of producing goods and services to satisfy human
needs. It involves a series of interrelated activities and operations, such as:

1. Product Design and Development – Creating and improving product concepts.

2. Material Selection – Choosing appropriate raw materials.
3. Process Planning – Defining the steps for production.
4. Inventory Control – Managing raw materials and finished products.
5. Quality Assurance – Ensuring product standards and reliability.
6. Marketing – Promoting and distributing manufactured products.

Manufacturing is no longer a simple operation; it is a dynamic system consisting of multiple

sub-systems working together.

1.2. MANUFACTURING SYSTEM

A Manufacturing System is a structured arrangement of processes and operations that

transform raw materials into finished products. It consists of:

 Input Elements – Raw materials, components, labor, capital, and energy.

 Technological Transformation – Conversion of input into a useful product.
 Output Elements – Finished products ready for customer use.

1.3. STAGES OF EVOLUTION OF MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

Manufacturing systems have evolved through different stages:

1. Manual Manufacturing – Handcrafted production, labor-intensive.

2. Mechanization – Use of basic machines powered by humans or animals.
3. Hard Automation – Dedicated automated machines for mass production.
4. Soft Automation – Use of programmable systems for flexible production, including:
o NC/CNC/DNC – Numerical Control (NC), Computer Numerical Control
(CNC), and Direct Numerical Control (DNC) machines for automated
machining.
o Industrial Robots – Automated robotic arms for handling tasks.
 o FMC/FMS – Flexible Manufacturing Cell (FMC) and Flexible Manufacturing
System (FMS) for adaptable production.

1.4. MAJOR COMPONENTS OF FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM (FMS)

1. Machine Tools – Computer-controlled machines for precision machining.

2. Control System – Software and hardware for process control.
3. Handling System – Automated material handling equipment.
4. Operators – Skilled personnel for supervision and maintenance.

1.5. COMPUTER-AIDED MANUFACTURING (CAM) & DESIGN (CAD)

 CAD (Computer-Aided Design) – Software tools for designing products.

 CAM (Computer-Aided Manufacturing) – Computer-based control of
manufacturing processes.
 Integration of CAD/CAM – Enhances efficiency, accuracy, and automation in
production.

1.6. CONCLUSION

Manufacturing is an essential process that has evolved with technology. Modern manufacturing
integrates automation, robotics, and computer systems to optimize production efficiency and
quality. Understanding these concepts helps engineers design, plan, and execute manufacturing
processes effectively.

1.7. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What are the key stages in the evolution of manufacturing systems?

2. Define a Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) and list its major components.
3. How does Computer-Aided Design (CAD) enhance the manufacturing process?
4. Differentiate between hard automation and soft automation in manufacturing.
5. What are the main input elements of a manufacturing system?
 LECTURE - 2

Learning Objective: To understand the classification, principles, and applications of primary

and secondary manufacturing processes.

Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to differentiate between primary and secondary
manufacturing processes and apply suitable techniques for material processing.

2. PRIMARY & SECONDARY MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

2.1. INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Manufacturing is the process of converting raw materials into finished products through the
use of tools, human labor, machinery, and chemical processing. It is broadly classified into
Primary Manufacturing Processes and Secondary Manufacturing Processes.

2.2. PRIMARY MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Primary manufacturing processes involve the conversion of raw materials into a basic usable
form, which can then be further processed in secondary manufacturing.

2.2.1. Casting

 A process in which molten metal is poured into a mold and allowed to solidify.
 Produces complex shapes that are difficult to achieve through machining.
 Examples: Sand casting, Die casting, Investment casting.

2.2.2. Forming and Shaping

 Deformation-based processes that change the shape of the material without adding or
removing material.
 Examples:
o Forging: Shaping metal using compressive forces (e.g., hammering, pressing).
o Rolling: Reducing thickness by passing through rollers (e.g., sheet metal
production).
o Extrusion: Forcing material through a die to create long shapes (e.g., pipes,
rods).
o Drawing: Pulling metal through a die to reduce diameter (e.g., wire
production).

2.2.3. Powder Metallurgy

 Involves compressing powdered metal into a desired shape and then sintering it at high
temperatures.
 Used for creating complex, high-strength parts (e.g., gears, bearings).

2.2.4. Plastic Molding

 Involves shaping plastics using heat and pressure.

  Examples:
o Injection Molding: Molten plastic is injected into a mold.
o Blow Molding: Used for hollow plastic products like bottles.
o Thermoforming: Heating a plastic sheet and shaping it over a mold.

2.3. SECONDARY MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Secondary manufacturing processes refine, finish, or assemble products made from primary
manufacturing processes. These processes include machining, joining, and finishing
operations.

2.3.1. Machining Processes

 Involves the removal of material to achieve the desired shape and finish.
 Examples:
o Turning (Lathe Operation): Rotating the workpiece against a cutting tool.
o Milling: Rotating cutting tools to remove material (e.g., face milling, end
milling).
o Drilling: Creating holes using drill bits.
o Grinding: Using abrasives to achieve a fine surface finish.

2.3.2. Joining Processes

 Involves the assembly of components through mechanical or thermal means.

 Examples:
o Welding: Fusion of metal parts using heat (e.g., Arc welding, MIG welding,
TIG welding).
o Brazing & Soldering: Joining materials using filler metal at lower
temperatures.
o Riveting & Fastening: Using mechanical fasteners like bolts, screws, and
rivets.

2.3.3. Surface Finishing Processes

 Used to improve surface quality, protect against corrosion, and enhance aesthetics.
 Examples:
o Polishing & Buffing: Achieving a smooth surface finish.
o Electroplating: Coating metal surfaces with another metal.
o Painting & Powder Coating: Adding protective and decorative layers.

2.3.4. Heat Treatment Processes

 Used to alter the mechanical properties of materials (e.g., hardness, strength,

toughness).
 Examples:
o Annealing: Softening materials to relieve internal stresses.
o Hardening & Tempering: Increasing strength and toughness.
o Case Hardening: Hardening only the surface of a material.
2.4. CONCLUSION

Understanding primary and secondary manufacturing processes is essential for mechanical and
production engineers. Primary processes prepare raw materials for further refinement, while
secondary processes add precision, strength, and functionality to the final product. Together,
they form the foundation of industrial manufacturing and product development.

2.5. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the main difference between primary and secondary manufacturing

processes?
2. Which primary manufacturing process involves shaping metal using compressive
forces?
3. Name two machining processes used in secondary manufacturing.
4. What is the purpose of heat treatment in manufacturing?
5. Which plastic molding process is commonly used for making hollow plastic products
like bottles?
 LECTURE – 3
Learning Objective: To understand the classification of manufacturing processes and their
applications in transforming raw materials into finished products.

Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to categorize manufacturing processes and identify
suitable methods for different production needs.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

3.1. INTRODUCTION

Manufacturing processes involve the transformation of raw materials into finished products.
These processes can be broadly classified into three main types:

 Process-type manufacturing: Continuous material flow through process steps (e.g.,

chemical production).
 Fabrication-type manufacturing: Production of individual parts using various
operations (e.g., machining, welding).
 Assembly-type manufacturing: Joining parts to form a complete product (e.g.,
machine assembly).

3.2. CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Manufacturing processes are categorized into three major groups:

I. Constant Mass Processes

These processes involve no change in mass but modify the shape or properties of materials.

a. Casting Processes

Casting involves pouring molten metal into a mold to achieve a desired shape. Types include:

 Sand casting
 Shell mold casting
 Precision investment casting
 Plaster mold casting
 Permanent mold casting
 Die casting
 Centrifugal casting

b. Metal Forming Processes

These processes shape materials through plastic deformation. Examples include:

 Rolling
 Upset forging
 Drop forging
 Press forging
  Extrusion
 Wire drawing
 Sheet metal operations

c. Powder Metallurgy Processing

This involves compacting and sintering powdered materials to form solid components.

d. Heat Treatment

Heat treatment alters the mechanical properties of materials through controlled heating and
cooling.

II. Metal Removing Processes

These processes remove excess material to achieve desired shape and surface finish.

a. Machining Processes

 Turning
 Drilling
 Shaping and Planning
 Milling
 Sawing
 Broaching

b. Grinding and Finishing Processes

These improve surface finish and dimensional accuracy.

c. Unconventional Machining Processes

Examples include Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM), Laser Cutting, and Ultrasonic
Machining.

III. Material Addition Processes

These processes involve joining or adding materials to create a final product.

a. Welding and Allied Processes

 Gas welding
 Electric arc welding
 Thermit welding
 Electric resistance welding
 Cold welding
 Brazing
 Soldering
b. Mechanical Joining Processes

 Bolting
 Riveting

3.3. CONCLUSION

Understanding manufacturing processes is essential for engineers to optimize production

efficiency and improve product quality. This classification provides a systematic approach to
analysing and selecting suitable processes for different applications.

3.4. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What are the three main types of manufacturing processes?

2. Which manufacturing process involves shaping materials through plastic deformation?
3. Give two examples of unconventional machining processes.
4. What is the primary purpose of heat treatment in manufacturing?
5. Name two methods used in mechanical joining processes.
 CHAPTER – II
LECTURE – 4

Learning Objective: To understand the fundamental principles, processes, advantages, limitations, and applications
of metal casting.
Learning Outcome: Students will be able to explain metal casting principles, identify key steps, evaluate
advantages and limitations, and recognize its industrial applications.

4. PRINCIPLE OF METAL CASTING

Metal casting is a manufacturing process in which molten metal is poured into a mold cavity, allowed
to cool and solidify, and then removed to form a desired shape. The fundamental principle of metal casting is
based on the liquid-to-solid phase transformation of metals, utilizing a mold to shape the final product.

4.1. KEY STEPS IN METAL CASTING

1. Pattern Making
o A replica of the final product (called a pattern) is created, typically from wood, plastic, or metal.
o The pattern includes allowances for shrinkage, machining, and other factors.
2. Mold Preparation
o A mold cavity is created using the pattern.
o Molds can be made of sand, metal, ceramic, or other materials, depending on the casting process.
3. Melting and Pouring
o The selected metal (e.g., aluminum, steel, iron) is heated to its melting point in a furnace.
o The molten metal is poured into the mold through a gating system.
4. Solidification and Cooling
o The metal cools and solidifies inside the mold, taking its shape.
o Proper cooling control is essential to avoid defects like shrinkage or porosity.
5. Mold Removal and Shakeout
o Once solidified, the casting is removed by breaking or opening the mold.
o In sand casting, the sand mold is destroyed; in permanent mold casting, the mold is reused.
6. Cleaning and Finishing
o The casting undergoes cleaning, including removing excess material (like gates, risers, or flashes).
o Surface finishing processes like grinding, machining, or heat treatment are applied to improve the
quality.

4.2. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF METAL CASTING

1. Flow of Molten Metal
o Proper design of the gating system ensures smooth metal flow and prevents turbulence or gas
entrapment.
2. Solidification and Cooling
o Controlled cooling prevents defects like shrinkage cavities or cracks.
3. Shrinkage Compensation
o Metals contract as they cool; shrinkage allowances must be considered in pattern design.
4. Minimizing Defects
o Proper mold design, pouring techniques, and cooling control help reduce porosity, inclusions, and
warping.
4.3. ADVANTAGES OF METAL CASTING
1. Complex Shapes Can Be Produced
 Casting allows the manufacturing of intricate and complex geometries that may be difficult or
impossible with other manufacturing methods.
 Internal cavities and hollow sections can be created using cores.
2. Wide Range of Materials
 Almost any metal (ferrous and non-ferrous) can be cast, including iron, steel, aluminum, copper, and
alloys like bronze and brass.
3. Large and Heavy Components
 Casting is suitable for very large parts (e.g., engine blocks, turbine casings, ship propellers) that would
be difficult to manufacture using machining or forging.
4. Cost-Effective for Mass Production
 Once the mold is prepared, multiple identical castings can be produced economically in high volumes.
 Reusable molds (in permanent mold and die casting) further reduce costs.
5. Versatile Production Methods
 Different casting methods (e.g., sand casting, die casting, investment casting, and centrifugal casting)
allow for a wide variety of applications.
6. Minimal Material Waste
 Unlike machining (which removes material), casting directly shapes the material, reducing waste and
improving material utilization.
7. Favorable Mechanical Properties
 Some cast materials (especially ductile iron and cast steel) exhibit high strength, wear resistance, and
toughness.
 Heat treatment and alloying can further improve mechanical properties.
8. Flexible Size and Weight Range
 Small precision components (e.g., jewelry, dental implants) and heavy industrial parts (weighing
several tons) can be cast.
9. Ability to Produce Complex Internal Features
 Hollow sections and intricate internal features can be formed using cores without needing secondary
machining.
10. Suitable for High-Temperature Materials
 Some metals (like tungsten and titanium) that are difficult to machine can be shaped efficiently using
casting.
Metal casting remains a cost-effective, versatile, and scalable manufacturing process for producing a wide
range of components.

4.4. LIMITATIONS OF METAL CASTING

1. Dimensional Accuracy Issues
o Shrinkage during cooling can cause variations in dimensions.
o Sand casting, in particular, has lower accuracy compared to machining.
2. Surface Finish Limitations
o Some casting methods, like sand casting, produce rough surfaces that require additional machining.
o Surface defects such as porosity, inclusions, or oxidation can occur.
3. Defects in Castings
 o Common defects include porosity, shrinkage cavities, hot tears, cold shuts, and misruns due to
improper pouring, cooling, or mold design.
4. Material Waste in Certain Processes
o Some casting processes, especially sand casting, require disposable molds, leading to material
wastage.
5. High Initial Costs for Some Methods
o Permanent mold casting and die casting require expensive mold-making, making them less cost-
effective for low-volume production.
6. Longer Cooling and Solidification Time
o Thick and large castings require longer cooling times, increasing production cycles.
7. Not Ideal for High-Strength and Precision Components
o Cast components may have lower mechanical properties compared to wrought or forged materials.
o Some high-precision parts require post-casting machining for dimensional accuracy.
8. Environmental and Safety Concerns
o Foundries generate dust, fumes, and heat, requiring proper ventilation and safety measures.
o Sand disposal in sand casting can cause environmental concerns.
Despite these limitations, metal casting remains a crucial process for manufacturing complex and large parts.

4.5. APPLICATIONS OF METAL CASTING

1. Automotive Industry
 Engine blocks, cylinder heads, pistons, crankshafts, and transmission housings.
 Brake drums, discs, and suspension components.
2. Aerospace Industry
 Turbine blades, engine casings, and landing gear components.
 Lightweight aluminum and titanium cast parts for aircraft structures.
3. Construction and Infrastructure
 Pipes, valves, and fittings used in plumbing and water supply.
 Cast iron and steel components for bridges, buildings, and heavy machinery.
4. Industrial Machinery
 Machine tool frames, gearboxes, and housings.
 Pump casings, impellers, and industrial furnace components.
5. Energy and Power Generation
 Wind turbine hubs and blades (large-scale castings).
 Gas turbine components, boiler casings, and steam turbine parts.
6. Marine and Shipbuilding
 Propellers, rudders, and engine components for ships and submarines.
 Offshore drilling and oil exploration equipment.
7. Railways
 Train wheels, bogie frames, and couplers.
 Diesel engine components and brake systems.
8. Defense and Military
 Gun barrels, tank parts, and armored vehicle components.
 Aerospace-grade castings for missiles and jet engines.
9. Consumer Goods
 Cookware (cast iron pans, pressure cooker bodies).
 Decorative items, statues, and furniture components.
 10. Medical Equipment
 Artificial joints (hip and knee implants).
 Surgical tools and dental prosthetics.

4.6. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What are the key steps involved in the metal casting process?
2. Why is shrinkage compensation important in metal casting?
3. Name two common casting defects and their causes.
4. How does metal casting compare to forging in terms of mechanical properties?
5. Why are some high-temperature materials like tungsten and titanium preferred for casting instead of
machining?
 LECTURE – 5

Learning Objective: To understand the fundamental terminology used in the casting process.
Learning Outcome: Students will be able to identify and explain key casting terms and their functions in the
molding and casting process.
5. CASTING TERMINOLOGY
1. Flask
 A container that holds the sand mold intact during the casting process.
 Based on its position in the mold, it is named:
o Drag: The bottom flask.
o Cope: The top flask.
o Cheek: The intermediate flask in three-piece molds.
 Typically made of wood for temporary use or metal for durability.
2. Drag
 The bottom molding flask in the mold structure.
3. Cope
 The upper molding flask in the mold
structure.
4. Cheek
 The intermediate molding flask used
when creating three-piece molds.
5. Pattern
 A replica of the final object to be cast,
including allowances for shrinkage,
machining, and distortion.
 Patterns are used to create the mold
cavity.
6. Parting Line
 The dividing line where two halves of
the flask (cope and drag) meet.
 In split patterns, it also separates the
two halves of the pattern.
7. Bottom Board
 A wooden board used at the start of mold making.
 The pattern is placed on the bottom board, sprinkled with sand, and the sand is compacted (rammed) in
the drag.
8. Facing Sand
 A thin layer of fine, high-quality sand applied on the inner mold cavity surface.
 It often contains carbonaceous material to improve the surface finish of the casting.
9. Molding Sand
 Freshly prepared refractory material used to create the mold cavity.
 It is a mixture of silica sand, clay, and water or binders in specific proportions to achieve desired
properties.
10. Backing Sand
 Used sand that makes up the bulk of the molding sand, placed behind the facing sand to fill the mold.
 Recycled and burnt sand is commonly used.
 11. Core
 A structure placed inside the mold cavity to create hollow or complex shapes in the final casting.
12. Pouring Basin
 A funnel-shaped cavity at the top of the mold used to receive molten metal and guide it into the sprue.
13. Sprue
 A vertical channel that
transfers molten metal
from the pouring basin to
the runner system.
 It often regulates the flow
of molten metal.
14. Runner
 Horizontal passageways
that direct molten metal
from the sprue to the mold
cavity.
15. Gate
 The entry point through which molten metal enters the mold cavity from the runner.
16. Chaplet
 Metal supports used to hold the core in position within the mold cavity.
 Chaplets counteract the weight of the core and resist metallostatic pressure during casting.
17. Chill
 Metallic objects placed in the mold to increase the cooling rate of specific casting sections.
 Used to control grain structure and achieve uniform cooling.
18. Riser
 A reservoir of molten metal in the mold, used to compensate for shrinkage as the metal solidifies.
 Ensures a defect-free casting by maintaining a continuous flow of molten metal.
5.1. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1. What is the function of a riser in casting?
2. How does a chill affect the cooling rate of a casting?
3. What is the purpose of a chaplet in a mold cavity?
4. Why is shrinkage allowance important in casting?
5. What are the advantages of using metal molds over sand molds in casting?
 LECTURE – 6

Learning Objective: To understand the various types of patterns used in casting and their applications.
Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to identify different pattern types, describe their features, and determine
their suitable applications in casting.

6. TYPES OF PATTERNS
6.1. Single-Piece Pattern
 Description: Simplest and most inexpensive type, made of a single piece.
 Applications: Suitable for simple jobs or small-scale production.
 Features: Flat surface serves as the parting plane.

6.2. Split Pattern (Two-Piece Pattern)

 Description: Divided into two halves for easy withdrawal from the mold.
 Applications: Used for intricate or deep castings.
 Features: Aligns using dowel pins; one half is in cope, the other in drag.

6.3. Gated Pattern

 Description: Integrates the gating and runner system with the pattern.
 Applications: Improves productivity by eliminating manual gating.

6.4. Cope-and-Drag Pattern

 Description: Cope and drag halves are mounted separately on plates with alignment pins.
 Applications: Used for large, heavy castings or continuous production.
 Features: Can be assembled to form a complete mold.
6.5. Match-Plate Pattern
 Description: Cope and drag patterns with gating and risers mounted on a single plate.
 Applications: Small castings, machine molding, high accuracy, and mass production.
 Features: Often made of aluminum or steel for durability. Multiple patterns can be fixed on one match
plate.

6.6. Loose-Piece Pattern

 Description: Includes detachable parts to overcome withdrawal difficulties.
 Applications: For complex contours where a single-piece withdrawal isn’t possible.
 Features: Expensive and requires skilled labor.

6.7. Follow-Board Pattern

 Description: Supports weak sections of the pattern during ramming.
 Applications: Used for fragile patterns.
 Features: A follow board matches the contour of the pattern.

6.8. Sweep Pattern

 Description: A plane sweep is used to create axi-symmetric or prismatic shapes.
 Applications: Large castings like bells or cylindrical objects.
  Features: Reduces cost by avoiding a 3D pattern; suitable for pit molding.

6.9. Skeleton Pattern

 Description: Framework made of wood strips to shape large castings.
 Applications: Useful for large castings in small quantities.
 Features: Sand is packed around the skeleton, and a strickle is used to finalize the shape.

6.10. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the primary advantage of using a match-plate pattern in mass production?
2. How does a split pattern help in molding intricate or deep castings?
3. Why is a loose-piece pattern used for complex contours in casting?
4. What are the key factors to consider while selecting a pattern material for casting?
5. How does the use of patterns in casting contribute to efficiency in manufacturing?
 LECTURE - 7

Learning Objective: To understand different pattern materials, their properties, advantages, and limitations in
casting processes.
Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to select appropriate pattern materials based on casting requirements,
production volume, and dimensional accuracy.

7. PATTERN MATERIALS
The usual pattern materials include wood, metal, and plastics. The choice of material depends on
factors such as the size of the casting, production volume, dimensional accuracy, and the expected life of the
pattern.
7.1. Wood Patterns
 Advantages:
o Easy availability, lightweight, low cost.
o Easy to shape and work with.
 Disadvantages:
o Absorbs moisture, leading to distortions and dimensional changes.
o Requires proper seasoning and maintenance to minimize warping.
 Commonly Used Woods:
o Pine, mahogany, teak, walnut, deodar.
o Plywood and Particle Boards: Higher strength, no seasoning required, but suitable only for
flat patterns.
7.2. Metal Patterns
 Advantages:
o Durable with smooth surface finishes.
o Suitable for large-scale production and closer dimensional tolerances.
o Resistant to moulding sand abrasion.
 Commonly Used Metals:
o Aluminium: Lightweight, corrosion-resistant, easy to work with.
o White Metal: Minimal shrinkage, allows for making additional patterns without double
shrinkage allowances.
o Cast Iron, Brass: Used for durability in specific cases.
 Note: Metal patterns are often made by casting in sand moulds using a master wood pattern with
double shrinkage allowance.
7.3. Plastic Patterns
 Advantages:
o Lightweight, easy to form, smooth surface, durable, dimensionally stable.
o Do not absorb moisture and are easy to clean.
 Commonly Used Plastics:
o Epoxy Resins: With fillers, can achieve no-shrink properties (avoiding double shrinkage
allowances).
o Polyurethane Foam: Lightweight, easy to form, used for single or small production runs,
particularly in full-mould processes where the pattern is burned inside the mould.
7.4. Key Factors in Material Selection:
 Casting Size: Large castings favor wood patterns.
 Production Volume: High-volume production prefers metal or plastic patterns.
  Dimensional Accuracy: Metal and plastic patterns provide closer tolerances.
 Expected Pattern Life: Determines material durability requirements.

Table: Comparative Values of Pattern Material Choices

Pattern
Advantages Disadvantages
Material
Absorbs moisture, warps, requires
Wood Lightweight, easy to shape, cheap
maintenance
Metal Durable, smooth finish, accurate Expensive, high density (except aluminium)
Lightweight, stable, easy to form, no moisture
Plastic High cost, limited to certain applications
absorption

Table: comparative characteristics of metallic-pattern materials in a tabular format for clarity:

Pattern Metal Advantages Disadvantages
Aluminium - Good machinability - High corrosion resistance - Low density
- Low strength - High cost
Alloys - Good surface finish
- Good machinability - High strength - Low cost - Good surface
Grey Cast Iron - Corrosion prone - High density
finish
Steel - High strength - Good surface finish - Corrosion prone - High density
Brass and - High strength - High corrosion resistance - Good
- High cost - High density
Bronze machinability
- High cost - High density - Low
Lead Alloys - Good machinability
strength

7.5. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Which pattern material is most suitable for high-volume production and closer dimensional tolerances?
a) Wood
b) Metal
c) Plastic
d) Ceramic
2. Why do wood patterns require proper seasoning before use?
a) To increase hardness
b) To reduce moisture absorption and prevent warping
c) To make them heavier
d) To improve corrosion resistance
3. Which plastic pattern material is commonly used in full-mould processes where the pattern is burned
inside the mould?
a) Epoxy resin
b) Polyurethane foam
c) PVC
d) Nylon
4. What is the primary purpose of a pattern in casting?
a) To shape the molten metal into a desired form
 b) To increase the strength of the mould
c) To reduce the weight of the final product
d) To improve metal hardness
5. Which property is most important for a pattern material used in mass production?
a) Low cost
b) Durability and dimensional stability
c) High density
d) Moisture absorption
 LECTURE – 8

Learning Objective: To understand the different types of pattern allowances in casting and their impact on final
casting dimensions.
Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to identify, explain, and apply various pattern allowances to ensure
accurate castings.

8. PATTERN ALLOWANCES
The dimensions of a pattern are deliberately different from the final casting dimensions to account for
various factors that affect the casting process. These allowances are as follows:

8.1. SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE

 Cause: All metals (except bismuth) shrink as they cool due to reduced atomic vibrations.
 Types:
o Liquid Shrinkage: Volume reduction during the transition from liquid to solid at the solidus
temperature; mitigated using risers.
o Solid Shrinkage: Volume reduction during cooling in the solid state; accounted for by shrinkage
allowances.
 Key Factors:
o Material properties: E.g., steel shrinks more than aluminum.
o Metallurgical transformations: E.g., white cast iron shrinks 21.0 mm/m but grows by 10.5 mm/m after
annealing, resulting in net shrinkage of 10.5 mm/m.
o Restraints: Shrinkage varies for restrained vs. unrestrained parts.
 Application:
o Uniformly added to linear dimensions, including internal ones.
o Special shrink rulers are used to directly measure the allowance.
o Double shrinkage allowance is used when metallic patterns are cast for subsequent moulding.

8.2. FINISH OR MACHINING ALLOWANCE

 Cause: Sand casting generally yields poor surface finish and dimensional accuracy.
 Application:
o Additional material is added to allow for machining or cleaning of ferrous scales.
o Depends on:
 Casting material
 Moulding type
 Surface accuracy required
 Complexity of the surface
o Ranges: Typically from 2 to 20 mm (refer to guidelines in Table 3.2).
 Optimization:
o Casting entirely in the drag flask minimizes defects from the parting plane.

8.3. DRAFT ALLOWANCE

 Cause: Vertical faces of the pattern can damage the sand mould during withdrawal.
 Application:
o Taper provided on vertical faces to ease withdrawal.
o Inner surfaces require higher drafts than outer surfaces.
 o Draft allowance varies between:
 Hand moulding (requires more draft)
 Machine moulding (requires less draft for newer, rigid machines).
 Provision: Always an extra addition to the original casting dimensions.

8.4. SHAKE ALLOWANCE

 Cause: Patterns are slightly wrapped before removal from the sand mould, enlarging the mould cavity.
 Application:
o Negative allowance applied to dimensions parallel to the parting plane.
o Highly dependent on foundry practices and personnel.
o Increasing draft can help reduce shake allowance impact.

8.5. DISTORTION ALLOWANCE

 Cause: Weak sections (e.g., thin flat portions, V/U sections) are prone to distortion during solidification.
 Application:
o Extra material provision is added to resist distortion.
o Patterns may be deliberately distorted in the opposite direction to anticipated distortion.
o Determined through trial-and-error or available literature data.

Each allowance is carefully determined based on material properties, casting design, and foundry practices to ensure
accurate final castings.
 LECTURE – 9

Learning Objective: To understand the classification, composition, and applications of different types of moulding
sand in metal casting.
Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to identify and select appropriate moulding sand types based on casting
requirements for improved quality and efficiency.

9. MOULDING SAND
Moulding sand plays a critical role in the metal casting process as it forms the mold in which molten metal is
poured. The classification of moulding sands is primarily based on their clay bonding material and use.
9.1. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CLAY BONDING MATERIAL
1. Natural Sand
 Contains sufficient binding clay naturally; hence, no additional binder is required.
 Commonly used in traditional moulding processes.
2. Synthetic Sand
 Artificially prepared by mixing sand with selected types of clay binders.
 Advantages:
o Lower cost when used in large volumes.
o Easily available.
o Enables sand reclamation and reuse, making it environmentally friendly.

9.2. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON USE

1. Green Sand
 Definition: Sand in its natural or moist state.
 Composition: A mixture of silica sand with 20 to 30% clay and 6 to 10% water.
 Application:
o Used for small-size castings of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
2. Dry Sand
 Definition: Green sand that has been dried or baked after mould preparation.
 Properties:
o Greater strength, rigidity, and thermal stability compared to green sand.
 Application:
o Suitable for large and heavy castings.
3. Loam Sand
 Definition: Contains a high clay content, up to 50%.
 Application:
o Used for loam moulding of large grey-iron castings.
4. Facing Sand
 Definition: Sand applied to the surface of the mould that directly contacts molten metal.
 Requirements:
o High strength and refractoriness to withstand molten metal's heat.
 Application:
o Ensures a smooth casting surface.
5. Parting Sand
 Definition: Clay-free silica sand sprinkled on the pattern or parting surfaces of the mould.
 Purpose:
 o Prevents cope and drag sand masses from sticking together or clinging to the pattern.
 Application:
o Facilitates easy separation of the mould.
6. Backing or Flour Sand
 Definition: Sand used to support the facing sand, not directly next to the pattern.
 Properties:
o Recycled sand, often black due to impurities.
 Other Names: Commonly called black sand.
 Application:
o Economical option for large moulds where surface quality is less critical.
7. Core Sand
 Definition: Sand used for the preparation of cores.
 Properties:
o Contains oil as a binder, sometimes referred to as oil sand.
 Application:
o Essential for forming hollow sections or intricate shapes in castings.

These classifications and uses of moulding sands are crucial for selecting the appropriate material
based on the requirements of the casting process. They help ensure the quality, cost-effectiveness, and
efficiency of metal casting operations.

9.3. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the primary difference between natural sand and synthetic sand in moulding?
2. Why is facing sand required in the moulding process?
3. Which type of moulding sand is used to form hollow sections in castings?
4. Why is sand reclamation important in the metal casting industry?
5. How does the presence of clay in moulding sand affect its properties?
 LECTURE – 10

Learning Objective: To understand the key elements, working methods, and considerations in the sand casting
process.
Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to explain the sand casting process, identify its components, and evaluate
its advantages and limitations.

10. SAND CASTING OVERVIEW

Sand casting is a widely used manufacturing process that involves pouring molten metal into a cavity
formed in a packed sand mold. The process can accommodate complex shapes and a wide range of materials.

10.1. KEY ELEMENTS OF SAND CASTING

1. Mold Design:
o The mold is typically made from sand packed around a pattern (wood or metal).
o A taper or draft angle is provided on the pattern to facilitate its removal without disturbing the sand.
2. Chills:
o Metal inserts used to create localized cooling, resulting in harder surfaces in specific areas of the
casting.
3. Core:
o Used to form hollow sections or openings within the casting.
4. Sprue:
o A channel for molten metal to flow into the mold cavity.
5. Shrinkage Allowance:
o Patterns are made slightly larger to compensate for the shrinkage of metal during solidification and
cooling.
o Shrinkage depends on factors like alloy type, pouring temperature, casting design, and size.
6. Distortion Allowance:
o Patterns may be intentionally distorted to achieve the correct final shape (e.g., U-shaped castings).
7. Machining Allowance:
o Additional material (minimum 1.6 mm) is provided on surfaces requiring machining.
8. Size Tolerances:
o Half of the shrinkage allowance is typically suggested as the size tolerance for new designs.

10.2. WORKING METHOD FOR SAND CASTING

The working method for sand casting involves the following steps:
1. Preparation of the Pattern:
a. Create the pattern using wood, metal, or plastic with appropriate allowances for shrinkage and
machining.
2. Mold Preparation:
a. Place the pattern in the drag (lower mold box).
b. Pack sand tightly around the pattern to create a mold cavity.
c. Place the cope (upper mold box) over the drag, align them, and pack sand around any additional
components like cores or chills.
3. Assembly of the Mold:
a. Insert cores to form internal cavities if required.
 b. Ensure the gating system (sprue, runners, and gates) is properly positioned to guide molten metal into
the cavity.
4. Melting and Pouring:
a. Melt the metal to the required temperature.
b. Pour the molten metal into the sprue, allowing it to flow through the gating system and fill the cavity.
5. Solidification and Cooling:
a. Allow the metal to solidify within the mold.
b. The cooling rate may be controlled using chills to enhance surface properties.
6. Shakeout and Cleaning:
a. Break the sand mold to remove the solidified casting.
b. Separate the casting from the gating system and remove sand particles.
7. Finishing and Inspection:
a. Perform machining, grinding, or polishing to achieve the final dimensions and surface finish.
b. Inspect the casting for defects or deviations.

10.3. KEY CONSIDERATIONS IN SAND CASTING

Material Selection: Properties of the metal and the sand mixture impact the final casting quality.
Pouring Temperature: Higher temperatures ensure proper flow but may cause defects.
Mold Design: Proper gating and riser placement prevent air pockets and ensure complete filling.
Cooling Rate: Controlled solidification avoids cracks and ensures uniform grain structure.

10.4. ADVANTAGES OF SAND CASTING

1. No restriction on size or shape of the product.
2. Suitable for casting almost any metal.
3. Low equipment and tooling costs.
4. Economical for small production runs.
5. Capable of producing extremely complex shapes.
6. Direct and straightforward process from pattern to casting.
7.
10.5. LIMITATIONS OF SAND CASTING
1. Surface Finish: The product often has a rough surface.
2. Dimensional Accuracy: Achieving precise dimensions is challenging.
3. Thin Sections: Thin projections and intricate details may not be practical.
4. Machining Requirement: Most castings require subsequent machining for dimensional accuracy and
surface finish.

10.6. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the purpose of providing a shrinkage allowance in sand casting?
2. How does a chill improve the properties of a sand casting?
3. Why is machining allowance necessary in sand casting?
4. What are the three primary types of manufacturing processes?
5. Why casting is considered one of the oldest manufacturing techniques?
 LECTURE – 11

Learning Objective: To understand the continuous casting process, its procedure, advantages, and applications in
modern steel manufacturing.

Learning Outcome: Students will be able to explain the continuous casting process, its key steps, advantages, and
its role in industrial steel production.

11. CONTINUOUS CASTING PROCESS

11.1. INTRODUCTION
Continuous casting, also known as strand casting, is a modern manufacturing process used to produce high-
quality steel at a lower cost compared to traditional ingot casting. It allows for uniform composition and properties
in the final product.

11.2. PROCEDURE
1. Preparation of Molten Metal:
o The molten metal is collected in a ladle.
o To clean impurities and equalize the temperature, nitrogen gas is blown through the molten metal for
5–10 minutes.
2. Intermediate Pouring (Tundish):
o The molten metal is poured into a refractory-lined vessel called a tundish.
o The tundish holds about 3 tonnes of metal and helps in:
 Skimming off impurities.
 Maintaining a steady flow of molten metal into the mould.
o The metal flows from the tundish into water-cooled copper moulds.
3. Initial Solidification in the Mould:
o Before the process begins, a starter bar is inserted into the mould.
o The molten metal solidifies onto this bar, forming the initial base for the strand.
o The moulds are coated with solid lubricants (e.g., graphite) to minimize friction and sticking.
o Vibration of the moulds further reduces friction and adhesion at the metal-mould interface.
o A solidified skin (shell) forms around the molten metal as it descends. The thickness of the shell at
the mould exit is typically 12–18 mm.
4. Travel Through Rollers and Secondary Cooling:
o The semi-solid strand travels downward, supported by rollers (pinch rolls) to maintain its shape.
o Water sprays along the travel path provide additional cooling to ensure complete solidification.
5. Cutting and Further Processing:
o The continuously cast metal is cut into desired lengths using shear blades or torch cutting.
o Alternatively, the cast metal can be fed directly into a rolling mill for further shape and thickness
reduction (e.g., I-beams, channels).

11.3. KEY FEATURES AND ADVANTAGES

 Cost-Effective: Reduces costs compared to ingot casting.
 High Quality: Produces metals with uniform composition and properties.
 Efficiency: The process is continuous, reducing production time.
 Applications: Used to produce billets, slabs, and blooms for further processing.
11.4. STRIP CASTING
 A variation of continuous casting where thin slabs or strips are produced.
 The molten metal solidifies similarly to strand casting.
 The hot solid strip is directly rolled to achieve the final desired
shape and dimensions.

11.5. CONCLUSION
Continuous casting is a critical innovation in modern steel
production. Its ability to produce uniform, high-quality metals
efficiently and cost-effectively makes it the preferred method in the
steel industry.

11.6. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the purpose of using a tundish in the continuous
casting process?
2. Why are water sprays used along the travel path of the semi-
solid strand?
3. How does vibration of the mould help in the continuous
casting process?
4. What are the main differences between continuous casting and
traditional ingot casting?
5. Why is steel preferred over other metals for structural
applications?
 LECTURE – 12

Learning Objective: To understand the principles, types, advantages, limitations, and applications of centrifugal
casting.
Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to explain centrifugal casting processes, identify suitable applications,
and analyze its benefits and limitations.

12. CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

Centrifugal casting is a manufacturing process where molten metal is poured into a rotating mold, and
centrifugal force helps shape the metal. This method produces dense and defect-free components, commonly used
for cylindrical or symmetric shapes.

12.1. TYPES OF CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

12.1.1. TRUE CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

 Purpose: Produces hollow, axi-symmetric components like pipes, tubes, and hollow bushes.
 Process:
1. The mold is rotated rapidly around its axis.
2. Molten metal is poured, and centrifugal force pushes it outward, creating the shape. No core is
needed for concentric holes.
3. Depending on the component size, molds can rotate:
 Horizontally: For long pipes.
 Vertically: For shorter or more complex shapes.
4. For mass production, metal molds with water jackets are used for cooling.
 Advantages:
1. Slag and impurities segregate toward the center, improving mechanical properties.
2. High density and minimal porosity due to uniform pressure during solidification.
3. No need for cores in concentric hollow parts.
4. High material yield (~100%) as gates and runners are unnecessary.
 Limitations:
1. Restricted to axi-symmetric shapes with concentric holes.
2. High equipment cost, making it suitable only for large-scale production.

12.1.2. SEMI-CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

 Purpose: Produces more complex axi-symmetric components that may not have concentric holes (e.g.,
wheels).
 Process:
1. Sand or metal molds rotate about a vertical axis.
2. Molten metal is poured through a central pouring basin.
 3. Lower rotational speeds are used compared to true centrifugal casting.
4. For higher production rates, molds can be stacked vertically.
 Advantages:
o Suitable for components requiring cores for non-concentric holes.

12.1.3. CENTRIFUGING
 Purpose: Used for casting small, non-axi-symmetric components.
 Process:
1. Several small jobs are joined by radial runners to a central sprue on a revolving table.
2. High centrifugal pressure ensures proper filling of molds.
 Advantages:
o Suitable for small, intricate shapes.
o Multiple components can be cast simultaneously.

12.2. GENERAL ADVANTAGES OF CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

1. Improved Properties: High density, minimal porosity, and segregation of slag and impurities.
2. Efficient Yield: Almost 100% casting yield with minimal material wastage.
3. Directional Solidification: Eliminates defects like shrinkage cavities.
4. Simplified Design: No gating systems are required.
12.3. GENERAL LIMITATIONS OF CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
1. Shape Restriction: Limited to cylindrical or symmetric components.
2. High Initial Costs: Specialized equipment makes it economical only for large-scale production.
3. Balancing Requirements: Proper weight distribution is necessary to avoid defects and equipment
damage.

12.4. APPLICATIONS OF CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

1. True Centrifugal Casting:
o Pipes, tubes, bushings, and hollow shafts.
2. Semi-Centrifugal Casting:
o Wheels, pulleys, and large flanges.
3. Centrifuging:
o Small and intricate components, such as fittings and gears.

Centrifugal casting is widely used in industries like automotive, aerospace, and water systems due to
its ability to produce strong and defect-free components.

12.5. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the primary advantage of true centrifugal casting over other casting methods?
2. Why is no core required in true centrifugal casting for producing hollow parts?
3. How does centrifugal force help in impurity segregation during the casting process?
4. What is the main difference between casting and forging in manufacturing?
5. How does rotational speed affect the quality of centrifugal casting products?
 LECTURE – 13

Learning Objective: To understand the die casting process, its types, components, and operational sequence.
Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to explain the die casting process, differentiate between hot-chamber and
cold-chamber methods, and describe their advantages and limitations.

13. DIE CASTING

Die casting is a manufacturing process used to create components by injecting molten metal under high
pressure into a metallic die. It is similar to permanent mould casting in that both processes use reusable metallic
dies. However, the key difference is the application of high pressure in die casting, which allows for the production
of narrow sections, intricate shapes, and fine surface details.

13.1. KEY FEATURES OF DIE CASTING:

1. Reusable Dies: The metallic dies can be used
multiple times, making the process
economical for large-scale production.
2. High Pressure: Metal is injected under
pressure, enabling complex and precise
shapes.
3. Fine Surface Finish: The process provides a
smooth surface, reducing post-processing
needs.

13.2. COMPONENTS OF A DIE:

1. Stationary Half (Cover Die): Fixed to the
die-casting machine.
2. Moving Half (Ejector Die): Moves out for
casting extraction.
3. Additional Features:
o Ejector Pins: Used to push the casting out after it solidifies.
o Cooling Channels: Extract heat from the molten metal to maintain proper die temperature.
o Lubrication System: Prevents the casting from sticking to the die cavity.

13.3. DIE CASTING PROCESS:

The casting cycle consists of the following steps:
1. Lubrication:
o The die cavity is sprayed with lubricant (manually or automatically).
o This ensures that the casting does not stick to the die surface.
2. Die Clamping:
o The two halves of the die (stationary and moving) are closed and clamped together.
3. Metal Injection:
o The molten metal is injected into the die cavity under high pressure.
4. Solidification:
o The casting solidifies while still under pressure to ensure dimensional accuracy and strength.
5. Ejection:
o The die is opened, and ejector pins push the casting out of the moving half of the die.
13.4. TYPES OF DIE CASTING MACHINES:
Die casting machines are classified into two main types:
1. Hot-Chamber Die Casting
2. Cold-Chamber Die Casting

13.4.1. HOT-CHAMBER DIE CASTING PROCESS

13.4.1.1. INTRODUCTION
The hot-chamber die-casting
process involves a die-casting machine
with an integral holding furnace. The
molten metal is pumped into the die cavity
using a gooseneck mechanism, which
makes this process efficient for low-
melting-point metals such as zinc, tin,
and lead.

13.4.1.2. COMPONENTS OF A HOT-

CHAMBER DIE-CASTING MACHINE
1. Gooseneck:
o Acts as a channel to transfer the molten metal into the die cavity.
o Submerged in the holding furnace containing molten metal.
o Made of materials like grey alloy, ductile iron, or cast steel to withstand high temperatures
and molten metal.
2. Plunger:
o Made of alloy cast iron.
o Operated hydraulically to pump the molten metal into the die cavity.
o Functions by moving up and down within the gooseneck.
3. Nozzle:
o Located at the end of the gooseneck.
o Connects to the sprue in the cover die to direct molten metal into the die cavity.

13.4.1.3. OPERATING SEQUENCE OF THE HOT-CHAMBER PROCESS

The operating sequence is illustrated in the steps below:
1. Die Closing:
o The cycle begins with the closing of the die.
o The plunger is positioned at its highest point in the gooseneck. This allows molten metal to
flow into the gooseneck from the holding furnace.
2. Metal Injection:
o The plunger moves downward, forcing the molten metal in the gooseneck through the nozzle
and into the die cavity under high pressure.
3. Pressure Holding and Solidification:
o The molten metal is held under the same pressure until it solidifies within the die cavity.
o This ensures dimensional accuracy and minimizes shrinkage.
 4. Die Opening:
o After solidification, the die is opened.
o If cores are used in the casting, they are retracted during this step.
5. Metal Return and Ejection:
o The plunger moves upward, returning any unused molten metal in the gooseneck back into the
holding furnace.
o The casting, now solidified in the ejector die, is ejected using ejector pins.
6. Filling the Gooseneck:
o As the plunger uncovers the entry port, molten metal flows back into the gooseneck, preparing
it for the next cycle.

13.4.1.4. ADVANTAGES OF THE HOT-CHAMBER PROCESS

1. Short Cycle Time:
o The integral furnace eliminates the need for external metal transfer, making the process faster.
2. Automated and Efficient:
o Reduces manual handling of molten metal.
3. High Production Rates:
o Suitable for mass production of components.
4. Smooth Surface Finish:
o Consistent and high-quality surface finish due to uniform pressure.
5. Material Suitability:
o Ideal for low-melting-point metals such as zinc, tin, and lead alloys.

13.4.1.5. LIMITATIONS OF THE HOT-CHAMBER PROCESS

1. Limited to Low-Melting-Point Metals:
o Cannot be used for metals with high melting points (e.g., aluminium, brass).
2. Gooseneck Wear:
o Prolonged exposure to molten metal can cause wear or deformation of the gooseneck.
3. Casting Size Constraints:
o Best suited for smaller components due to machine design limitations.

13.4.2. COLD-CHAMBER DIE CASTING PROCESS

13.4.2.1. INTRODUCTION
The cold-chamber die-casting
process is specifically designed for high-
melting-temperature materials such as
aluminium, brass, and magnesium
alloys, which cannot be cast using the
hot-chamber process. In this method, the
molten metal is not stored within the die-
casting machine. Instead, it is ladled
manually or with an automated ladle into
the shot chamber for every casting cycle.

13.4.2.2. KEY FEATURES

 1. Metal Handling:
o The molten metal is transferred to the die-casting machine using a ladle.
o This reduces the contact time between the molten metal and the shot chamber, preventing
excessive wear or chemical attack on the machine components.
2. Applications:
o Suitable for high-melting-point materials, particularly aluminium and brass.
o Provides better casting performance for metals that can chemically react with machine
components (e.g., liquid aluminium attacking gooseneck material).

13.4.2.3. OPERATION SEQUENCE

The operation sequence of the cold-chamber die-casting process is similar to the hot-chamber process but
includes additional steps for ladling the molten metal. The process is outlined below:
1. Die Preparation:
o The die cavity is sprayed with lubricants to prevent the molten metal from sticking to the die.
o This step also ensures easy ejection of the casting and prolongs die life.
2. Die Closing:
o The two halves of the die are closed and clamped to form the casting cavity.
3. Metal Ladling:
o The molten metal is poured into the shot chamber using:
 A hand ladle (manual operation), or
 An autoladle (automated robotic system).
o Autoladle Advantages:
 Ensures precise control over the volume of metal and pouring temperature.
 Improves casting quality and reduces defects.
4. Metal Injection:
o The plunger moves forward to force the molten metal into the die cavity under high pressure.
o The pressure is maintained until the molten metal solidifies, ensuring accurate dimensions and
minimal shrinkage.
5. Die Opening and Ejection:
o After solidification, the die opens.
o Ejector pins push the solidified casting out of the ejector die.
o The plunger retracts, allowing the unused molten metal to drain.
6. Cycle Completion:
o The die is prepared for the next cycle by cleaning, lubricating, and closing.

13.4.2.4. CONSTRUCTION OF A TYPICAL COLD-CHAMBER DIE-CASTING MACHINE

The cold-chamber die-casting machine includes the following main components:
1. Shot Chamber:
o Holds the molten metal poured by the ladle.
2. Hydraulically Operated Plunger:
o Forces the molten metal from the shot chamber into the die cavity.
3. Die Set:
o Includes the stationary and movable halves of the die with ejector pins for casting removal.
4. Clamping System:
o Ensures the die halves remain closed during metal injection and solidification.
 13.4.2.5. ADVANTAGES OF THE COLD-CHAMBER PROCESS
1. Handles High-Melting-Point Metals:
o Ideal for aluminium, brass, and magnesium alloys.
2. Reduced Equipment Wear:
o The shot chamber has minimal contact with molten metal, reducing thermal and chemical
wear.
3. Large Casting Capability:
o Suitable for larger and heavier castings compared to the hot-chamber process.
4. Precise Metal Volume Control:
o Automated ladling ensures consistent quality.

13.4.2.6. LIMITATIONS OF THE COLD-CHAMBER PROCESS

1. Longer Cycle Time:
o Additional time is required for manually or automatically ladling the molten metal into the
shot chamber.
2. Risk of Cold Shuts:
o If the molten metal loses heat during ladling, it may cause defects like cold shuts or
incomplete filling of the cavity.
3. Increased Labor or Automation Cost:
o Manual ladling increases labor requirements, while automated ladling involves higher
capital costs.

13.5. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the key difference between hot-chamber and cold-chamber die casting?
2. Why is high pressure applied during the die casting process?
3. What is the function of ejector pins in a die casting machine?
4. Why is aluminum commonly used in die casting instead of pure iron?
5. How does the use of reusable dies make die casting an economical process?
 LECTURE – 14

Learning Objective: To understand the components, materials, operational aspects, and advantages of die-casting
dies.
Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to explain the design, functionality, and applications of die-casting dies in
manufacturing.

14. DIE-CASTING DIES

14.1. INTRODUCTION
The die-casting die is a critical component of the die-casting process. It provides the cavity shape for producing
the casting and withstands high pressure and temperature during the casting process. The die consists of two primary
parts, along with cores, ejector pins, and cooling channels to ensure precision, durability, and ease of operation.

14.2. COMPONENTS OF A DIE-CASTING DIE

1. Cover Die (Fixed Die):
o Mounted on the stationary platen of the
die-casting machine.
o Contains features like sprue (biscuit),
runners, and gates, which guide the
molten metal into the die cavity.
o For hot-chamber die casting, it
connects to the gooseneck nozzle.
o For cold-chamber die casting, it
connects to the shot chamber.
2. Ejector Die (Moving Die):
o Mounted on the moving platen of the
machine.
o Houses the ejector pins, which eject
the solidified casting after it has cooled.
o Proper placement of ejector pins is
essential to prevent distortion of the
casting.
o Pin marks must be placed in non-
critical areas to avoid aesthetic or functional issues.
3. Cores:
Cores are used to form internal features like holes or recesses in the casting.
o Fixed Cores: Parallel to the movement of the die halves and remain stationary.
o Moving Cores: Non-parallel to the die movement and must be removed before ejecting the casting.
4. Overflows:
o Small cavities provided at the parting line to collect the first cold metal entering the die cavity.
o Purpose:
 Prevent cold shuts by ensuring proper heat distribution.
 Allow positioning of ejector pins to minimize objectionable marks.
o Consideration: Overflows should be avoided unless necessary to maintain casting quality.
 5. Cooling Channels:
o Water is circulated through hot regions of the die to maintain uniform and optimal temperature.
o Critical for preventing overheating, particularly in heavy sections like sprues or thick casting areas.

14.3. DIE MATERIALS

Dies are made from hot-working tool steels capable of withstanding high temperatures and pressures, as well as
repeated thermal cycles. The material selection depends on the type of alloy being cast and production volume:
1. For Zinc Alloys:
o Low Volume: AISI P20.
o High Volume: H13.
2. For Aluminium and Magnesium Alloys:
o H13 or H11 steels.
3. For Copper Alloys:
o H21, H20, or H22 steels.

14.4. OPERATIONAL ASPECTS

1. Flash Formation and Removal:
o Excess metal forced into the parting plane during the casting process forms flash.
o Flash and overflows must be removed before using the casting.
o Trimming Dies: Used for flash removal, similar to sheet-metal shearing dies.
2. Heat Control:
o The die experiences significant heating due to the rapid cycle time of die-casting.
o Water-cooling systems are used to regulate temperatures, especially in critical areas like the sprue or
heavy casting sections.
3. Cycle Time:
o Due to the high speed of die-casting cycles, dies experience significant thermal and mechanical stress.
Proper die design and maintenance are essential for long life and consistent performance.

14.5. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

1. Ejector Pin Placement:
o Must ensure easy and distortion-free ejection of the casting.
o Pin marks should not be objectionable or affect the functionality of the casting.
2. Parting Line Design:
o Careful design of the parting plane minimizes flash and simplifies trimming operations.
3. Overflows:
o Should be minimized or avoided unless necessary for heat balance or ejector pin placement.

14.6. ADVANTAGES OF DIE-CASTING

1. Complex Shapes:
o The use of movable cores allows for the production of complex geometries, which are often not
feasible with permanent mold casting.
2. Thin Sections:
o The high-pressure injection of molten metal enables the filling of very small thicknesses with ease.
3. High Production Rates:
o Fully automated processes can achieve production rates as high as 200 pieces per hour, making it
highly efficient for large-scale manufacturing.
 4. Excellent Surface Finish:
o Metallic dies produce a smooth surface finish of about 1 micron, eliminating the need for additional
finishing operations.
o Die-cast parts can be directly electroplated, reducing post-processing time and costs.
5. Close Dimensional Tolerances:
o Dimensional tolerances of ±0.08 mm can be achieved, significantly better than sand casting.
6. Durable Dies:
o Die life is substantial:
 300,000 cycles for zinc alloys.
 150,000 cycles for aluminum alloys.
7. Superior Mechanical Properties:
o The process forms a fine-grained skin on the casting surface during solidification, enhancing
mechanical strength compared to sand casting.
8. Inserts:
o Inserts can be cast in place directly during the casting process, improving functionality and reducing
assembly costs.
9. Cost-Effective for Large Production Runs:
o High-speed automation and long die life make die-casting highly economical for mass production.

14.7. LIMITATIONS OF DIE-CASTING

1. Size Limitation:
o Castings are typically limited to 4 kg in weight, with a maximum of about 15 kg, due to machine
capacity constraints.
2. Material Compatibility:
o Not all materials are suitable for die-casting. Common materials include zinc, aluminum, magnesium,
and copper alloys, as die materials have specific limitations.
3. Air Entrapment:
o Trapped air in the die cavity often results in porosity in the final casting, which can impact structural
integrity.
4. High Initial Costs:
o Dies and machines are expensive, making the process economical only for large production volumes.

14.8. APPLICATIONS OF DIE-CASTING

1. Automotive Components:
o Carburettors, crank cases, magnetos, handlebar housings for scooters, motorcycles, and mopeds.
o Headlamp bezels and other decorative automobile parts.
2. Consumer Products:
o Zip fasteners and other small, precise parts.
3. Industrial Parts:
o Various components where high precision, durability, and surface finish are required.

14.9. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the function of overflows in a die-casting die, and why should their use be minimized?
2. Why is water circulation used in the cooling channels of a die-casting die?
3. What are the primary differences between the cover die and the ejector die in a die-casting setup?
4. What is the primary advantage of die-casting over sand casting in terms of surface finish?
5. Why is porosity a common defect in die-casting, and how does it impact the final product?
 LECTURE – 15

Learning Objective: To understand the precision investment casting process, its steps, materials, advantages,
limitations, and applications.
Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to explain the precision investment casting process, identify its advantages
and limitations, and recognize its industrial applications.

15. PRECISION INVESTMENT CASTING

15.1. DEFINITION:
Precision investment casting is a process in which the mold is prepared around an expendable pattern. It is
widely used for producing complex and precise components.

15.2. STEPS IN THE PROCESS

1. Pattern Preparation:
o Wax is injected into a metallic die under a pressure of 2.5 MPa to create the expendable pattern (Step
1).
o The wax pattern is ejected after solidification (Step 2).
o Multiple wax patterns are attached to the gating system using heat (Step 3).
2. Mold Formation:
o The wax pattern is dipped in a ceramic slurry (e.g., ethyl silicate or sodium silicate) (Step 4).
o Dry refractory grains like fused silica or zircon are applied (stuccoed) over the slurry coating to form a
shell (Step 5).
o Repeated dipping and stuccoing with different grain sizes are performed until the shell reaches a
thickness of 6 to 15 mm.
3. Pattern Removal:
o The wax is melted and drained by heating the mold (Step 6).
o Residual wax is removed using hot solvent vapors (e.g., trichloroethylene).
4. Preheating:
o The mold is preheated to 100 to 1000°C to eliminate traces of wax and ensure proper metal flow.
5. Metal Pouring:
o Molten metal is poured into the mold under gravity, slight pressure, or vacuum conditions (Step 7).

15.3. ALTERNATIVE PATTERN MATERIALS

 Plastics: Occasionally used.
 Mercury: Used in the 'Mercast' process, where mercury is frozen at -57°C. It does not expand during melting
but requires extremely low temperatures, limiting its use.

15.4. ADVANTAGES
1. Complex Shapes: Ideal for intricate shapes as the pattern is melted out.
2. Fine Details: Produces thin sections and fine details due to preheated molds.
3. High Accuracy: Achieves close tolerances and excellent surface finish.
4. Minimal Machining: Finished castings often require little or no machining.
5. Controlled Properties: Allows control over grain size, grain orientation, and directional solidification.
6. No Parting Line: Eliminates dimensional variations across parting lines.
15.5. LIMITATIONS
1. Size and Weight Restrictions: Limited to castings of around 5 kg.
2. Higher Costs: Labor-intensive due to manual preparation of patterns and molds.

15.6. APPLICATIONS
 Historical Uses: Jewellery, artefacts, and surgical instruments.
 Modern Applications:
o Gas turbines: Vane and blade production.
o Weaving: Shuttle eyes.
o Electronics: Waveguides for radars.
o Mechanical Parts: Valve bodies, impellers, bolts, triggers, and turbocharger components.

15.7. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the purpose of preheating the mold in precision investment casting?
2. Why is wax commonly used as a pattern material in investment casting?
3. Mention two major advantages of precision investment casting over conventional casting methods.
4. What is the difference between casting and forging in manufacturing?
5. How does the choice of material affect the casting process and final product quality?
 LECTURE – 16

Learning Objective: To understand the shell moulding process, its materials, advantages, limitations, and applications
in casting.
Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to explain the shell moulding process, identify key materials, discuss its
benefits and limitations, and recognize its industrial applications.

16. SHELL MOULDING

16.1. INTRODUCTION
Shell moulding is a casting process in which sand mixed with a thermosetting resin is brought into contact with
a heated metallic-pattern plate. This process forms a thin and strong shell of the mould, which is then removed from
the pattern, assembled, and filled with molten metal.

16.2. MATERIALS USED

 Sand: Dry and fine-grain sand (90-140 GFN), free of clay.
 Resin: Thermosetting resins like phenol formaldehyde.
 Catalyst: Hexa-methylene-tetra-mine (Hexa), used in 14-16% proportion.
 Additives: Coal dust, pulverized slag, MnO₂, CaCO₃, ammonium boro-fluoride, magnesium silico-fluoride.
 Lubricants: Calcium stearate, zinc stearate (for better sand flowability and easy shell removal).
 Pattern Material: Heated metallic patterns (usually grey cast iron) with associated gating.

16.3. SHELL MOULDING PROCESS

1. Preparation of Sand Mixture:
o Dry mixing of sand, hexa, and
additives.
o Liquid resin is added and mixed
further.
o Air drying is done to remove
excess liquid and coat sand grains.
2. Coating on the Heated Pattern:
o Metallic pattern heated to 200-
350°C.
o Silicone release agent sprayed.
o Pattern fixed to a dump box filled
with coated sand.
o Box rotated to allow sand adhesion
to the heated pattern.
3. Formation of Shell:
o Excess sand removed after desired thickness is achieved.
o Shell along with the pattern is kept in an oven for curing at ~150°C.
o Over-curing can degrade the shell; under-curing may lead to blowholes or weak moulds.
4. Assembly of Shells:
o Shell halves joined by mechanical clamping or adhesive bonding.
o Additional support may be required due to thin shell structure.
5. Casting and Solidification:
 o Molten metal poured into the shell mould.
o Shell supported using cast-iron shot to avoid deformation.
o Solidified casting removed for finishing operations.

16.4. ADVANTAGES OF SHELL MOULDING

1. Higher Dimensional Accuracy:
o Tolerance of ±0.25 mm (steel) and ±0.35 mm (grey cast iron).
o Close tolerances of ±0.03 to ±0.13 mm in specialized applications.
2. Smoother Surface Finish:
o Roughness: 3-6 microns.
3. Lower Draft Angles Required:
o Saves material and machining costs.
4. Elimination of Cores:
o High-strength sand allows internal cavities to be formed directly.
5. Capability for Thin Sections:
o Sections as thin as 0.25 mm can be cast.
6. High Permeability:
o Reduces gas inclusions.
7. Lower Sand Requirement:
o Efficient material usage.
8. Easy Mechanization:
o Process can be automated.

16.5. LIMITATIONS OF SHELL MOULDING

1. High Pattern Cost:
o Economical only for large-scale production (>15,000 pieces).
2. Limited Casting Size:
o Castings usually up to 200 kg; rarely up to 450 kg.
3. Complex Shapes Difficult:
o Process is not suitable for highly intricate designs.
4. Sophisticated Equipment Required:
o Requires heated metal patterns and precise handling.

16.6. APPLICATIONS OF SHELL MOULDING

 Automotive Components: Cylinder heads, crankshafts, transmission parts.
 Machine Parts: Gear blanks, small crankshafts, brake beams.
 Aerospace and Defense:Radome hubs, transmission planet carriers.
 Industrial Components: Chain-seat brackets, refrigerator valve plates.

16.7. SUMMARY
Shell moulding is an advanced casting technique that produces high-precision and smooth-surface finish
castings using thermosetting resin-coated sand. While it offers advantages like improved dimensional accuracy,
reduced machining, and capability for thin sections, its higher pattern costs and equipment needs make it suitable
mainly for mass production. Common applications include automotive, aerospace, and industrial components.
Shell Sand Composition (%) for Different Casting Materials
Casting
Silica Sand Zircon Sand Resin Additives
Material
Low carbon &
63 30 5 2
alloy steel
Medium & high
- 96 3 1
carbon steel
Grey cast iron 60 35 4 1
Brass & bronze 90 - 6 4
Aluminium
95 - 4 1
alloys
Magnesium
- 95 4 1
alloys

Assessment Questions& Answers

1. Short Answer Questions:
1. Define shell moulding and list its advantages.
2. What are the key materials used in shell moulding?
3. Why is phenol-formaldehyde resin used in shell moulding?
4. What role does a catalyst like hexa-methylene-tetramine play?
5. What are the limitations of shell moulding?
2. Multiple-Choice Questions:
1. Which of the following is the most commonly used resin in shell moulding?
a) Epoxy Resin
b) Phenol Formaldehyde Resin
c) Polyurethane Resin
d) Polypropylene Resin
2. The curing temperature of a shell moulding process typically lies in the range of:
a) 100-150°C
b) 150-200°C
c) 200-350°C
d) 350-500°C
3. What is the usual grain fineness number (GFN) range for sand used in shell moulding?
a) 50-80
b) 80-100
c) 90-140
d) 140-200

1. Short Answer Questions with Answers:

1. Define shell moulding and list its advantages.
o Shell moulding is a casting process in which a thin shell of sand and resin forms the mould, which is
then used to cast metal components.
o Advantages:
 Produces smoother surface finishes than traditional sand casting.
  Provides better dimensional accuracy.
 Requires less machining after casting.
 Enables mass production due to reusable patterns.
 Reduces porosity and other defects in castings.
2. What are the key materials used in shell moulding?
o Resin-coated sand (usually silica sand coated with phenol-formaldehyde resin).
o Resin binder (typically phenol-formaldehyde).
o Catalyst (such as hexa-methylene-tetramine to promote curing).
o Parting agents (like silicon-based sprays to ease mould removal).
3. Why is phenol-formaldehyde resin used in shell moulding?
o Phenol-formaldehyde resin is used because:
 It provides high thermal stability.
 It enhances the strength of the shell mould.
 It ensures good binding with sand grains.
 It improves mould rigidity after curing.
4. What role does a catalyst like hexa-methylene-tetramine play?
o The catalyst accelerates the curing process by initiating cross-linking in the resin, which hardens the
shell mould when exposed to heat.
5. What are the limitations of shell moulding?
o Higher initial tooling and equipment costs.
o Not suitable for very large castings.
o Limited to materials that can be cast within temperature limits of the resin shell.
o Requires controlled environmental conditions for storage and handling of resin-coated sand.
 LECTURE – 17

Learning Objective: To understand the composition, properties, and types of moulding sands used in metal casting.
Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to identify different moulding sands, their ingredients, properties, and their
applications in casting processes.

17. MOULDING SAND COMPOSITION

Moulding sand is a crucial material in metal casting, providing the necessary characteristics to form and support
the mould cavity. It primarily consists of silica sand, clay, and moisture, with additional materials added to improve
its properties.

17.1. MAIN INGREDIENTS OF MOULDING SAND

(a) Silica Sand (SiO₂)
 Forms 80-96% of the moulding sand.
 Main source: River sand (used with or without washing).
 Contains impurities like alumina, sodium oxide (Na₂O), potassium oxide (K₂O), and magnesium oxide
(MgO), which should be minimized to maintain the high fusion point.
 Fusion points:
o Cast iron: ~1450°C
o Steel castings: ~1550°C
 Grain shape can be round, sub-angular, angular, or very angular, affecting permeability and surface finish.
(b) Clay (as Binder)
 Provides cohesion and strength to the sand.
 Common types:
o Kaolinite (Al₂O₃·2SiO₂·2H₂O) – Melting point: 1750-1787°C
o Bentonite (Al₂O₃·4SiO₂·H₂O·nH₂O) – Melting point: 1250-1300°C
 Bentonite is preferred due to better bonding and water absorption.
 Two types of bentonite:
o Sodium bentonite: High dry strength, lower green strength, better swelling properties.
o Calcium bentonite: High green strength, low dry strength, can be improved with soda ash.
(c) Moisture
 Activates clay and provides plasticity.
 Ideal range: 2-8% (excessive moisture weakens strength).

17.2. SPECIAL TYPES OF MOULDING SANDS

(a) Zircon Sand (ZrSiO₄)
 Composition: ZrO₂ (66.25%), SiO₂ (30.96%), Al₂O₃ (1.92%), Fe₂O₃ (0.74%)
 Fusion point: ~2400°C
 Advantages:
o Low thermal expansion
o High chilling power & thermal conductivity
o Used in precision steel casting & investment casting
(b) Chromite Sand
 Composition: Cr₂O₃ (44%), Fe₂O₃ (28%), SiO₂ (2.5%), CaO (0.5%), Al₂O₃ + MgO (25%)
 Fusion point: ~1800°C
 Uses: Suitable for heavy steel castings, austenitic manganese steel
(c) Olivine Sand
 Composition: Fosterite (Mg₂SiO₄) + Fayalite (Fe₂SiO₄)
 Fusion point: ~1538-1760°C
 Properties: Low expansion, suitable for various steel castings

17.3. ADDITIONAL ADDITIVES

Various additives are included to improve the properties of moulding sands:
 Cereal binders (2%) – Increase strength.
 Pitch (up to 3%) – Improves hot strength.
 Sawdust (up to 2%) – Increases collapsibility and permeability.
 Graphite, sea coal, molasses, iron oxide, fuel oil – Used for surface finish and strength.

17.4. COMPARATIVE PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SANDS

Property Silica Olivine Chromite Zircon
Colour White-light brown Greenish grey Black White-brown
Hardness 6.0 – 7.0 6.5 – 7.0 5.5 – 7.0 7.0 – 7.5
Dry bulk density (lb/ft³) 85 - 100 100 - 125 155 - 165 160 – 185
Specific Gravity 2.2 – 2.6 3.2 – 3.6 4.3 – 4.5 4.4 – 4.7
Thermal Expansion (mm/mm/°C) 0.0018 0.0083 0.005 0.003
Fusion Point (°C) 1427 – 1760 1538 – 1760 1760 – 1982 2038 – 2204
Wettability with molten metal Easily Not generally Resistant Resistant
17.5. COMPARATIVE PROPERTIES OF CLAYS IN MOULDING SAND
Property Sodium Bentonite Fire Clay Calcium Bentonite
Silica Sand (AFS GFN 60, wt %) 95 88 95
Clay Bond (wt %) 5 12 5
Moisture (wt %) 2.5 3.0 2.5
Permeability 110 60 108
Green Composition Strength (kPa) 76.53 63.43 97.22
Dry Composition Strength (kPa) 675.70 468.84 372.32

17.6. CONCLUSION
Understanding the composition and properties of moulding sand is crucial for selecting the right sand type for
a given casting application. The selection depends on factors such as metal type, required surface finish,
permeability, and thermal stability.

17.7. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the primary function of clay in moulding sand?
2. Which special type of moulding sand has the highest fusion point?
3. What is the main advantage of adding sawdust to moulding sand?
4. Why is permeability important in moulding sand?
5. What is the purpose of a refractory material in metal casting?
 LECTURE – 18
Learning Objective: To understand the properties, composition, and testing methods of moulding sand used in
foundries.
Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to explain moulding sand properties, identify influencing factors, and
perform standard tests to evaluate its suitability for casting applications.

18. MOULDING SAND PROPERTIES

The properties of moulding sand depend significantly on various factors, including:
 Sand grain shape and size
 Clay type and amount
 Moisture content
 Method of preparing the sand mould

18.1. SAND GRAINS

The shape and size of sand grains influence the moulding sand properties:
 Grain Size:
o Coarse grains: Higher permeability, more void spaces
o Fine grains: Lower permeability but better surface finish
o Well-graded grains: Higher permeability compared to uniform grains of the same fineness number
 Grain Shape:
o Angular grains: Require more binder but have better permeability
o Round grains: Lower permeability due to their shape
 Refractoriness:
o Higher grain size leads to higher refractoriness
o Pure silica sand grains (GFN 30–45) have a fusion point around 1650°C
o Impurities like iron oxide, feldspar, and limestone lower refractoriness
 Strength:
o Fine grains provide a larger surface area for binders, improving green compression strength

18.2. CLAY AND WATER

 Clay and water content significantly influence moulding sand properties.
 The right amount of water is necessary to achieve maximum green compression strength.
 Water reacts with clay, forming a silica-water-clay bond that maintains moulding strength.
 Too much water reduces green strength but increases plasticity and dry strength.
 Clay-Saturated Sands: Used in cast iron and heavy non-ferrous metal foundries, offering high green
compression strength (100–250 kPa) and reducing defects like sand expansion, erosion, and cuts.

18.3. MOULDING PROCEDURE

 The moulding process impacts sand properties significantly.
 Ramming Effects:
o Increased ramming enhances bulk density and mould hardness.
o Permeability decreases as ramming compacts the sand and reduces voids.
 Natural vs Synthetic Sand:
o Natural sand is widely used but lacks refractoriness.
 o Synthetic sands are prepared by washing and sieving silica, adding bentonite and water, ensuring
controlled properties like high refractoriness, improved mechanical properties, and uniform grain
size.

18.4. ADDITIVES
Moulding sand is often mixed with additives to enhance properties:
Additive Purpose Served
Molasses Improves bench life, prevents drying out
Cereals Improves collapsibility, reduces expansion defects
Iron oxide Increases hot strength, reduces burn-on defects
Coal dust Enhances surface finish, prevents metal penetration
Sawdust/Wood Flour Increases green strength range, reduces expansion defects
Starch & Dextrin Improves skin hardness, reduces deformation
Silica Flour Improves surface finish

18.5. COMMON ADDITIVES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

 Coal Dust: Enhances surface finish by forming a gaseous layer preventing metal-sand fusion.
 Sawdust/Wood Flour: Improves flowability, reduces expansion defects, but excessive amounts cause
brittleness.
 Starch & Dextrin: Improve binding, increase mould hardness, and reduce expansion defects.
 Iron Oxide: Enhances hot strength, reduces metal penetration, improves surface finish, but reduces
collapsibility.

18.6. MOULDING SAND PROPERTIES FOR VARIOUS CASTINGS

The table below presents control test data for different casting materials:
Casting Moisture Green Deformation Clay Fineness No. Sintering
Permeability
Material (%) Strength (kPa) (mm) (%) (GFN) Temp (°C)
Aluminium 6.5 - 8.5 7 - 13 46 - 53 0.45 - 0.60 12 - 18 225 - 160 1300
Brass &
6-8 13 - 20 49 - 56 0.35 - 0.50 12 - 14 150 - 140 1300
Bronze
Grey Iron 6.5 - 8.5 10 - 15 42 - 53 0.45 - 0.55 10 - 12 200 - 180 1300
Heavy Steel 2-4 130 - 300 46 - 53 0.50 - 0.75 4 - 10 62 - 38 1500
Synthetic moulding sands ensure controlled properties, making them suitable for mechanized foundries.

18.7. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. How does grain shape affect the permeability of moulding sand?
a) Round grains increase permeability
b) Angular grains increase permeability
c) Round grains require more binder
d) Angular grains reduce permeability
2. What is the effect of excessive water content in moulding sand?
a) Increases green strength but reduces dry strength
3. b) Reduces green strength but increases plasticity and dry strength
4. c) Improves refractoriness of sand
5. d) Reduces clay bonding
6. Which additive improves the surface finish and prevents metal penetration in moulding sand?
a) Molasses
b) Sawdust
c) Coal dust
d) Starch
7. What is the primary purpose of using a binder in moulding sand?
a) To increase permeability
b) To improve mechanical strength and cohesiveness
c) To reduce refractoriness
d) To decrease moisture content
8. Which of the following metals has the highest melting point?
a) Aluminium
b) Brass
c) Grey Iron
d) Tungsten
 LECTURE – 19

Learning Objective: To understand the testing methods for evaluating moulding sand properties to ensure quality
castings in foundry applications.
Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to describe and perform standard tests to assess moulding sand properties,
ensuring its suitability for casting processes.

19.1. TESTING OF MOULDING SAND PROPERTIES

Moulding sand used in foundries must meet specific quality standards to ensure defect-free castings.
Standardized tests are used to evaluate its properties, as outlined in relevant Indian and international standards.

19.1.2. SAMPLE PREPARATION

 The moulding sand sample must be prepared under controlled conditions similar to foundry practice.
 It is stored in a sealed container to prevent moisture loss.

19.1.2. MOISTURE CONTENT

 Moisture affects sand properties and must be measured accurately.
 Method 1: Oven Drying
o A 50g sample is dried at 105-110°C for 2 hours.
 The difference in weight before and after drying gives the moisture percentage:
Moisture Content = (Weight Loss / Original Weight) X 100
 Method 2: Moisture Teller (Hot Air Flow Method)
o Hot air is passed through the sample, evaporating moisture quickly.
 Method 3: Calcium Carbide Method
o Calcium carbide reacts with water in sand, generating acetylene gas.
o The pressure of acetylene is measured to determine moisture content.

19.1.3. CLAY CONTENT

 Test Procedure:
o A 50g dried sand sample is mixed with 475ml distilled water and 25ml of 1% NaOH solution in a
1L flask.
o The mixture is stirred for 5 minutes and diluted to the 150mm mark.
o The sand settles, and the clay remains in suspension.
o Repeated siphoning and refilling continue until the water is clear.
o The remaining sand is dried and weighed.
o Clay percentage is calculated as:
(Initial Weight−Final Weight)
Clay Content= 𝑋100
Initial Weight
4. Sand Grain Size Distribution
 Determines fineness and uniformity of sand grains.
 Procedure:
o A clay-free sand sample is dried and placed in a sieve shaker.
o The shaker contains sieves of decreasing mesh sizes.
o The sample is shaken for 15 minutes, and retained sand on each sieve is weighed.
 Grain Fineness Number (GFN):
∑Mifi
o GFN= ∑fi
 o Where Mi = multiplying factor for sieve, fi = weight retained.
o GFN values typically range 40-220 in foundry sands.

19.1.4. PERMEABILITY
 Measures how well gases escape through the sand.
 Test Procedure:
o A standard specimen (50.8mm diameter, 50.8mm height) is placed in a permeability meter.
o Air (2000 cm³ at 980 Pa) is passed through.
𝑉∗𝐻 501.28
o Permeability number (P) is calculated: 𝑃 = 𝑝∗𝐴∗𝑇 = 𝑃 = 𝑝∗𝐴∗𝑇

19.1.5. STRENGTH TESTS

 Conducted on a universal sand strength testing machine.
 Green Compression Strength:
o Measures stress to rupture sand under compression.
o Typical range:30-160 kPa.
 Green Shear Strength:
o Measures shear stress required to break a moist sand specimen.
o Typical range:10-50 kPa.
 Dry Strength:
o Tests sand after drying at 105-110°C for 2 hours.
o Range:140-1800 kPa.

19.1.6. MOULD HARDNESS

 Tested using a spring-loaded steel ball.
 Hardness scale: 0 (soft) to 100 (hard).
 Measured similarly to the Brinell hardness test.

19.1.7. OTHER TESTS

 Deformation Test: Measures how much sand deforms under stress.
 Green Tensile Strength: Tests tensile resistance of moist sand.
 Hot Strength: Determines strength at high temperatures.
 Expansion Test: Evaluates expansion due to heating.
These tests ensure the suitability of moulding sand for foundry applications, helping produce high-quality castings.

19.2. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (FROM THE TOPIC)

1. How does the shape and size of sand grains affect the permeability and surface finish of a mould?
2. What role does clay and water play in determining the strength of moulding sand?
3. Why is permeability testing important in moulding sand, and how is it measured?
4. What are the advantages of using synthetic moulding sand over natural moulding sand?
5. Why is refractoriness an important property in moulding sand, and what factors can reduce it?

LECTURE – 20
Learning Objective: To understand the types, causes, and remedies of casting defects in foundry processes.
Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to identify casting defects, analyze their causes, and suggest appropriate
preventive measures.

20.1. CASTING DEFECTS

Any irregularity in the moulding process causes defects in castings, which may sometimes be tolerated, eliminated
with proper moulding practice, or repaired using methods such as welding and metallisation. The major defects likely
to occur in sand castings are classified as follows:
1. Gas Defects
2. Shrinkage Cavities
3. Moulding Material Defects
4. Pouring Metal Defects
5. Metallurgical Defects

20.1.1. GAS DEFECTS

Gas defects occur due to the entrapment of gases in the casting. These defects can be classified into:
a) Blowholes and Open Blows
 Blowholes are spherical, flattened, or elongated cavities inside the casting, whereas open blows appear on the
casting surface.
 Causes:
o Moisture present in the mould or core.
o Low permeability of the mould due to fine sand grains, excessive binder, or over-ramming.
o Insufficient venting practice.
 Remedies:
o Use high-permeability sand.
o Proper venting and moisture control.
o Reduce ramming pressure.
b) Air Inclusions
 Occur when atmospheric or furnace gases get trapped in the molten metal.
 Causes:
o High pouring temperatures increase gas absorption.
o Poor gating design and abrupt bends.
o Low permeability of the mould.
 Remedies:
o Optimize pouring temperature.
o Improve gating design to reduce turbulence.
o Ensure adequate venting.
c) Pin-Hole Porosity
 Caused by hydrogen absorption in molten metal, leading to a series of small holes.
 Causes:
o High pouring temperature.
o Water vapour dissociation inside the mould cavity.
 Remedies:
o Use dry moulds and cores.
o Reduce pouring temperature.
20.1.2. SHRINKAGE CAVITIES
 These defects occur due to the volumetric contraction of the
metal during solidification.
 Causes:
o Inadequate feeding of molten metal.
o Poor casting design.
 Remedies:
o Use properly designed risers.
o Modify casting design to facilitate directional solidification.

20.1.3. MOULDING MATERIAL DEFECTS

Defects caused due to improper moulding materials or techniques include:
a) Cuts and Washes
 Rough spots and excess metal caused by erosion of moulding sand.
 Causes:
o Low mould strength.
o High velocity of molten metal.
 Remedies:
o Use appropriate moulding sand.
o Improve gating design.
b) Metal Penetration
 Molten metal enters gaps between sand grains, causing a rough surface.
 Causes:
o Coarse grain sand.
o High pouring temperature.
 Remedies:
o Use finer sand grains.
o Apply proper mould wash.
c) Fusion
 Sand grains fuse with molten metal, causing a brittle, glassy surface.
 Causes:
o Low refractoriness of clay in moulding sand.
o High pouring temperature.
 Remedies:
o Select appropriate clay and adjust pouring temperature.
d) Run-Out
 Leakage of molten metal from the mould.
 Causes:
o Faulty mould-making.
o Poor-quality moulding flasks.
 Remedies:
o Improve mould design and flask quality.
e) Rat Tails and Buckles
 Surface defects due to expansion of moulding sand.
 Causes:
 o Poor expansion properties of sand.
o Excessive heat from pouring metal.
 Remedies:
o Use proper facing sand.
o Optimize pouring temperature.
f) Swell
 Deformation of casting due to metallostatic forces.
 Causes:
o Weak mould walls.
 Remedies:
o Ensure uniform ramming of the mould.
g) Drop
 Loose moulding sand falls into the mould cavity, causing defects.
 Causes:
o Improper ramming of the cope.
 Remedies:
o Proper ramming of the cope flask.

20.1.4. POURING METAL DEFECTS

These defects arise due to issues in the pouring process:
a) Misruns and Cold Shuts
 Misrun: Metal fails to completely fill the mould cavity.
 Cold Shut: Two metal streams do not fuse properly, causing a weak spot.
 Causes:
o Low fluidity of molten metal.
o Thin casting sections.
o Poor gating design.
 Remedies:
o Increase pouring temperature.
o Improve gating design and mould venting.
b) Slag Inclusions
 Entrapment of slag or impurities in the casting.
 Causes:
o Improper slag removal during tapping.
o Poor gating design.
 Remedies:
o Use slag-trapping methods like runner extensions and pouring basin screens.

20.1.5. METALLURGICAL DEFECTS

Defects arising from metallurgical factors include:
a) Hot Tears
 Cracks formed due to thermal stresses during solidification.
 Causes:
o Poor casting design.
o Restricted contraction of metal.
 Remedies:
 o Modify casting design for uniform cooling.
o Use proper moulding materials.
b) Hot Spots
 Hard, brittle spots due to localized chilling of the casting.
 Causes:
o Uneven cooling rate.
o Poor metallurgical control.
 Remedies:
o Adjust composition and chilling practices.

20.2. CONCLUSION
Casting defects can significantly impact the quality and performance of cast products. Foundry engineers must
analyze defects based on their causes and implement appropriate preventive measures such as optimizing moulding
materials, pouring practices, and gating design to ensure defect-free castings.

20.3. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What are the primary causes of gas defects in sand casting?
2. How can shrinkage cavities in castings be prevented?
3. What is the difference between misrun and cold shut in pouring metal defects?
4. Why is directional solidification important in casting?
5. How does the choice of moulding sand affect the quality of a casting?
 LECTURE – 21

Learning Objective: To understand the construction, operation, and materials used in a cupola furnace for efficient
metal melting.
Learning Outcome: Students will be able to explain the working principles, components, and advantages of the
cupola furnace in foundry operations.

21.1. CUPOLA FURNACE

21.1.1. INTRODUCTION
A cupola furnace is a vertical, cylindrical furnace used for melting metals, primarily cast iron. It operates continuously
and is widely used in foundries due to its efficiency and cost-
effectiveness.

21.1.2. CONSTRUCTION OF CUPOLA FURNACE

A cupola consists of the following main components:
1. Steel Shell: The outer cylindrical shell made of steel
provides structural strength.
2. Refractory Lining: Heat-resistant fire bricks line the
interior to withstand high temperatures.
3. Drop Doors: Located at the bottom, they allow the
removal of residue after melting.
4. Sand Bed: A sloped bed of sand provides a refractory
base for molten metal and coke.
5. Tapping Hole (Metal Tap Hole): Initially closed with
clay ('bot'), it is used to collect molten metal.
6. Slag Hole: Positioned above the tap hole to remove
slag formed during melting.
7. Wind Box and Tuyeres: The wind box distributes air
from blowers to tuyeres, which inject air into the
furnace.
8. Charging Door: Located above the tuyeres, it is used
to feed raw materials (pig iron, scrap, coke, and flux).
9. Exhaust Stack: The topmost opening allows gases and fumes to escape.

21.1.3. OPERATION OF CUPOLA FURNACE

1. Preparation
o Drop doors are closed, and a sand bed is prepared with a slope towards the tap hole.
o A coke bed is prepared above the sand and ignited.
2. Charging
o Layers of charge materials (pig iron, scrap, flux, and coke) are alternately fed into the cupola through
the charging door.
o The charge is allowed to soak heat before turning on the air blast.
3. Melting Process
o Air is supplied through tuyeres to facilitate combustion.
 o Within 5-10 minutes, molten metal is collected at the bottom.
o Slag is removed through the slag hole before tapping metal.
o Molten metal is tapped into ladles and poured into molds.

21.1.4. MATERIALS USED IN CUPOLA FURNACE

1. Charge Materials
o Pig Iron: Primary source of cast iron.
o Scrap Iron & Steel Scrap: Recycled metal pieces added to achieve desired composition.
2. Fluxes
o Used to remove oxides and impurities.
o Common flux: Limestone (CaCO₃) (2-4% of metal charge).
o Other fluxes: Dolomite, Sodium Carbonate, Calcium Carbide.

21.2. HOT-BLAST CUPOLA

A variation of the cupola furnace where the air supply is preheated (200-400°C) using exhaust gases or an external
heater.
Advantages of Hot-Blast Cupola
 Reduces the overall heat requirement.
 Lowers carbon and sulfur pick-up.
 Minimizes oxidation losses.
 Suitable for large-scale, continuous melting operations.

21.3. CONCLUSION
The cupola furnace remains a widely used and economical method for melting cast iron in foundries. Understanding
its working principles and operational techniques is essential for metallurgical and mechanical engineering students.

21.4. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the primary function of the tuyeres in a cupola furnace?
2. Why is limestone used as a flux in the cupola furnace?
3. How does a hot-blast cupola improve efficiency compared to a conventional cupola?
4. What is the difference between ferrous and non-ferrous metals?
5. Why is cast iron preferred over steel for certain applications?
 LECTURE – 22

Learning Objective: To understand the principles, construction, working, types, applications, advantages, and
disadvantages of Resistance Furnace, Induction Furnace, and Electric-Arc Furnace.
Learning Outcome: Students will be able to explain the working principles, differentiate between furnace types, and
analyse their industrial applications.

22.1. RESISTANCE FURNACE

22.1.1. INTRODUCTION
A resistance furnace is an electric furnace that generates heat using electrical resistance. It is widely used for
heating, melting, and heat treatment processes in industries due to its precise temperature control and efficiency.

22.1.2. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The resistance furnace operates on the principle of Joule heating (I²R heating), where electric current flows
through a resistive heating element, converting electrical energy into heat energy.

22.1.3. TYPES OF RESISTANCE FURNACES

1. Direct Resistance Furnace
o Electric current passes directly through the charge.
o Used for applications like electrode-based heating.
2. Indirect Resistance Furnace
o Heat is generated in a heating element and transferred to the charge by radiation or convection.
o Common in industrial heat treatment processes.
3. Salt Bath Furnace
o A specialized type where the charge is immersed in molten salt, ensuring uniform heating.
o Used in surface hardening and tempering applications.
4. Resistance Furnace (Crucible Furnace)
o Preferred by smaller foundries.
o The crucible is heated by electric resistance or gas flame.
o The metal is placed inside a refractory crucible, ensuring no direct contact between the flame and the
metal charge.
o Suitable for a variety of casting alloys.
o Allows for degassing and metal treatment before pouring.
o Provides good control over melt quality and temperature.

22.1.4. CONSTRUCTION OF A RESISTANCE FURNACE

1. Outer Shell: Made of steel for structural support.
2. Refractory Lining: Heat-resistant bricks or ceramic lining to withstand high temperatures.
3. Heating Elements: Made of materials like Nichrome (Ni-Cr), Kanthal (Fe-Cr-Al), or Silicon Carbide.
4. Power Supply & Control System: Regulates voltage and current for temperature control.
5. Charge Chamber: The space where the material to be heated is placed.
6. Insulation: Reduces heat loss and improves efficiency.
22.1.5. WORKING OF A RESISTANCE FURNACE
1. Electrical power is supplied to the heating elements.
2. The elements generate heat due to electrical resistance.
3. Heat is transferred to the charge through conduction, convection, or radiation.
4. The furnace maintains the desired temperature through automated control systems.
5. Once the process is complete, the charge is removed for further processing.

22.1.6. APPLICATIONS OF RESISTANCE FURNACE

 Metal Melting (e.g., aluminum, zinc, and non-ferrous metals).
 Heat Treatment (annealing, tempering, hardening of metals).
 Ceramic & Glass Industry (sintering and glazing).
 Chemical Processing (thermal decomposition and synthesis).

22.1.7. ADVANTAGES OF RESISTANCE FURNACE

 Precise temperature control using automated systems.
 High efficiency due to minimal heat loss.
 Cleaner operation with no combustion gases.
 Uniform heating for consistent processing quality.
 Long service life of heating elements with proper maintenance.
 Flexibility in melting different alloys (especially in crucible furnaces).

22.1.8. DISADVANTAGES OF RESISTANCE FURNACE

 High initial cost.
 Limited to electrically conductive heating elements.
 Not suitable for large-scale melting of ferrous metals due to power constraints.

22.1.9. CONCLUSION
Resistance furnaces are essential in industries requiring controlled heating processes. Their efficiency,
precision, and environmental benefits make them a preferred choice for various applications in metallurgy, ceramics,
and chemical industries. Crucible furnaces, in particular, offer flexibility and enhanced melt quality for small
foundries.

22.2. INDUCTION FURNACE

22.2.1. INTRODUCTION
The induction furnace is widely used for melting all types of materials. Its key advantage is that the heat
source is isolated from the charge, ensuring a cleaner and more efficient melting process.

22.2.2. WORKING PRINCIPLE

Induction furnaces operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction. An alternating current passes through a
coil, generating a rapidly changing magnetic field. This induces eddy currents in the conductive charge, heating it up
and eventually melting it.

22.2.3. TYPES OF INDUCTION FURNACES

 1. Coreless Induction Furnace
o Uses a refractory-lined envelope to contain the metal, surrounded by an electric coil.
o The charge itself acts as a single secondary turn, generating heat through eddy currents.
o Offers uniform heating with electromagnetic stirring.
2. Channel Induction Furnace
o Has a separate channel or loop to carry the molten metal.
o Used for holding and maintaining temperature rather than melting.

22.2.4. ADVANTAGES OF INDUCTION FURNACE

 Cleaner operation due to the absence of combustion gases.
 Efficient energy transfer via electromagnetic induction.
 Precise temperature and composition control.
 Reduced oxidation and contamination since the charge does not directly interact with a heat source.
 Fast melting rates with high-frequency stirring improving homogeneity.

22.2.5. APPLICATIONS OF INDUCTION FURNACE

 Steel and iron melting for casting and forging industries.
 Precious metals processing (gold, silver, platinum refining).
 Recycling of metal scraps with controlled composition.
 Automotive and aerospace industries for producing high-quality metal components.

22.2.6. CONCLUSION
Induction furnaces offer a high-efficiency, clean, and precise melting solution. Their ability to use low-cost
raw materials while maintaining quality makes them ideal for modern metallurgical processes.

22.3. ELECTRIC-ARC FURNACE

22.3.1. INTRODUCTION
An Electric-Arc Furnace (EAF) is a furnace used for melting ferrous materials such as steel and cast iron
using high-temperature electric arcs. It is widely employed in steelmaking industries due to its efficiency and ability
to produce high-quality steel.

22.3.2. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The Electric-Arc Furnace operates by generating an electric
arc between graphite electrodes and the charge material, which
produces intense heat, rapidly melting the metal.

22.3.3. CONSTRUCTION OF ELECTRIC-ARC FURNACE

1. Hearth (Bottom of Furnace): A bowl-shaped structure lined
with refractory bricks and granular refractory material to
withstand high temperatures.
2. Electrodes: Usually made of graphite, positioned above the
furnace to generate electric arcs.
3. Roof and Shell: A refractory-lined enclosure that retains heat and protects the charge material.
 4. Charging Door: Used to feed scrap metal and other charge materials into the furnace.
5. Tilting Mechanism: Allows the furnace to tilt forward for pouring molten metal and backward for deslagging.
6. Cooling System: Prevents overheating of furnace components.

22.3.4. WORKING OF ELECTRIC-ARC FURNACE

1. The furnace is charged with scrap metal, pig iron, and fluxes through the charging door.
2. The graphite electrodes are lowered close to the charge material.
3. High-voltage electricity is passed through the electrodes, generating electric arcs.
4. The heat from the arc melts the charge material.
5. Slag, formed from impurities and flux reactions, is removed through deslagging.
6. Once the molten metal is ready, the electrodes are raised, and the furnace is tilted to pour the molten metal into
a ladle.
22.3.5. APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRIC-ARC FURNACE
 Steelmaking (production of high-quality steel).
 Manufacturing of heavy steel castings.
 Recycling of scrap metal.
 Alloy production (stainless steel, tool steel, and special alloys).

22.3.6. ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC-ARC FURNACE

 High energy efficiency and rapid melting.
 Can melt a wide variety of ferrous and non-ferrous materials.
 Precise control over temperature and composition.
 Environmentally friendly, as it allows for recycling scrap metal.
 Less dependency on traditional fuels like coal and oil.

22.3.7. DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC-ARC FURNACE

 High initial installation cost.
 Requires a stable and high-power electrical supply.
 Electrode consumption and maintenance costs.

22.3.8. CONCLUSION
Electric-Arc Furnaces play a crucial role in modern steel production, offering efficient and sustainable methods
for melting and refining metals. Their ability to recycle scrap metal and produce high-quality steel makes them a vital
component of the metallurgical industry.

22.4. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. Explain the working principle of a resistance furnace and how Joule heating contributes to its operation.
2. Differentiate between a coreless induction furnace and a channel induction furnace based on construction and
application.
3. What are the key advantages of an Electric-Arc Furnace in modern steel production?
4. Why is refractory lining used in high-temperature furnaces, and what properties should an ideal refractory
material have?
5. How does the efficiency of electric heating compare to conventional fuel-based heating methods in industrial
applications?
 LECTURE – 23

Learning Objective: To understand the solidification process of casting, including mechanisms, factors affecting
crystal growth, and methods for controlled cooling.
Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to explain solidification mechanisms, identify factors influencing crystal
growth, and apply techniques like directional solidification and chills to improve casting quality.

23.1. SOLIDIFICATION OF CASTING

23.1.1. INTRODUCTION
 After the mould cavity is filled with molten metal, it is allowed to solidify into the desired shape.
 The solidification process determines the structural features of the cast material and controls its properties.

23.1.2. POURING AND FREEZING PROCESS

 Liquid metal is poured at a temperature higher than the freezing
temperature.
 Freezing Temperature: The temperature above which pure metals are
completely liquid and below which they are completely solid.
 Superheat: The difference between pouring temperature and freezing
temperature, allowing metal to flow into all corners of the mould before
solidification.
 The mould plays a crucial role in controlling the solidification rate and
structural formation.

23.1.3. MECHANISM OF SOLIDIFICATION

 Energy is required to produce a crystalline structure.
 Super-cooling: Some cooling below the freezing point is required for the liquid metal to start solidifying.
 Cooling is initially provided by the mould and later by solidified particles.
 Temperature falls steadily until freezing begins at a particular
point.
 During solidification, temperature remains nearly constant due
to the release of latent heat.
 For pure metals, temperature decreases steadily after
solidification.
 For alloys, solidification occurs over a temperature range,
forming a mushy state.
 Alloys solidify with a dendritic crystal structure due to variation in composition and thermal gradients.

23.1.4. FACTORS AFFECTING CRYSTAL GROWTH

 Variation of temperature with composition.
 Thermal gradient within the mould.
 Composition gradient within the casting.
 Proper cooling is necessary to prevent defects like shrinkage, cavities, cold shut, misrun, and hot tear.

23.1.5. COOLING CURVES AND DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION

 Cooling curves help in determining the optimal pouring temperature.
  Directional Solidification: Ensuring solidification progresses from thin sections (solidifying first) to thicker
sections and finally to risers (last to solidify).
 Achieved by:
1. Proper design and positioning of gating systems and
risers.
2. Using padding to taper thinner sections towards thicker
sections.
3. Employing exothermic materials in risers and mould
surfaces.
4. Using chills to control heat extraction.

23.1.6. CHILLS IN CASTING

 Purpose: Enhance heat extraction for controlled solidification.
 Types of Chills:
o External Chills: Placed adjacent to the mould cavity.
o Internal Chills: Positioned inside the cavity where
external chills are impractical.
 Used when risers cannot be placed in thick sections.
 Chills and risers together prevent contraction voids.
 Made from metal objects like rods, wires, and nails (cast or rolled
stock).

23.1.7. SUMMARY
 Proper solidification is crucial for defect-free casting.
 Controlled cooling, directional solidification, and strategic use of risers and chills ensure quality castings.
 Understanding thermal gradients and composition variations helps in achieving desired microstructure and
mechanical properties.

23.2. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the role of superheat in the solidification of casting?
2. How does directional solidification help in achieving defect-free castings?
3. What is the difference between external and internal chills in casting?
4. Why do alloys solidify over a temperature range instead of a fixed temperature like pure metals?
5. How does the cooling rate affect the microstructure and mechanical properties of a casting?
 LECTURE – 24

Learning Objective: To understand the design and function of various elements in a gating system for efficient
casting.
Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to design an optimized gating system to minimize casting defects and
improve efficiency.

24.1. GATING SYSTEM DESIGN – 1

24.1.1. INTRODUCTION
A gating system consists of various elements that facilitate the smooth and controlled flow of molten metal from the
ladle to the mould cavity. The main components of a gating system are:
 Pouring Basin
 Sprue
 Sprue-base Well
 Runner
 Runner Extension
 In-gate
 Riser

24.1.2. OBJECTIVES OF A GATING SYSTEM

A well-designed gating system should:
1. Ensure rapid mould filling without excessive metal temperature or head.
2. Minimize turbulence to avoid dross formation.
3. Prevent unwanted materials such as slag and dross from entering the mould cavity.
4. Control metal entry to prevent air aspiration.
5. Maintain proper thermal gradients to avoid shrinkage cavities and distortions.
6. Prevent mould erosion.
7. Ensure an adequate supply of molten metal to the cavity.
8. Be economical, easy to implement, and removable after solidification.
9. Maximize casting yield.

24.1.3. ELEMENTS OF A GATING SYSTEM

24.1.3.1. POURING BASIN

 Acts as a reservoir to reduce mould erosion.
 Prevents slag from entering the sprue using a skimmer or skim core.
 Helps maintain a steady metal flow.
 Should be deep enough to prevent vortex formation.
 Strainer cores or ceramic filters can be used for smoother flow and impurity removal.
24.1.3.2. SPRUE
 Vertical channel through which molten metal flows from the pouring basin to the runner system.
 A tapered sprue prevents air aspiration and ensures a steady flow.
 The tapering follows the equation of continuity:

ℎ𝑐
𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 √
ℎ𝑐
 Practically, a straight taper is preferred over a parabolic shape for ease of manufacturing.
 Metal at the entry of the sprue would be moving with a velocity of √2𝑔ℎ

ℎ𝑡
𝐴𝑡 = √
ℎ
Where
H = actual sprue height
And
ℎ𝑡 = ℎ + 𝐻
24.1.3.3. SPRUE BASE WELL
 A reservoir at the bottom of the sprue that reduces the velocity of molten metal.
 Prevents mould erosion and ensures a smooth transition to the runner.
 The well area is typically 5 times the sprue choke area.
 Depth is approximately equal to the runner depth.
 Well diameter is 2.5 times the runner width for a two-runner system and twice the width for a single-runner
system.

24.1.3.4. RUNNER
 A horizontal passage that carries molten metal from the sprue to the in-gates.
 Usually trapezoidal in shape for effective slag trapping.
 Runners are often made in the cope to keep slag and dross from entering the mould cavity.
 Should be designed for full flow to trap slag effectively.

24.1.3.5. RUNNER EXTENSION

 A small extension beyond the in-gate to trap slag and impurities.
 Ensures only clean metal reaches the mould cavity.
 Helps improve casting quality by directing impurities away from the main flow.
24.1.4. CONCLUSION
A properly designed gating system ensures high-quality casting with minimal defects. By optimizing each component,
foundries can improve efficiency, reduce waste, and enhance overall casting performance.

24.1.5. KEY TAKEAWAYS:

 Proper design minimizes defects such as shrinkage cavities and turbulence.
 The use of filters and skimmers enhances metal purity.
 Tapered sprues and sprue base wells prevent air aspiration and erosion.
 Full-flow runners and runner extensions help trap slag effectively.

24.2. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What is the primary purpose of a sprue in a gating system?
2. Why is a tapered sprue preferred over a straight sprue in gating system design?
3. How does a runner extension improve the quality of a casting?
4. What are the key factors affecting the fluidity of molten metal during casting?
5. Why is minimizing turbulence important in a gating system?
 LECTURE – 25

Learning Objective: To understand the principles of gating system design, including Bernoulli’s theorem, law of
continuity, choke area, effective sprue height, and efficiency factor.
Learning Outcome: Learners will be able to apply fluid flow principles to design an efficient gating system for casting
processes.

25.1. GATING SYSTEM DESIGN - 2

25.1.1. BERNOULLI'S THEOREM

 The flow of liquid metal through the mould channels follows Bernoulli’s theorem.
 Total energy head remains constant at any section (ignoring frictional losses):
𝑃 𝑉2
ℎ+ +
𝑊 28
where:
o h = potential head (m)
o P = pressure (Pa)
o V = liquid velocity (m/s)
o W = specific weight of liquid (N/m³)
o g = gravitational constant (9.8004 m/s²)
 Energy losses occur due to friction and heat dissipation.
 Helps in qualitative understanding of metal flow in sand moulds.

25.1.2. LAW OF CONTINUITY

 The volume of metal flow remains constant at any section.
 Mathematically:
𝑄 = 𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
where:
o Q = rate of flow (m³/s)
o A = cross-sectional area (m²)
o V = velocity of metal flow (m/s)
 Used for designing tapered sprues to reduce air aspiration.

25.1.3. CHOKE AREA

 The main control area regulating metal flow into the mould.
 Ensures complete mould filling within calculated pouring time.
 Usually located at the bottom of the sprue.
 Choke area formula:
𝑊
𝐴=
𝑑𝑡𝐶√2𝑔𝐻
where:
o A = choke area (mm²)
o W = casting mass (kg)
o t = pouring time (s)
o d = mass density of molten metal (kg/mm³)
 o g = acceleration due to gravity (mm/s²)
o H = effective metal head (sprue height, mm)
o C = efficiency factor

25.1.4. EFFECTIVE SPRUE HEIGHT (H)

 Depends on casting dimensions and gating type:
o Top gate: 𝐻 = ℎ
𝑐
o Bottom gate: 𝐻 = ℎ −
2
𝑝2
o Parting gate: 𝐻 = ℎ − 2𝑐
 where:
o h = height of sprue
o p = height of mould cavity in cope
o c = total height of mould cavity

25.1.5. EFFICIENCY FACTOR (C) IN GATING SYSTEM

 Depends on the design of gating system sections.
 Circular cross-sections reduce heat loss and friction.
 Streamlining improves volumetric efficiency.
 Efficiency factor calculation:
1
𝐶=
𝐴2 𝐴2
√1 + 𝐾1 2 + 𝐾2 2 + ⋯
𝐴1 𝐴2
where:
o K₁, K₂, ... = loss coefficients from directional or area changes
o A₁, A₂ = downstream areas
o A = choke area
 Standard efficiency factor values are available for typical gating systems.

25.2. ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. According to Bernoulli’s theorem, what remains constant at any section of the gating system, ignoring
frictional losses?
a) Velocity
b) Pressure
c) Total energy head
d) Specific weight
2. In the law of continuity, if the cross-sectional area of a sprue decreases, what happens to the velocity of molten
metal flow?
a) Increases
b) Decreases
c) Remains constant
d) Becomes zero
3. Where is the choke area usually located in a gating system?
a) At the top of the sprue
b) At the bottom of the sprue
c) In the mould cavity
d) Near the riser
4. What is the primary function of a gating system in casting?
a) To cool the molten metal before pouring
b) To control and regulate the flow of molten metal into the mould
c) To mix different metals before casting
d) To remove impurities from molten metal
5. Which of the following factors affects the efficiency of a gating system?
a) Sprue height and choke area
b) Colour of the molten metal
c) Temperature of the mould
d) Shape of the casting pattern