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Under sta nding
Steel
Design
Under sta nding
Steel
Design
---

An Architectural
Design Manual

---

Terri Meyer Boake

With Technical Illustrations

by Vincent Hui

Birkhäuser
Basel
The author and the publisher wish to thank the Canadian Institute of
Steel Construction Regions and Walters Group for their participation
in this book.

Editor Distribution
Andreas Müller
ActarBirkhäuserD
Graphic Design & Production Barcelona – Basel – New York
ActarBirkhäuserPro www.actarbirkhauser.com
www.actarbirkhauserpro.com
Barcelona - Basel Roca i Battle 2
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A CIP catalogue record for this book is available T +34 93 417 49 43
from the Library of Congress, Washington D.C., USA. F +34 93 418 67 07
[email protected]
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German National Library Viaduktstrasse 42
The German National Library lists this publication CH-4051 Basel
in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed T +41 61 5689 800
bibliographic data are available on the Internet at F +41 61 5689 899
http://dnb.d-nb.de. [email protected]

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are 151 Grand Street, 5th floor
reserved, whether the whole or part of the material New York, NY 10013, USA
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This book is also available in a German language

edition (ISBN 978-3-0346-0271-6)

© 2012 Birkhäuser GmbH, Basel

P.O.Box, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
Part of ActarBirkhäuser

Printed on acid-free paper produced

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contents 8 P RE F A C E C H A P TER 4

42 Fa br ic at ion,
C H A P TER 1
Erection and
12 Th e T r a n s f o r m a - the Implications
ti ve Natur e of on Design
S t e e l C o n s t r uc t i o n 44 T r a n s f o r m i n g A r ch i t e c -
14 Th e Intrinsic Connection tur al Design Into
between Historic De- Fa br ic ated El ements
velopments in Steel and
45 Process profile:
M o d e r n A r ch i t e c t u r e
A ddition to t he Roya l
14 Steel is about Tension O n t a r i o Mu s e u m
15 Steel is about Industrialization and 46 The Role of Physical and Digital
Mass Fabrication Models

15 Standard Structural Steel 49 Appreciating Scale

versus AESS
49 Transportation and Site Issues and
the Impact on Design
15 F r o m T e ch n i q u e t o
T e ch n o l o g y 51 Erecting the Steel

52 The Effects of Weather and Climate

on Erection
C H A P TER 2
53 Providing Permanent Stability for
the Frame
18 T H E MATERIALITY
54 Coordination with Other Systems
O F STEEL
55 Process profile:
20 STR U C T U RAL P RO P ERTIES
L e s l i e D a n f a cu l t y
O F STEEL
of Pha r macy
21 H OT - ROLLED STEEL S H A P ES 56 Shop Fabrication

22 H OLLOW STR U C T U RAL 57 Assembling the Pods

SE C TIONS ( H SS )
58 Erecting a Beam

24 E C ONOMIES IN DETAILING 58 Erecting the Columns

AND S P E C I F YING STEEL
59 Lifting the 50-Tonne Truss
25 D e s i g n and Modeling
60 Lifting the Pods
S of t wa r e

C H A P TER 5
C H A P TER 3

26 Connections 62 AESS : I t s H i s t o r y
and Fr aming and Development
T e ch n i q u e s 64 Th e Invention of Hollow
S t r uc t u r a l S e c t i o n s
28 Th e Idea Behind Fr aming
64 Th e E v o l u t i o n o f AESS
28 B a s i cConnection t h r o u g h t h e H i g h T e ch
Str ategies Movement
31 Fr amed Connections 65 Th e T ypology of Ear ly
31 Beam-to-Girder Connections
H i g h T e ch A r ch i t e c t u r e
66 The “Extruded” Typology
32 Girder or Beam-to-Column
Connections
70 The “Grid/Bay” Typology
33 Column Connections
74 The “Tower-and-Tensile” Typology
34 PIN CONNECTIONS
78 H i g h T e ch B e c o m e s AESS
35 Floor Systems
79 R e s u l t a n t Bu i l d i n g
37 B r aced Systems Sc i e n c e P r o b l e m s

38 T r u s s Systems
38 Planar Trusses

39 Three-Dimensional Trusses
 C H A P TER 6 C H A P TER 7 C H A P TER 9

80 AESS : D e s i g n 102 Coating s , 124 A d v a n c e d F r a m i n g

a nd Deta il ing Finishes and Fire Systems: Diagr ids
82 S t a n d a r d S t r uc t u r a l
Protection 126 T a l l Bu i l d i n g s
S t e e l v e r s u s AESS 104 Th e Need for Cor rosion 127 Diagonalized Core Buildings
Protection
83 Wh a t i s AESS ? 128 Truss Band Systems
105 Th e Need for
83 Pr im a ry Factor s 129 Bundled Tube Buildings
Fire Protection
t h a t D e f i n e AESS
129 Composite Construction
105 Pr epa r ing the Steel
85 C a t e g o r i e s o f AESS 130 Wind Testing
for Coatings
85 AESS 1 – Basic ElementS
131 D i a g r id Systems
106 Finish and Coating
86 AESS 2 – Feature Elements
System Selection 131 The Advantages of a Diagrid over a
88 AESS 3 – Feature Elements Moment Frame
106 Primers

89 AESS 4 – Showcase Elements 132 Diagrid Towers

106 P a i n t S y s t e m s f o r AESS
91 Custom Elements 136 Process Profile:
107 Shortcomings of Painted Finishes
B o w E n c a n a TOWER
92 Stainless Structural Steel
107 Shop versus Site Painting
139 Curved Diagrid-Supported Shapes on
92 Mixed Categories Low to Mid-Rise Buildings
108 Corrosion Protection
93 D e t a iling Requirements Systems 140 Crystalline Diagrid Forms

93 Connection Mock-Ups 108 Galvanization 141 Hybrid Shapes

94 Cutting Steel 109 Metallization

95 Choosing Connection 110 Weathering Steel C H A P TER 1 0

Types 111 Stainless Steel

95 Bolted Connections
144 Castings
112 Fire Protection Systems
96 Welded Connections 146 Historic and
112 Fire Suppression Systems
Contempor ary Casting
97 Cast Connections
113 Spray-Applied Fire Protection
147 B a s i cT ypes of
98 Choosing Member Types 113 Concrete Cast Connectors
98 Tubular Sections
113 Intumescent Coatings
148 T e n s i l e Connectors
99 Standard Structural Shapes
150 B a s e Connections
99 C o n s t r uc t i o n B e s t C H A P TER 8
Pr actices 151 B r a n ch - T y p e
Connections
99 Care in Handling 116 C U RVED STEEL
153 Process Profile:
99 Transportation Issues 118 Cr eating Curves in Steel
U n i v e r s i t y o f Gu e l ph
Bu i l d i n g s
100 Sequencing of Lifts Sc i e n c e Bu i l d i n g
100 Site Constraints 118 L imitations on Curv ing
Steel
101 Erection Issues
C H A P TER 1 1
119 Th e Curving Process

120 Curved Steel

158 T e n s i o n S y s t e m s
App l i c a t i o n s a nd spacefr a mes
122 Faceting a s a n A lter nate 160 T e n s i o n Systems
Method to Bending 161 Tension Connectors

123 Cr eating Curves with 161 Cross Bracing

Pl ate Mater ial
164 Innovative Force Expression
in Trusses

167 Simple Canopies

168 Cable-Stayed Systems

170 Tensegrity Structures

172 Sp a c e f r ame Systems

173 Non-Planar Spaceframes

176 Irregular Modules

 C H A P TER 1 2 C H A P TER 1 4 A p p e n d i x

236 Bibliography
178 S t e e l a n d 216 S t e e l a n d
Gl azing Systems Su s t a i n a b i l i t y 237 Illustration Credits

238 Index of Technical Subjects

180 E a rly Steel and Gl ass 218 S t e e l a s a Su s t a i n a b l e
Bu i l d i n g s Mater ial 240 Index of Applications

241 Index of Buildings

181 T e ch n i c a
l Aspects of 219 Th e LEED TM G r e e n
Combining Steel With Bu i l d i n g R a t i n g S y s t e m 242 Index of Architects and Steel Firms
Glass
220 R ecycl e v er sus R euse 243 Index of Locations

183 Supp o r t Systems

220 Recycled Content 244 On the Author and the Technical
for Gl azing Illustrator
220 Component Reuse
184 S e l ecting the 245 Sponsors

App r o p r i a t e S y s t e m 221 Adaptive Reuse

186 S i m p le C u r ta i n Wa l l 223 Su s t a inable Benefits

Supp o r t S y s t e m s o f AESS

186 S i m p l
e Wind -Br aced 223 L o w - Carbon Design
Systems Str ategies
225 Reduce Material
187 C a b l e - Supp o r t e d
S t r uc t u r a l G l a s s 225 Reduce Finishes
Envelopes
225 Reduce Labor
188 Cable Net Walls
226 Reduce Transportation
189 Stainless Steel Spider Connectors
227 Durability
190 Cable Truss Systems

192 Complex Cable Systems

C H A P TER 1 5
195 Operable Steel and Glass Systems

196 Handling Curves

228 STEEL IN TEM P O -
RARY E X H IBITION
197 L a t t i c e Sh e l l
C o n s t r uc t i o n
B U ILDINGS

C H A P TER 1 3

202 A d v a n c e d F r a m i n g
Systems: Steel and
Timber
204 Ch a r acter istics

205 D e t a iling Issues

206 Fa br ic ation a nd
Erection Issues

206 Finish Issues

207 Hidden Steel

208 Process Profile:

Addition to the Art
G a l l ery of Onta r io

212 Process Profile:

R i ch m o n d Sp e e d
S k at i ng Ova l
Preface
Building construction is an increasingly complex subject of study and field of practice.
There are numerous materials and systems from which an architect or engineer can se-
lect when designing the structure of a building. The basis of the idea behind this book
lies in a firm belief in the benefits of recognizing the intrinsic connection between char-
acteristics of materials and the design of buildings. Good building design responds to,
incorporates and builds upon the potential of its materials. The selection of the primary
structural material must occur at the beginning of the development of the parti to be
integrated into the design and fine-tuned by the design intentions.

Although steel is inherently a very technical material, from its engineering to its detail-
ing, it is a material whose characteristics have enormous potential for the creation of
dynamic architecture. I maintain that it is more important for architects to have a good
grasp of the nature and detailing of steel systems than it is for them to perform calcula-
tions. Much is to be gained by careful study of exemplary projects as a means to leverage
a better understanding of the potential of steel. Architects must also appreciate the
critical role that is played by the steel fabricator and erector in facilitating the design
of more complex structural systems and articulated details.

I have been teaching building construction at the School of Architecture at the Univer-
sity of Waterloo, ON, Canada since 1983. My approach to teaching has been strongly
based on the review of projects with a mind to understanding and learning from their
ambitions, successes and failures. I have worked with the Canadian Institute of Steel
Construction and the Steel Structures Education Foundation of Canada to document
exemplary steel projects, including their construction, where possible. The construction
process is a temporary phase. Once a building is complete and aspects of the construc-
tion process removed from view, the study of the building structure becomes difficult.
The majority of architectural publications focus on the occupied building and seldom
include exhaustive information about the construction process. Most architectural pho-
tography is commissioned of completed buildings. Construction documentation is a long
process that can require a commitment of several years. Most construction images are
taken by site personnel and are not intended for publication. It became my personal
passion to undertake such documentation in order to both personally understand the
process as well as share it with my students.

It was my privilege over the last decade to have the opportunity to document several
projects, largely covering the entire span from groundbreaking to opening, designed
by high-profile architects such as Foster + Partners, Frank Gehry, Studio Libeskind,
Antoine Predock and Will Alsop. These local projects lend a Canadian flavor to several
chapters, as they form a core reference for some of the more detailed fabrication and
erection descriptions.

Thanks to the steel fabricators, Walters Inc., Benson Steel and Mariani Metal for provid-
ing tours of their fabrication plants and to the contractors, PCL Constructors, EllisDon
Corporation, Vanbots and Ledcor for facilitating my access to the sites. Thanks to Kubes
Steel for allowing me to tour their bending facility.

The large custom-fabricated con-

nections at Heathrow Terminal 5 in
London, England by Richard Rogers
are the result of high-level collabora-
tion between the architect, engineer,
fabricator and constructor.
–
8
–
9
The Approach of this Book
It is the intention of this book to provide architects with a different kind of information
about steel, one that places them ahead in understanding the design potential of the
material.

There is a transformative connection between historic developments in iron and steel

technologies over the past 250 years and the evolution of Modern architecture. This con-
nection forms the basis of the brief selected history of the evolution of iron and steel
construction to the present time disbursed throughout the following chapters. The con-
nection between early or precedent-setting innovations in iron and steel, and the evolu-
tion of these methods as they impact current design, fabrication and erection methods,
will inform the approach to understanding each aspect of steel design in contemporary
architectural applications.

This is not a case study text. Many of the projects and buildings used as examples will
be broken apart and their particular aspects discussed in appropriate chapters. Some
more detailed, project-based “Process Profiles” provide the reader with a more compre-
hensive understanding of the detailed design and construction workflow. In addition to
straightforward concepts like concealed structural steel framing, a focus will be on the
design of exposed steel systems, as extrapolations of standard practice, because these
require much more aptitude on the part of the architect, who must now be involved in
the detailed design of systems and connections.

Photographs
The majority of the photographs were taken by the author (if no other photo credit has
been assigned). Architecture is experiential and a building cannot be fully understood
by looking at a single “classic” shot. It is hoped that readers will gain some new and
different insights into steel construction through the range of projects (both obscure
and renowned) and the varied views. Steel construction is about details, and the photos
included will take you as close as possible so that you can begin to understand better
the process and workings of steel design.

The book has been crafted around my first-hand experience of steel buildings. It is my
preference to speak and write about places that I have visited, rather than interpret the
experiences of others. The use of my own photographs also reflects a focus on specific
aspects of projects that are not often included in the images of others. Although many
of the photos for this text have been sourced from my personal teaching collection,
a significant effort was put into widening my international database of images to better
reflect the current state of steel construction around the world.

Drawings and Illustrations

Steel requires quite detailed drawings to communicate information among team mem-
bers about the structure and connection design. Many illustrations included in the
book have been contributed by fabricators who have been involved in the realization
of many of the projects. These illustrations demonstrate the variety of approaches to
sharing information about the detailing of the steel and the integration of other sys-
tems. Where such drawings or photographs were not available, illustrations have been
created by Vincent Hui to provide more detailed and sometimes technical information
about a particular building or method of construction.

The illustrations of the various projects in this book are intentionally devoid of di-
mensional and material size references. They are intended to increase the conceptual
understanding of the types of systems and connection details used in the buildings.
Predominant technical terminology follows North American use. European terms have
been incorporated where appropriate.

–
PREFACE
Acknowledgments
This publication has been made possible through the generous support of Walters Inc.
Steel Fabricators and the Regions of the Canadian Institute of Steel Construction.

Particular thanks to Vincent Hui and Sam Ghantous of Ryerson University for the produc-
tion of the technical illustrations in the book.

The writing of this book brings to a state of focus the accumulation of about 30 years
of study, investigation and experience in the design and construction of steel buildings.
The journey began when I was a student of architecture in the late 1970s and early 1980s
and had the opportunity to travel to Paris and experience the newly constructed Centre
Pompidou. Interest in the High Tech movement, historical cast steel structures and the
emerging exposed structural steel style led me along an interesting path in the acquisition
of knowledge and images of noteworthy steel buildings. Over the years I have attempted
to visit each project and document it on a personal level. Whereas I could not possibly
take my students to visit each site, I tried to bring to them a more personal experience of
the architecture – different than that available in common texts on steel and construction
techniques. I have made an effort to share this visual experience with the architectural
community.

In the late 1990s I commenced a research relationship with the Canadian Institute of Steel
Construction and the Steel Structures Education Foundation. The funded research that
I  carried out provided further opportunity to more completely understand the implica-
tions of fabrication and erection on design and detailing, as well as to experience projects
more closely. Many thanks to Mike Gilmor, Dave MacKinnon and Hugh Krentz for trusting
me with these interactive educational projects.

Involvement in the AESS Committee and the production of the “CISC Guide for Specify-
ing Architecturally Exposed Structural Steel” is responsible for fuelling some of the more
detailed technical material included in this book. My understanding and experience of steel
would be nowhere without the assistance of Sylvie Boulanger, Walter Koppelaar and Tim
Verhey. Sylvie is my engineering counterpart and has willingly shared so much knowledge
and insight with me. We both have a passion for what steel can help architecture to be,
AESS in particular. Walter has always encouraged me and allowed me into his fabrication
shop, and provided access to numerous job sites (OCAD, ROM, Leslie Dan, Guelph Science
Building, Bow Encana and the Canadian Museum for Human Rights). Accessing construction
sites is not easy. Without these detailed first-hand experiences of construction in process,
my expertise would not have progressed beyond that of a standard instructor and my im-
age bank would be substantially poorer. Tim Verhey was always willing to provide me with
very detailed technical clarifications, many of which are included in this book.

Thanks as well to Rob Third and Ziggy Welsch of George Third and Son Fabricators, Steve
Benson of Benson Steel, Vince Mariani of Mariani Metal and John Rogers of Kubes Steel. The
information, images, shop tours and insights you provided also feature heavily in this book.

Thanks to the students and faculty at the School of Architecture, University of Waterloo
where I have been teaching full-time since 1986. You have always been encouraging of
my work. To Reinhold Schuster, my former structures professor, who mentored my inter-
est in structural steel and teaching. To Ed Allen for the inspiration that teaching materials
could be “more”.

Thanks as well to my editor Andreas Müller for “seeing this book in me” and who has made
the process of bringing the book to completion pure pleasure. Gratitude to Andreas and
his wife Barbara for hosting me in Berlin during the documentation and editing phases of
the book. Rein Steger has done marvellous work in laying out the book. Thanks to Steffen
Walter for the German translation.

Lastly thank you to my family for enduring me for the last year while I “lived the book”.
It has been quite exhilarating, full of writing and travel. Appreciation to my daughters Alex
and Sierra for accompanying me to Europe and China on photo gathering missions, and
to my husband Brian for taking me to the UAE to see some spectacular buildings. Thanks
to Elanne for tolerating many long absences of her mother.

–
11
C H A P TER 1

---

Th e T r a n s f o r m a t i v e
Natur e of Steel
C o n s t r uc t i o n
---

Th e I n t r i n s i c C o n n e c t i o n b E t w e e n
Historic Developments in Steel
a n d M o d e r n A r ch i t e c t u r e
Steel is about Tension

Steel is about Industrialization and Mass Fabrication

Standard Structural Steel versus Architecturally

Exposed Structural Steel (AESS)

F r o m T e ch n i q u e t o T e ch n o l o g y

Oriental Pearl Tower. The

skyline of Shanghai, China as
seen from the Huangpu River.
The change in architecture,
which is due to the impact
of the potential of steel,
is clearly evident in a skyline
that borders on the futuristic.
Whether these buildings have
structural steel skeletons,
or their concrete relies on steel
reinforcing, the potential of
the materiality and the struc-
tural properties of steel are at
the root of the architecture.
The developments in the conceptual base of architectural design over the past 300
years reveal an intrinsic link between the emergence of new materials, the techno-
logical advancement of existing materials, progress in environmental control systems,
and resultant architectural form and theory. Little change has taken place that cannot
be traced to the influence of new technologies.

The complete course of architectural history and building activity has changed as the
direct result of transformations due to the incorporation of steel as a main building
material. Almost every urban skyline and major building uses this material. Steel has
changed the way that we design buildings. It has allowed architects to create structures
that at one time were captives of the imagination and the property of “visionaries”.

Yet many in the architectural profession have not been able to grasp the full potential
of the material, nor understand and therefore exploit its detailed design – from concept
through fabrication and erection. As structural steel has slowly emerged from its tradi-
tional concealed state, to one of exposure and expression, it has also slipped from resid-
ing mainly in the field of engineering, and placed itself in the domain of architecture.

The advent of iron construction in France and England in the 18 th and 19 th centuries
coincided with the growing separation between the areas of expertise of Architect
and Engineer, and additionally gave rise to divisiveness in architectural theory and
education regarding the adoption and suitability for use of the material. The calcula-
tion and detailing of iron came to be part of the engineer’s duties as the 18th century
use of iron was at first typically found in the construction of bridges, mill buildings and
arcade roofs, which were seldom designed by architects. There was much controversy
surrounding this new material and as a result, iron was at the outset delegated as an
industrial material. Even J.N.L. Durand of the École Polytechnique, a more technically
driven architectural institution compared to the École des Beaux-Arts, rejected iron as a
building material. However, Durand’s textbook Précis des Leçons and its establishment
of the “mécanisme de la composition” were paramount in setting forth a rationalized
grid which, in addition to building upon the accepted lines of classical symmetry pres-
ent in Beaux-Arts design, in future allowed for the industrialization and regularization
of architecture, qualities that were well suited to iron and steel construction and mass/
modular production in general.

T H E INTRINSI C C ONNE C TION BETWEEN

H ISTORI C DEVELO P MENTS IN STEEL AND
MODERN AR C H ITE C T U RE
Architectural design is closely linked to the materiality of the structure and the systems
chosen to frame and clad the building, and the inherent strength and performance
characteristics of that material. There is a deep intrinsic connection between the char-
acteristics of the material chosen and the building to be designed. The selection of the
material must be concurrent with the conception of the idea or parti for the project.
Highly successful architectural projects are the result of this type of comprehensive
thinking. The invention of iron, and subsequently steel, was responsible for completely
changing both the process and the product of architectural design. Historically based
changes still influence and inform the way that architecture, particularly (but not ex-
clusively) steel architecture, is designed today.

Steel is about TENSION

Each material behaves in a unique manner – and the technological development of
architecture has been reliant on discoveries surrounding the capabilities of each mate-
rial. Architecture prior to the advent of iron was based on compression. Steel is, by its
nature, a material that performs exceptionally well in tension. No other common build-
ing material comes close to this structural benefit. There were no significant structural
or architectural precedents or experimentation prior to early iron buildings that were
designed to intentionally exploit tension. Architectural and engineering developments
from the past 250 years have made a significant contribution to the way that we un-
derstand and design with steel.

–
THE TRANSFORMATIVE NATURE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION
 Steel is about INDUSTRIALIZATION and MASS FABRICATION
Iron and steel lend themselves to industrialized manufacturing processes
and mass production. This has had significant impact on the design, fab-
rication and erection of buildings. It has required that architects become
increasingly familiar with the finer details of the process of construc-
tion, much more so than other materials have required. Architects must
understand methods of fabrication and erection in steel in order to be
able to contribute to successful design in this material.

Standard Structural Steel versus Architecturally Exposed

Structural Steel (AESS)
Steel in buildings can take two forms. It is either structurally concealed
or architecturally exposed. Hidden steel must be economically designed
and “keep the loads happy”. Architecturally Exposed Structural Steel
(AESS) must, additionally, be designed in a way that creates a dynamic
and vital aesthetic for the building. Basic structural steel requires less
involvement in its “Design” from the project team. AESS design requires
that architects not only understand the structural aspects of load paths
and framing types, but also that they have expertise in designing con-
nections that are suitable for crafting. Architects must also appreciate
the overall impacts of the resultant fabrication and erection process-
es on the constructability and economy of a project. These might be
understood as “best practices”.

The Bibliothèque Ste. Geneviève in

Paris, France, designed by Henri
Labrouste, reveals the new light- F ROM TE C H NIQ U E TO TE C H NOLOGY
ness of structure enabled by the
introduction of industrialized cast For understanding the impact that iron and steel have on the current state of contempo-
iron. Labrouste’s work characterized rary building design, it is appropriate to focus on the influence of the rapid technological
a new typology today referred to as
progress subsequent to the early 1700s. Here we can cite the scientific divide between
“Structural Rationalism”. The notion
those structural and material inventions that were the children of “technology” versus
of mass-produced, assembled archi-
tecture was introduced here. “technique”. The term technology must be differentiated from that of technique in order
to understand its implications. Technology deals with the scientific study of a subject.
Such studies have only largely come about since the onset of the Industrial Revolution
with the advent of advanced mathematical, scientific and engineering studies. Through
these means, science offers a testing ground for increasingly reliable predictions. Tech-
nology allows for increased confidence in the design of accurate building structures,
and an accelerated speed of documentation and construction. Technique, on the other
hand, provides us with knowledge based on trial-and-error methodology, through in-
formation gathered via unscientific experimentation. Technology is, however, indebted
to technique as an initiative for study and a field of experience.

There are four key aspects that must be addressed in looking at the history of architec-
ture as it relates to the transformative nature of iron and steel construction:

→ W hat were the in herent str uctu ral benefits of the material steel a nd how did
these affect the creation of architectu re in general?
→ How did the adoption of steel buildin g tech niq ues cha n ge the ph ysical for m,
a nd thereby the style, of architectu re?
→ How did the natu re of steel constr uction cha n ge the way that we constr uct,
a nd therefore also the way that we need to desig n buildin gs?
→ W hat are the key projects whose creation provided lastin g references upon which
to build the la n g uage of steel constr uction?

–
15
The methodology of framed elemental construction, and
the language of connections displayed in 19 th century
Structural Rationalist buildings, and subsequently High
Tech Architecture, continues to be developed, perfected
and exploited as one of the desirable aesthetic charac-
teristics of expressed steel structures. Its industrialized
construction system is also responsible for providing steel
with a competitive edge over site-cast systems.

Steel, as a structural material, became an icon for technology and modernity in the 20 th One of the most exceptional features
century. As a new structural material with immense tensile capabilities, steel allowed of steel, as a direct result of its
unique capacity to resist tensile
for the creation of architecture conceived in lightness and suspension, an architecture
forces, is its ability to cantilever.
requiring ballasting and mass to prevent it from taking flight. To speculate on the
The Graduate Residence at the
ramifications of the non-existence of steel would make us realize the continuation of University of Toronto, ON, Canada,
an earthbound, compressive design language. It was, in fact, the tensile capabilities designed by Morphosis Architects,
of steel that challenged design in reinforced concrete to aspire to free itself from its uses the cantilevering capabilities of
inherent compressive conceptuality – and resulted in the eventual creation of tensile steel to suspend its signage over the
reinforcement, prestressing and a structural language of pure fantasy. adjacent street.

There are significant inventions in the recent history of steel construction that have
resulted in shifts in design and subsequent theory. The British High Tech movement
was able to make use of the invention of tubular material, whose form changed the
articulation and expression of this new language of exposed steel connections. This
movement was to evolve into contemporary Architecturally Exposed Structural Steel.
This type of structural expression demands that architects become increasingly engaged
in understanding the design, detailing and construction of steel structures, not only as
a function of the engineering of such forms, but more the realities and promise to be
found in their fabrication. If Mies said that “God is in the details”, he may have been
seeing well beyond the strict formality of early Modern steel buildings and forward to
the wild range of expression in contemporary structures.

Iron, steel and glazing systems have interdependent con-

nectivity through their concurrent historical development.
Early exhibition building, arcade and galleria typologies
relied on inventions in iron and steel framing systems
to permit increasing use of glass to daylight structures.
The invention of stainless steel spider connections, cable
support structures and mullionless glazing systems for
projects like the Serres at La Villette by Peter Rice and
the Willis Faber Dumas Building by Norman Foster for-
ever modified the concept and detailing of the Modernist
“glass box” and its dependency on traditional curtain wall
cladding systems. Likewise, the more recent development
of steel lattice systems, such as those seen in the Milan
Exhibition Center by Massimiliano Fuksas and the British
Museum Courtyard roof by Norman Foster, have freed
steel design from strict platonic geometries.

The lead ironworker works to com-

plete the erection of a tight-fitting
element of diagrid steel into the Addi-
tion to the Royal Ontario Museum,
Michael Lee-Chin Crystal, Toronto,
ON, Canada by Studio Libeskind.

–
THE TRANSFORMATIVE NATURE OF STEEL CONSTRUCTION
Brookfield Place, Toronto, ON,
Canada, designed by Santiago
Calatrava, highlights the potential
of Architecturally Exposed
Structural Steel.

The Neues Kranzler Eck Building in Berlin,

Germany, designed by Helmut Jahn, high-
lights the dynamic potential of the marriage
of exposed steel and glass systems.

The Pritzker Pavilion in Chicago,

IL, USA, designed by Frank Gehry,
illustrates the expressive potential
and construction challenges in the
use of curved steel.

–
17
C H A P TER 2

---

T H E MATERIALITY
O F STEEL
---

STR U C T U RAL P RO P ERTIES O F STEEL

H OT - ROLLED STEEL S H A P ES

H OLLOW STR U C T U RAL SE C TIONS ( H SS )

Electric Resistance Welding (ERW) Process

Form-Square Weld-Square Process

E C ONOMIES IN DETAILING AND

S P E C I F YING STEEL

D e s i g n a n d M o d e l i n g S of t wa r e

There is a wide range of steel

shapes in production.
The availability of members
varies by geographic location.
S t r uc t u r a l P r o p e r t i e s o f S t e e l
Each material behaves in a unique manner – and the technological development of
architecture has been reliant on discoveries surrounding the best capabilities of each
material. Steel is by its nature a material that performs exceptionally well in tension.
No other common building material comes close to this structural benefit. There are no
significant structural or architectural precedents prior to experimentation in early iron
buildings that were designed to intentionally exploit tension. Architecture prior to the
advent of iron was based on compression.

A chart comparing the Ultimate strength of

Regular carbon steel: 400 MPa | 60,000 psi

High-strength steel: 760 MPa | 110,000 psi
Stainless steel: 860 MPa | 125,000 psi
Steel prestressing strands: 1,800 MPa | 260,000 psi

Wrought iron: 234–372 MPa | 34,000 – 54,000 psi

Cast iron w/ 4.5% carbon: 200 MPa | 29,000 psi
Timber (pine): 40 MPa | 5,800 psi
Marble: 15 MPa | 2,200 psi
Concrete is noted as having no real tensile strength.

The strength of steel is based upon its “ultimate tensile strength” (UTS). This is the
maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before
necking, which is when the specimen’s cross section starts to significantly contract.
The tensile strength is dependent on the carbon content of the steel as well as the in-
clusion of various alloys. The majority of structural steel framework is fabricated from
regular carbon steel. This steel is able to be welded or bolted and is commonly used in
both concealed structural and exposed structural applications. High strength steel is
predominantly selected for long-span situations as a means to reduce the use of mate-
rial (thereby reducing the dead weight to be supported by the member) and overall
dimensions of the members. Stainless steel, although stronger, is more expensive due
to the presence of alloys, and requires extra engineering and care during fabrication.
It is normally reserved for use in highly exposed conditions.

Steel can be manufactured in an Integrated Mill using the Basic Oxygen Method or
at a Mini Mill using an Electric Arc Furnace. The Electric Arc Furnace is able to use a
higher proportion of recycled steel (see Chapter 14: Steel and Sustainability for more
information). Both methods include an amount of iron ore in their processes. Both mills
manufacture hot-rolled sections as well as plate and bar type materials.

Standard structural steel has no built-in resistance to corrosion and, if used in applica-
tions where it will be exposed to moisture or a harsh environment, must be protected.
Both stainless steel and weathering steel have altered chemical properties that provide
them with very different, but inherent, resistance to damaging corrosion (see Chapter7:
Coatings, Finishes and Fire Protection for more detailed information).

–
THE MATERIALITY OF STEEL
H o t - R o l l e d S t e e l Sh a p e s
The hot rolling process produces a set range of steel shapes that are classed in terms
of their section properties – overall dimensions, web and flange thicknesses, weight
per linear meter or foot. Mills around the world will stock a slightly different range of
sizes as a function of demand, production capability and adherence to either Imperial
or SI units. If working “out of country” it is important to verify the range of product
available if exact sizing is critical to the job. The transportation of the steel elements
from the mill to the fabricator, and from the fabricator to the site, has a great impact on
the cost of the product. The importation of specialty steel shapes can exacerbate this
situation and also add time delays to a project. Transportation will also impact “green
rating systems”, so proximity to the fabricator is of issue here as well.

Hot-rolled steel shapes are formed using rollers and for the purposes of fabrication it
should be recognized that the inside “corners” where the web and flange join will be
rounded.

The naming, sizing and availability of hot-rolled sections varies worldwide. It is strongly
suggested that you verify this information for your region.

Left: The inside corner and outer

edges of these equal leg angles
are rounded.

Right: The rolling process associated

with these beam sections has resulted
in a slope on the flange members.

If structural members are required which exceed the rolling limits of the mill, then these
will need to be fabricated from plate sections. The dimensional limits of the section will
then depend on the available plate thicknesses. Continuous weld seams will be apparent
where the plates have been joined.

This large member is being fabri-

cated from multiple thicknesses of
150 mm / 6 in plate to achieve the
desired dimensions.

–
21
H o l l o w S t r uc t u r a l SE C TIONS ( H SS )
Hollow structural sections were not widely available until the latter part of the 1970s
and have truly changed the appearance and detailing of structural steel – particularly
exposed structural steel. Standard hollow structural sections are available in square,
rectangular or circular proportions. Special elliptical shapes are now also available, al-
though the range of sizes and the number of mills producing these are limited. The over-
all dimensions will vary as a function of the capabilities of the mill, as not all mills are
tooled to produce very large sizes. Generally sections over 400 mm in diameter will
need to be specially ordered. Sometimes these are manufactured using helical welds.
This should be verified before ordering in case these welds are not aesthetically suited
to the project.

Hollow structural sections are to be differentiated from mechanical pipe. HSS members
are typically created by rolling/forming and welding a flat plate (producing a continu-
ous seam) while mechanical pipe is extruded and therefore has no seam. Mechanical
pipe is made from different steel, resulting in altered structural and welding properties.
Pipe is also only available in round cross-sectional shape. Mechanical pipe has a differ-
ent surface than carbon steel, so that using mixed materials in an exposed application
might negatively affect the appearance, as the differing surface characteristics will be
visible through standard paint applications. The finish on pipe is more in keeping with
the texture of cast steel and is therefore often chosen for use with castings (see Chap-
ter 10: Castings). Pipe cannot be used in seismic locations.

There are three ways to form hollow structural shapes, the two most common of which
are the basic Electric Resistance Welding Process and the Form Square Process.

Electric Resistance Welding (ERW) Process

HSS shapes are created from large coils of sheet material. The coils are unwound and
pass through a series of rollers that form the sheet into a circular cross-section. The tube
runs past equipment that creates a continuous weld along the seam. The strip edges are
heated by either high-frequency induction or contact welding and then forged together
by weld rolls to create a continuous longitudinal weld without the addition of filler metal.
Once formed into a welded circular shape, the tubes will then pass through additional
sets of rollers to create rectangular or square shapes. These are then cut into the re-
quired lengths and bundled for shipping to fabrication shops. The width of the plate
will determine the maximum perimeter of the tubular shape. Before including very large
tubular shapes in a design it is best to verify the maximum size that is locally available.

Left: Rolls of plate are used to create

HSS shapes. The width of the plate
will determine the perimeter mea-
surement of the tube.

Right: The round primary HSS

shape is formed by passing through
a series of rollers prior to the weld-
ing of the seam.

–
THE MATERIALITY OF STEEL
The walls of these rectangular HSS Form-Square Weld-Square Process
shapes are quite thick, which means This method is used exclusively for square members. The member starts as a long flat
that the corners of the shape will
plate. In the weld mill, driven forming dies progressively shape the flat strip by form-
have a larger radius than would
ing the top two corners of the square or rectangular tube in the initial forming station.
result with the use of thinner plate.
The weld seam can be seen on the Subsequent stations form the bottom two corners of the shape. As the member is
interior of the shape and it should shaped the seam will be formed along the center top of the member. The shape’s seam
be noted that it is located asym- is welded by high-frequency contacts when the tube is near its final shape and size.
metrically. The position of the weld The welded tube is cooled and then driven through a series of sizing stations which
seam will vary because the base finalize the tube’s dimensions.
shape from which these are formed is
circular, which makes it difficult for
As tubular shapes are created from plate, the wall thicknesses are consistent on all sides.
the seam to be uniformly oriented as
the shape passes through the rollers. HSS shapes are manufactured in a variety of weights with consistent exterior dimen-
Some manufacturers are able to more sions, as these are controlled by the setting of the shaping rollers. For visual consistency
accurately position the weld seam it is possible to maintain a uniform appearance of size while varying the wall thickness
in a consistent manner. It is wise to of the members to suit the loading requirements.
ascertain this when you are sourcing
material.
The weld appearance of the seam is partially removed from the exterior of the section
but is still apparent on the product. It will be important, when using these sections in
exposed conditions, to include the orientation of the weld seam in the design specifi-
cations. It is reasonable to ask that the weld seam be oriented consistently and away
from view to improve the visual appearance of the finished steel.

There are many benefits to using HSS material over standard structural shapes. Although
HSS sections are slightly more expensive than standard structural shapes, there are
savings that result from a decrease in exterior surface area for finishing. Although HSS
sections are generally used more in exposed applications, material costs can be reduced
when these are used as unbraced or bi-axially loaded columns and beams.

The benefits of usin g HSS members specifically include:

→ a n aesthetic appeal due to the visual lightness of the members a nd clea nliness
of the shape
→ the reduced weight of the steel over sta ndard str uctu ral shapes due to their
relative str uctu ral efficiency
→ HSS is good at resistin g torsion effects due to eccentric loadin g.
→ Tubular sections are efficient in compression due to their reduced slenderness
in bucklin g situations.
→ Tubular sections ca n be more efficient tha n a sta ndard wide-fla n ge bea m if the
member needs to be u n restrained th roughout its len gth.
→ Tubular sections are better with combined bendin g a nd torsion, which is of
particular benefit for cu r ved members in plain view.
→ Coatin g costs are reduced as lon g as the interior is not req uired to be coated
(as will be req uired in galva nized processes).

–
23
Ec o n o m i e s i n D e t a i l i n g
a n d Sp e c i f y i n g S t e e l
The cost of steel to a project varies greatly from project to project. There are many
variables that affect the cost of steel. The base cost of steel as a raw material fluctuates
with the economy, supply and demand. As steel can use a high proportion of recycled
material and avoid extraction and processing of raw ore, recycled content can result
in decreased costs. If there is a local shortage of recycled steel due to high demand,
this can drive up the cost of the steel. Energy costs associated with the production of
shapes will also impact the cost of the steel. Generally, the cost of standard structural
steel for a project is based roughly on tonnage, with some inflection as a result of the
shape. W shapes, angles and channels generally cost less than hollow shapes, as the
latter have higher production costs. HSS uses the steel more efficiently in some design
circumstances, hence might cost less overall, as less tonnage may ultimately be required.

Fabrication costs for steel will be significant in Architecturally Exposed Structural Steel
projects, where the steel becomes the expression of the architectural design. The con-
nections in these projects tend to be more articulated and less regular and will cause
additional costs that may range from 20 to 250% above standard costs (see Chapter 6:
AESS: Design and Detailing Requirements for further discussion on this issue). Modu-
lar designs and repetitive components will benefit even the most articulated designs,
as jigs can be constructed to assist with alignment and shop welding to a high level of
consistency.

Shop labor is typically less expensive than site labor. The more elements can be fabri-
cated and prefinished in the shop, the lower the costs. The shop provides a controlled
atmosphere and access to overhead lifting equipment that adds efficiency. It will be
important to predetermine the maximum size of element that can be prefabricated in
the shop as a function of the shop size, size of exit doors from the shop, crane capac-
ity, trucking capacity and the road and bridge overpass clearance between the shop
and the site. The distance elements must be shipped directly impacts delivery costs.

The complexity of the building and its structural system will impact erection costs.
Complexity normally infers additional time for erection and this translates quite directly
into the cost of labor. Additional costs will result if a site is large and might require
multiple cranes to orchestrate the lifts. Sometimes the crane can be located centrally
and the pieces can be designed and sized to be lifted by a single crane. Regular geom-
etries can be erected more quickly as it is more straightforward to predict the lifting
points and the pieces tend to be assembled with ease. Diagrid buildings or those with
eccentric geometries can require additional erection time. In some instances it is not
unusual for the ironworkers to need more than one attempt to install oddly shaped or
unbalanced pieces.

For specialty or advanced structures such as AESS, tensile structures, diagrids, curved
elements and composite structures using wood and glass, extra costs should be bud-
geted for specialty engineering, shop drawings, mock-ups and potential scheduling
delays arising from unforeseen erection or fitting problems.

For standard projects today, the cost of the material is around 25% of the cost of the
installed and finished steel. The proportion of labor and engineering costs can be sig-
nificantly higher on projects that expose the steel.

–
THE MATERIALITY OF STEEL
 D e s i g n a n d M o d e l i n g S of t wa r e
The migration to Building Information Modeling (BIM) systems has offered some cost
savings to the detailed design of a wide range of structural steel applications. The ma-
jority of steel projects now make use of specialized BIM detailing software, regardless
of the complexity of the project.

In Modelin g mode this detailin g software ca n:

→ view the str uctu ral models
→ create a nd modify grids
→ model parts a nd bolts
→ create welds
→ add loads to a model
→ create assemblies of steel parts
→ create levels of assembly hierarch y
→ create detailed steel con nections
→ create automatic preset con nections to multiple parts
→ create erection seq uences
→ view model in for mation in 4D (si mulated schedule)
→ mark/nu mber parts automatically

In Output mode this BIM software ca n:

→ create general arra n gement drawin gs (pla n, section, erection, etc.)
→ create sin gle-part a nd assembly drawin gs
→ print a nd plot drawin gs a nd reports
→ create reports (assembly lists, part lists, etc.)

The software en ha nces cooperation a mon g the members of the project tea m by
allowin g them to:
→ work si multa neously on the sa me model with several users
→ interface with other tools a nd disciplines
→ excha n ge data
→ ex port a nd i mport data
→ interface with Str uctu ral A nalysis a nd Desig n software for data excha n ge
→ i mport a nd ex port graphic 2D a nd 3D data

The incorporation of this new modeling software has given rise to great streamlining
of the design and detailing process and has facilitated the creation of a wide range of
projects with increasingly complex geometries.

A typical digital model created using

specialized BIM steel detailing soft-
ware. It shows the steel foundation
of the Bow Encana Tower in Calgary,
AB, Canada, designed by Foster +
Partners and Zeidler Partnership.
The color coding allows for ease of
differentiation among systems and
can also be used to denote construc-
tion sequencing.

–
25
C H A P TER 3

---

Steel Connections and

F r a m i n g T e ch n i q u e s
---

Th e I d e a B e h i n d F r a m i n g

Basic Connection Str ategies

Fr amed Connections
Beam-to-Girder Connections

Girder or Beam-to-Column Connections

Column Connections

Pin Connections

Floor Systems

Br aced Systems

Truss Systems
Planar Trusses

Three-Dimensional Trusses

The tubular steel structure at the

Friedrichstadtpassagen Quartier
206 Shopping Mall in Berlin,
designed by Pei Cobb Freed and
Partners, makes predominant use
of welded connections to achieve
a clean appearance in resolving
the intersection of the large round
members. The smaller members
that support the skylight use a
combination of welded and bolted
connections, as these are visually
less dominant. The framing is
highlighted against the dark night
sky, making its joinery more vis-
ible at night than during the day.
T H E IDEA BE H IND F RAMING
Steel evolved as an elemental system of construction derived from early industrialized
practices that were developed for cast- and wrought-iron buildings. Discrete members
are either bolted or welded together. Buildings are typically created from a series of
prefabricated pieces that are sub-assembled in the fabrication shop, with final assembly
and erection taking place on site. Maximized shop fabrication is preferred, as it is more
expedient to cut, shape, weld and finish elements in controlled conditions. Lifting is
simply done by an overhead crane. Quality is improved. Economies are possible through
modularity and the production of larger quantities of identical elements.

Transportation from the shop to the site limits the sizes of members that can be shipped.
Elements must be designed to fit on the flatbed of a truck. Larger pieces may require
a police escort or pose difficulties navigating narrow streets. Sub-assembly of smaller
elements into larger ones on site will be limited by the lifting capacity of the crane as
well as the size of the staging area.

Framing simplifies fabrication, erection and structural analysis. Basic steel

framing is based upon a rectilinear arrangement of straight members that
are connected at framed joints. Regular geometry and even grid-based ar-
rangements of columns work to minimize eccentric loading on the structure.
Orthogonal geometry, although good for spatial planning, is inherently un-
stable. A language of reinforcement and bracing provides lateral stability either
by using solid panels, moment-resisting connections or triangulation.

Framing also allows for a simpler method of structural analysis, as most steel
systems can be broken down into two-dimensional segments and determi-
nate structures – unlike concrete systems, which use continuous members and
monolithic construction methods.

The Fair Store in Chicago, IL, USA,

designed by William Le Baron
BASI C C ONNE C TION STRATEGIES Jenney in 1890, was one of the
multi-story buildings which began
All steel framing, no matter how complicated, is based upon standard methods of con- to generate a language of standard-
nections and means of satisfying load path requirements. The majority of connections ized framing. At the time, struc-
tural member types were limited
are designed to function as “hinges”, transferring vertical and horizontal shear forces.
to I-beams, angles and plates.
They are not intended to resist moment, bending or torsional forces. This permits simple
These were connected for the most
bolted or welded methods of fastening for the connections. In cases where moment part using hot rivets. The framing
or bending forces are high, connections can be reinforced to become stiff. This may language of today is derived from
be achieved by adding material in the form of plates or angles to the connection by these early structures.
additional welding or bolting in order to resist moment forces. Lateral loads can be
resisted through the addition of bracing systems that introduce triangles into the frame,
triangular forms being inherently rigid. The additional requirement of seismic stabil-
ity builds upon the same connection strategies and methods of jointing of the frame.

Connections between steel pieces are either bolted or welded. Bolts can vary in terms
of their strength and head type. If the steel is concealed then the choice of bolt type
is purely a structural consideration, ensuring that the bolts are adequate in number to
resist the shear forces and that there is sufficient plate area to accommodate the bolting
pattern. The design of the framing systems and connections feeds directly into practical
considerations of construction methods. It is faster to erect using bolted connections,
but this does not preclude welding if this is a design requirement, be it for aesthetic
or structural reasons.

The two types of bolts typically used are Hex Head and Tension Control (TC) bolts.
Both types of bolts are fabricated from high-strength steel and both serve the same
purpose. The Hex Head bolts need access from both sides for tightening, but no special
equipment. The TC bolts need a special type of equipment to install and snap off the
end, but only one side needs access for tightening.

–
STEEL CONNECTIONS AND FRAMING TECHNIQUES
The "turn of nut" method is visible Most bolts can be simply installed to a snug-tight condition, i.e. to the maximum of
in this bolted connection on the a worker’s strength. They do not have to be pre-tensioned. Bolts only need pretension-
Canadian Museum for Human
ing under special conditions: when slippage cannot be tolerated, for seismically stable
Rights in Winnipeg, MB, Canada by
connections, when subjected to impact or cyclic loading, when they are in pure tension
Antoine Predock.
or when oversized holes are used. Otherwise, the snug-tight condition is adequate for
the normal end connections of beams. Deciding to pretension a bolt is a question of
the application rather than how large a load it needs to transfer.

If bolts do have to be pretensioned, “turn-of-nut” is the preferred method. After the

bolts are snug-tightened, an additional fraction of a turn is applied to the nut to achieve
the desired tension in the bolt. Usually, a worker will draw a chalk mark across the
diameter of the bolt before applying the extra turn. Hence, an inspector can check if
the fraction of turn was observed. In many conditions, only an additional third of a turn
is needed to achieve the desirable pretension in the bolt.

TC bolts are another way of achieving the desired tension in the bolt, but many feel
that the conventional “turn-of-nut” method is the most reliable. It is actually very dif-
ficult to determine the tension in a bolt based on a torque value because friction plays
an important role. For calculating the tension in the bolt it has to be derived from the
torque value. Once converted, the value is often not representative of the real tension
in the bolt. This is especially true for galvanized bolts.

Left: The head of the Tension Control bolt is quite distinct

from the regular Hex Head bolt. The washer and nut for
tightening are on the backside of the connection, so connec-
tion design must provide access to the rear for tightening.
TC bolts are used where slip prevention is important. On the
Bow Encana erection they are being used to secure the tem-
porary column to column connections prior to finish welding.

Right: This beam is ready to ship, its splice plates

attached with high-strength Hex Head bolts. Structural
bolts like these will normally place the nut side where
access is easiest.

In Architecturally Exposed Structural Steel design (see Chapter 6: AESS: Design and
Detailing) the choice of bolt head, pattern of attachment and preference for the side
of the connection on which the bolt heads are located will be important to the visual
architectural appearance. Much of the required construction tolerance for erection will
be a function of the degree of precision in the alignment and drilling of the holes for the
bolts. It is a common misconception that bolt holes are routinely oversized to make it
easier to align members during erection. Imprecision will result in accumulated errors
that actually make erection more difficult. Bolt holes within a steel framing system have
tight tolerances – tighter even in AESS design where “fit” is important. Slotted holes
are only used where secondary systems, such as curtain wall, are attached to the steel
framing, in order to adjust for deviations between the alignments of the systems used.

Hex Head versus Tension Control Bolts

Left: Assembly of a Hex Head bolt. A standard washer,

sitting on either side of the connection between the steel
and the head/nut, assists in distributing the load. These
types of bolts are usually installed to a snug-tight condi-
tion and they normally do not need to be pretensioned.

Right: Assembly of a Tension Control bolt. The special

compressible washer is placed only at the rear side of
the connection. There are some proprietary types of
washers that contain small pockets of brightly colored
material that will squeeze out when the desired tension
is achieved.

–
29
The steel pieces that are being joined may be attached either by lapping the primary-
load-carrying portion of the member or by placing the elements “in line”.

Lap joints: A lap joint is typically used as a tension

splice. It is suited to connections that do not need to be
symmetrical. In the left hand diagrams, the two plate
elements change their alignment on either side of the con-
nection. When force is applied to the connection, it can
fail either by the stretching the hole to the point of pull
through (middle) or by shearing through the bolt (bottom).
The higher the load on the connection, the larger or
more numerous are the bolts required. Plate thickness is
also important to resist the tension loads. There must be
adequate space between the bolt holes and the edge of the
plate to distribute the load. In the right hand diagrams
the steel on either side of the connection is unequal.
The area shown in red is the plate that will be pulled out
if the connection fails (middle). The bolt will be sheared
in two planes in this instance (bottom).

Left: The bracing connections at the Bow Encana Tower

all use simple lapped connections. The array of bolts in
the connection keeps the members in a precise geometrical
arrangement and provides adequate cross section in the
bolts to transfer the load.

Right: Where extra resistance is required, the number of

lapping plates at the Guelph Science Building is increased.
Also visible in this connection are two different bolt types.
The connection of the X-shaped plate to the underside of
the flange is being done with TC bolts, while there is a Hex
Head high-strength steel bolt through the pin connection.
The single bolt in this pin connection is designed to allow
rotation so as to make erection alignment simpler.

Butt joints: This connection is used where it is important

that the primary line of geometry of the steel plate and
the forces are “in line”. The connection is completed by
the addition of steel plates on one or both sides of the
splice. The number of bolts in the connection will be
determined by the area required to resist the shear forces.
In the left hand diagrams there is only a splice plate on
one side of the connection. This results in a single shear
plane through the bolts (bottom). The right hand diagrams
illustrate a connection that doubles the shear area in the
bolts by using plates on either side of the primary member
(bottom). If the splice is in tension, there also needs to be
enough steel between the bolt hole and the end of the plate
to resist pull-through (middle).

Left: The splices between the wide-flange members of

the diagrid structure for the Seattle Public Library, WA,
USA by Rem Koolhaas use butt joints, as it is necessary
for the web members to stay aligned. Plates are set on
either side of the splice. Additional reinforcing plates can
be seen on the top and bottom of the connection flanges.
These have been welded to appear more discrete as well
as to eliminate interference between the structure and the
curtain wall cladding.

Right: A butt joint is used to splice the beams. A pointed

slug wrench is inserted to align it during erection. Partial
bolting allows for the detachment of the crane.

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STEEL CONNECTIONS AND FRAMING TECHNIQUES
 Welded connections will normally be used when fabricating large primary elements
like a large plate girder or composite sections in the shop. Quality welding is best done
under controlled conditions. Welded connections are also preferred when fabricating
complex trusses from HSS members, as common methods of attachment such as plates
and angles are more suited to connecting members with webs and flanges. Welded
connections present different issues for concealed versus exposed structures. Chapter
6 on Architecturally Exposed Structural Steel will address issues of aesthetics and cost
implications for welded joints.

Welded connections: Plates can be spliced together using two basic

types of welded connections. Groove welds (left) are used where
the two plates must be maintained in line. Thicker plates will use
a double Vee weld, (top left), whereas thinner plates will use a single
Vee weld. If it is not important to align the plates, then lap welds can
be used (right). If the load on the lap joint is small, a single fillet or
edge weld can be used (top right). For higher loads it will be neces-
sary to use a double fillet weld (bottom right). For plate elements that
are to be joined in line, groove welding can produce a clean-looking
connection if side plates are not desired. Depending on the finish
requirements the welds can be left “as is” or ground smooth. Grind-
ing should be reserved for special high-profile applications as it is
expensive and time consuming. Grinding also weakens the weld by
removing weld material.

F RAMED C ONNE C TIONS

Steel structures are assembled using a basic suite of connection types. All other connec-
tions are variations of these to one extent or another. The basic framed connections were
developed with an assumption of the use of flange type sections. Flange-type sections
allow for access for bolting from both sides of the member. If hollow sections are used
the connections must be adapted, as the simple use of through bolting is not possible.

Beam-to-Girder Connections
There are three basic ways to frame a beam into a girder. The choice will depend upon
the bearing requirements of the flooring system, floor-to-floor height limitations and
providing space for service runs. Services can be run below the assembly although in
some cases holes may be cut in the beam or girder web to provide passage.

Left: Coped connection: In this con-

nection the top flange of the beam
is cut away so that the top edges can
remain level in order to provide a
flat surface for the flooring system.
The web is normally attached to the
girder web with a pair of angles that
are bolted to each member.

Middle: Bearing connection:

The beam bears on the girder.
The flanges are simply bolted
together. This method is used where
floor height is not an issue or where
it is desired to create passage for
services above the girder.

Right: Simple framed connection:

The beam connects into the web of
the girder without coping, where there
is no floor element to be supported.

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31
 Left: At the Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy in Toronto,
ON, Canada, a coped connection provides a level surface
for the installation of the floor deck in spite of the differ-
ence in size of the beams that are framing into the girder.
The variation in the number of bolts in the connections is
a clear indication of the differences in shear forces to be
transferred.

Right: Framing infers a clear hierarchy for the transfer

of loads through the building. The addition to the Art
Gallery of Ontario in Toronto, ON, Canada by Frank
Gehry, uses steel framing for the extension to the gallery.
The very deep beam is a transfer beam that is permitting
a large clear-span exhibit and gathering space. Holes are
cut into the beam to permit the passage of services.
Additional steel is welded around the cutouts for rein-
forcement of the web of the beam. Major steel floor beams
frame into the transfer beam using coped connections.
Smaller beams carry the future floor loads into these.
This type of framing makes it possible to apply simple
structural analysis in spite of its complexity.

Framed connections using standard wide-flange sections are commonly used in struc-
tural steel that is not intended to be architecturally exposed. Architecturally expos-
ing the steel will add extra detailing requirements for alignment as well as precision.
Aesthetics might require that both the top and bottom chords align or that the range
of steel sections be standardized, to create a more uniform appearance – even if this
means that the sections might be larger or heavier than required for loading purposes.

Left: The large brise soleil at the Las Vegas Courthouse,

NV, USA, designed by Cannon Design uses deep
wide-flange sections to create the structure for the grid.
Smaller steel sections are used as infill to provide shad-
ing. Exposing the steel places the priority on a uniform
appearance.

Right: The grid requires that the deep beams be given

coped connections for both the top and bottom chord to
achieve the appearance of a uniform, non-directional grid.

Girder- or Beam-to-Column Connections

Girders and beams transfer the loads that they have received from the floor to the col-
umns. The connection can be made either to the flange of the column or to the web,
depending on the orientation of the column, which is a function of the structural layout.
Columns are generally oriented so that the dominant wind load strikes perpendicular
to the flange of the column. Connecting to the flange provides easier access for the
ironworkers to tighten bolts.

Beams and girders will be lifted into position by a crane, the matching holes in the
angle connectors are aligned with a slug wrench, and the bolts inserted. For some proj-
ects temporary angle “seats” will be attached to the column to provide a ledge upon
which to sit the beam, allowing the crane to detach earlier and to speed up erection.
These seats can be removed after the connection is complete, or remain in place to
stiffen the connection.

–
STEEL CONNECTIONS AND FRAMING TECHNIQUES
 If the beam is connected to the web of the column, adequate space must be provided
for access by the ironworkers.

Left: Seated connection. Angles are bolted to the

column to provide a ledge for the beam during erection.
The angles may remain to provide additional support
if required, or they can be removed if structurally
unnecessary.

Middle: In this standard framed connection the angles

are bolted to the web of the beam at the shop and then
bolted to the column flange on site. The connection acts
as a hinge in that it is only designed to resist shear.

Right: This connection has been reinforced to resist

moment. Plates have been welded to the column prior to
erection. They are also welded to the flanges of the beam
so as to provide resistance to bending at the connection.

The roof of this transit station in

Vancouver, BC, Canada uses a
variety of standard framing methods
to transfer the loads to the column.
The direction of span is always per-
pendicular to the support member.
In this instance the girder frames
into the side of the wide-flange
column, attaching with bolted angles
to the web. Note the transfer of loads
from the profiled decking through the
beams and back to the column.

Column Connections
Steel columns are generally welded to a base plate that is used to attach the column
to the foundation pier or supporting system. The plate is normally larger than the col-
umn, drilled with holes, and lowered over threaded rods that have been set into the
foundation.

Left: This simple base connection

uses four threaded bolts to anchor
the plate. The plate sits slightly
above the concrete foundation in
order to allow for leveling nuts to sit
beneath the plate, thereby permitting
alignment. The void below the plate
is packed with grout both to assist
with load transfer and to fix the posi-
tion of the nuts. The aesthetic could As vertical loads are carried down the structure the loads accumulate and increase
have been improved if all of the on the columns on lower floor levels. Columns for higher floors are smaller in their
threaded bolts had been trimmed to
strength requirements than for lower floors. The columns in multi-story buildings must
the same height. The column mem-
ber is pin-connected to the base.
be spliced, as the longest lengths possible are a function of shipping. There needs to
be a full transfer of load from one column to the next. In simple connections, without
Middle: A round plate is welded to eccentric loads, and where columns do not change in size at the splice, the meeting
the base of the round HSS column. surfaces are machined smooth in order to maintain the load path and side plates can
be bolted to the flanges and web in order to maintain the connection. Where the lower
Right: Larger columns that must column is only slightly larger, so that the flanges essentially align, fill plates will be
transfer more load as well as resist
used on either side of the flanges of the upper column. Where the upper column is
potential lateral forces will require
a more substantial base design.
substantially smaller, so that the flanges do not align at all, base plates are attached to
Here the threaded rods penetrate a both columns to complete the load path and prevent pressure points in the connection.
double-plate system that is reinforced Column splices can either be welded or bolted.
with the addition of steel fins welded
around the perimeter. The geometry
is carefully designed for access to
tighten the bolts. Leveling bolts
sit below the bottom plate – hence
the gap prior to finishing.

–
33
 The diagrams illustrate the standard ways to make column
splices for concealed structural steel. The splice is nor-
mally placed around 600mm/24 in above the floor level.

Left: Where the top column is smaller than the lower

column, filler plates are required to keep the flanges in
line and allow for bolting of the outside plate connectors.
A horizontal plate between the columns prevents concen-
tration points and assists in load transfer.

Middle: The size of the columns is identical and the con-

necting plates are bolted. This is essentially a butt joint.

Right: The outside plates are welded to the lower column.

The upper column will be lowered into place and secured
with bolts. The size of the columns is identical so that no
filler plates are required.

Left: At the Bow Encana Building in Calgary, AB, Canada by

Foster + Partners and Zeidler Partnership, this square steel
column has been erected and is being prepped for Groove
welding. The bolted tabs on either side of the columns are
temporary and will be removed once the finish welding is
complete. The edges of the upper column have been machined
away to leave room for the weld. This is to increase the exposed
area of steel to engage the weld. These two column sections are
identical in size, so no other accommodation is required.

Right: These two wide-flange columns have been welded at

their splice. As the upper column is slightly smaller than
the lower one, an additional plate has been welded to ensure
proper load transfer through the connection. The long “bumps”
on the edges of the meeting flanges indicate where the tempo-
rary steel connecting plates have been removed.

Left: This column splice employs matching plates that are

bolted. The size of a plate must be adequate to accommo-
date the bolt holes and provide access to tighten the bolts.

Right: This column splice shows the use of side plates

to connect the two identically sized column pieces.
The holes at the top of the side tabs are used by the crane
to lift the column into place.

Pin Connections
Most connections are designed to act as hinges in that they transfer horizontal and
vertical shear loads and are not intended to resist moment. Some hinge connections
are even designed to look like hinges, making their function more apparent. Connec-
tions whose structural intention is to actually permit rotation are characterized by their
use of a single bolt or other attachment mechanism and are referred to as pin connec-
tions. Framed connections that are transferring vertical and horizontal loads and are
not intended to rotate will have as many bolts as are required to resist the shear forces
at the point.
–
STEEL CONNECTIONS AND FRAMING TECHNIQUES
Left: This structure at Heathrow Terminal 5 in London,
UK, designed by Richard Rogers, uses a variety of pin
connections to join the members.

Right: In this connection at Heathrow Terminal 5 differ-

ent colors of finish are used to accentuate the intersection
of different structural systems. The language of a single
point of attachment, a pin connection, is extrapolated to
keep the same appearance but increase the rigidity and
hence the resistance to shear between the blue beam and
grey connector – providing four points of attachment.

Left: The base connection for the primary steel ribs of

the Dubai Metro stations, UAE sits on a pin connection.
The slight, V-shaped void on either side of the connection
not only permits some variation in alignment during
erection, but also accentuates the function of the joint.

Right: The base of the tapered steel column for the

Theme Pavilion of the Expo in Shanghai, China
is resolved by a custom pin connection.

Even the most unusual steel connections are variations of the basic methods covered
in this chapter. The appearance of some is due more to an aesthetic drive than to func-
tional requirements.

This connection at Brookfield Place in Toronto, ON,

Canada, designed by Santiago Calatrava, uses a combina-
tion of welding and bolting. The fabrication of the elements
is quite precise and the actual bolted connection is
fairly simple.

F LOOR SYSTEMS
The distribution of gravity loads in a steel-framed building follows a logical path.
The sizing and spacing of members will be a function of the type of flooring system
that is to be used – most particularly of the type and spacing of members to support
the floor itself. This will be different for a standard concealed structural application
and Architecturally Exposed Structural Steel – as well as a function of the type of AESS
application.

The floor deck ca n consist of:

→ profiled steel deckin g with a concrete toppin g (deck depth varies from 38 to 91m m)
→ hollow-core precast concrete slabs

The support system for the floor ca n consist of:

→ bea ms (nor mally wide-fla n ge sections or Universal sections)
→ Open Web Steel Joists (OWSJ)
→ cellular bea ms
→ tr usses

The spacin g of the floor support members is a fu nction of:

→ the spa n nin g capabilities of the floor system itself
→ the spa n len gth
→ the member depth (this is li kely li mited by floor-to-floor height specifications)
→ the loading (dead load of the building and live load as a fu nction of the building use)

–
35
For lightweight profiled decking (38mm/1.5in deep with a concrete topping), the sup-
port members may need to be as close as 1.8m/6ft on center. This spacing would usu-
ally suggest the use of OWSJ members. If the profile of the decking is deeper (76 to
91mm/3 to 3.5in) and the concrete topping more substantially reinforced, the support
members may be several meters apart, and heavier beams used.

For steel flooring assemblies the direction of the decking

will run perpendicular to the beam or joist span. The dis-
tance between the beams or joists will be a function of the
span capabilities of the floor deck as well as the strength
of the beams or joists related to their span. The lighter
and shallower the members, the tighter the spacing. Left,
OWSJ are spaced more closely, whereas right, beams with
deeper deck are further apart.

Left: One of the advantages of steel framing is that

construction can proceed year round, even in
very cold weather conditions. The steel framing for the
Bay Adelaide Center in Toronto, ON, Canada uses
OWSJ members to support the deck.

Right: Prior to pouring the concrete floor slab, the deck-

ing is prepared by the addition of studs, reinforcing
bars and welded wire mesh, to assist in strengthening
the concrete and prevent it from cracking and also to
reinforce the structural connection between the floor and
the steel framing.

Where non-rectilinear geometries occur, modifications in the layout of the framing mem-
bers must follow. Shorter spanning lengths result in the ability to use lighter members.
Column and beam grid layouts should try to maximize the use of regular geometry to
increase efficiency and reduce cost. Specialized, non-rectilinear situations can usually
be isolated. These will normally occur at the perimeter wall of the building or around
larger openings in the floor. At the exterior edge there are usually accommodations for
the attachment of the curtain wall or cladding system.

Although many practices of steel framing are relatively standard around the globe, dif-
ferent members are used as lightweight floor support members. Where North American
buildings tend to use Open Web Steel Joists, projects in the United Kingdom and the
European Union tend to prefer cellular beams. While the double angles that form the
top chord of an OWSJ must be seated on top of the beam into which the joist is fram-
ing, cellular beams use standard angle-type connectors. Cellular beams are the modern
evolution of the castellated beam, created from wide-flange or Universal beams that
are cut along the web using a patented “ribbon cutting” process. The upper and lower
sections are welded together, forming round holes in the web of the beam. The beams
are 40 – 60% deeper than the parent beam and up to 2.5 times stronger. It is possible
to camber the beams during the rewelding process. Cambering induces an upward
curvature of the member to offset a future deflection due to load. The holes are used
for service runs.

–
STEEL CONNECTIONS AND FRAMING TECHNIQUES
 This building in London, England is using cellular beams
cut with round holes in lieu of OWSJ framing that is more
common in North America. The holes in the web member
allow for the passage of services and lighten the dead
load of the member. The edge of this building creates
a sawtooth structure to accept the curtain wall. The saw-
tooth structure is created using standard wide-flange or
Universal beams that form a cantilevered extension of the
floor plate beyond the column line.

Left: The sawtooth extension on this floor edge is not

large so does not require as extensive an alteration to the
general framing system to accommodate.

Right: A view to the underside of the floor framing for this

London office building shows how the framing is modified
to accommodate a rounded corner condition.

BRA C ED SYSTEMS
Framed and pin connections are inherently unstable. Buildings must have additional
means to provide lateral stability to the frame. The floor system will provide a degree
of stability, particularly for heavier concrete and steel composite decks where there is
sufficient reinforcing in the concrete, provided that the reinforcement is tied into the
steel structure. Concrete structures to house the elevator and stair core are commonly
used to provide stability as the monolithic nature of cast construction is inherently rigid.

Th ree other methods to add stability are:

→ rein forcement of the fra med con nections themselves to provide moment resista nce
→ addition of bracin g to the fra me
→ use of shear walls (either in concrete or steel plate)

When the connections themselves are reinforced to resist

bending moments, this is called portal frame construc-
tion. It can be used for taller buildings or in seismic zones.

In lieu of connection reinforcement, diagonal or K brac-

ing can be used in the frame to triangulate the system,
thereby adding rigidity. Diagonal bracing is not always
desired, as it can interfere with the use of the space.
Although all buildings require bracing to achieve stabil-
ity, those located in seismic zones require additional or
heavier bracing. This is a specialized field of engineering
and will not be addressed in this text, but there should
be an awareness of the nature of the measures required
by seismic design for steel-framed buildings.

The Seattle Space Needle, WA,

USA is located in an active seismic
zone. X bracing is used to reinforce
the frame of the all-steel tower.
The plates also serve to reinforce
the framed connections.

–
37
TR U SS SYSTEMS
A truss is a structure comprising one or more triangular units constructed with straight
members, whose ends are connected at joints referred to as nodes. External forces
and reactions to those forces are considered to act only at the nodes and result in axial
forces in the members that are either purely tensile or compressive. Moments (torques)
are explicitly excluded because all the joints in a truss are treated as hinges or theoreti-
cal pin connections. Trusses are capable of spanning much further than solid beams or
girder members, with less material.

Trusses can be planar, box or space type. A planar truss is two-dimensional, with all of
the members lying in essentially a single plane, the loads of the truss being picked up
from their end connections. Box-type trusses also span only in one direction but have
a three-dimensionality to them that is usually rectangular or triangular. Space trusses
are also called spaceframes. These systems can span in multiple directions, with their
loads transferred from any node in the system (see Chapter 11: Tension Systems and
Spaceframes).

Planar Trusses

Planar Truss Types: Although there

are countless variations of planar
truss types, these diagrams outline
some of the most common ones.
Fabricated from common steel angles
King Post Truss and plates, they represent the least
expensive options for fabrication.
The top and bottom members of the
trusses are referred to as “chords”
Pitched Howe Truss
and the intermediate steel as “web
members”. Under typical loading the
top chord will act in compression and
Scissor Truss
the bottom chord in tension.
Modified Warren Truss

Howe Truss

Pratt Truss

Beams and joists are intended to accept loads continually along their length (“distrib-
uted loads”). As a result, these members are designed to resist flexural or bending
stresses. Trusses are designed as pin- or hinge-connected structures, with the intention
to transfer loads axially along each member. Hence the members are designed to resist
either pure compression or pure tension, but not bending. Therefore, loads must only
be transferred to the truss at its node, panel points or joints.

The steel decking for this roof sits

on purlins. Purlins are used to
span between trusses and transfer
the loads to the truss at its panel
points. If the geometry of the con-
nection is precise, the load should
be transferred through the centroid
of the connection, resulting in only
compressive or tensile axial loading
in the chord and web members.
The further apart the trusses are
spaced, the more substantial the
purlins will need to be. The dimen-
sioning of the truss itself will be a
function of the spanning capabilities
of the decking, as the spacing of the
purlins will be directly impacted.

–
STEEL CONNECTIONS AND FRAMING TECHNIQUES
From an architectural perspective, trusses present an enormous design potential for
a building. Where common steel trusses are fabricated from standard sections, the fact
that there is only pure tensile or compressive axial loading implies that the member
selection can be finetuned so as to reflect the nature of the loading. Rods or cables can
be used for tensile members, creating a contrast with the use of sections for compression
members. This presents unique opportunities for designing the connections between
the members in a way to develop an individual architectural detailing language for
the project. (For more information on innovative truss design see Chapter 11: Tension
Systems and Spaceframes)

Left: This Paris rail bridge is a modified Pratt truss.

To allow for the steel to expand and contract, one end
of the bridge is designed as a hinge connection, and the
opposite as a roller connection.

Right: The importance of the geometry of the node can

be seen in the alignment of the incoming members of this
node. An attempt is made to ensure that the centers of
gravity of all members coincide at one point.

Left: The long-span Warren trusses at the Canadian War

Museum in Ottawa, ON, Canada, designed by Raymond
Moriyama, are fabricated from square HSS members.
The web members are slightly smaller in section than
the top and bottom chords, making it simpler to fabricate
the welded joints. Wide-flange sections carry the load
of the steel decking to the trusses. Cross bracing is intro-
duced in the plane of the roof.

Right: The trusses in the Design Studio at the University

of New Mexico School of Architecture, Albuquerque, NM,
USA, designed by Antoine Predock, are fabricated from
wide-flange sections. The incoming beams that support
the steel deck frame into the panel points of the truss.
The members are all designed to be uniform, regardless
of their tensile or compressive capacity, as a deliberate
design intention.

The skylight support system for the Edmonton

City Hall, AB, Canada, designed by Dub Archi-
tects, uses a two-way Vierendeel truss system
created from welded square HSS members.
A Vierendeel truss is a special form of truss
that does not use triangulated geometry, prefer-
ring to create fixed, moment-resisting joints.
The choice to use this truss type for the City
Hall roof resulted in a simplified geometry for
welding the joints. The choice of square HSS
simplified some of the welding of the individual
units, but made some of the intersections dif-
ficult to resolve.

Three-Dimensional Trusses
Three-dimensional truss systems are used as a means to limit the span requirements
of the structural members that carry the roof or floor loads to the trusses. The added
third dimension of the truss also provides additional lateral stability in situations of long
span. Box-type trusses have a linear span direction. This is very different from a space
frame, which can span freely in multiple directions. As with other truss types, loads must
be transferred at the nodes to ensure that there is only axial loading of the members.

Three-dimensional trusses are typically custom-fabricated for each project. They are
often used in architecturally exposed conditions, so member selection and connection
design are important. As their connections are often geometrically challenging, round
HSS sections are normally used, as it has been found to be simpler to resolve welded
connections for this member type.

–
39
 Left: The canopy support system at the Baltimore Con-
vention Center in Baltimore, MD, USA uses triangular
trusses that are braced between with lighter round HSS
members, giving the structure a space frame-like appear-
ance. The primary trusses have much larger structural
members.

Right: The connections for the truss are all welded.

The plates between the members are not intended for
stiffening but to conceal the light fixture behind. Smaller
round HSS members are welded to join the bottom chords
of the triangular trusses to provide lateral stability.

There is no limit to the forms that can be created using trusses. In instances of curved
geometry, the trusses can be fabricated to incorporate the curved structure into their
span. These trusses can use curved members for the top and bottom chords, and straight
segments for the web members.

The form of this Dubai Metro station, UAE is created

through the use of curved triangular trusses.

The curved triangular trusses that span across the Dubai

Metro stations have single round HSS top chords and a
pair of round HSS bottom chords that are separated by
smaller round HSS web members. The welded joints com-
bined with the curved steel help to keep the truss stiff in
spite of a lack of diagonal web members in the plane of
the arch/truss.

Left: The fabric roof of The Bank of America Pavilion in

Boston, MA, USA by A-Form Architecture, is supported by a
single three-dimensional trussed arch. The truss can make
use of ground access to assist erection, so it was possible to
fabricate the truss as a series of smaller elements.

Right: As it was not possible to fabricate and transport

the truss in one piece, it was divided into sections.
High-strength moment-resisting connections were then used
to create continuity in the chords. Joints were fabricated
by welding plates to the ends of the round HSS members.
The connection between the tube and the plate is stiffened
by the addition of triangular plates between each bolt hole.

Trusses are one of the more versatile framing systems in that they can be used both
as spanning members and as inhabitable spaces. If the depth of the truss is sufficient,
it is possible to plan around the web members to create usable space.

–
STEEL CONNECTIONS AND FRAMING TECHNIQUES
 Left: Warren trusses are used on alternate floors of
The University Hospital in Edmonton, AB, Canada to
house the vast mechanical systems, thereby leaving the
patient floor areas free from mechanical interference.

Right: The Phoenix Convention Center in Phoenix, AZ,

USA uses a cantilevered truss to extend out over the
street, thereby providing a shade canopy. These truss
elements are tied back into the primary structure of the
building to allow them to make such a significant cantile-
ver extension.

The unusual shape of the addition to the Ontario College of Art and Design in Toronto,
designed by Will Alsop, uses deep trusses to create a cantilevered two-story classroom
structure that sits atop 27m/90ft-long hollow steel legs.

This structural isometric of the addition to the Ontario

College of Art and Design in Toronto, ON Canada,
designed by Will Alsop, was used by the steel fabricator
and erector, Walters Inc., to visualize the construction
of the steel frame. The ability of the large two-story-
deep steel trusses to cantilever from the concrete core
facilitated the erection of the structure. The trusses were
incrementally extended over the legs.

Top left: The inherent tensile strength of the steel allows

the deep trusses to cantilever from the support legs and
the reinforced concrete core. Steel decking is being
installed for the floors and roof. The two-story classroom
building that is supported on the legs is housed within
these large trusses. The floor plan/program is arranged
around the structure.

Bottom left: The diagonals of the trusses cut through the

interior of the studio space of OCAD. The presence of
the structure is not difficult to work around and brings a
tectonic reality to the finish of the space. The majority of
the structure is buried in the walls of the smaller rooms.
Much of the steel is left exposed on the interior and
treated with a combination of intumescent fire-retarding
coatings and a suppression system.

Right: Working with steel structures requires a high

degree of visualization by the members of the team.
This illustration, created by the steel fabricator, Walters
Inc., shows an understanding of the relationship between
the structural capacity of the steel and the architecture.

If the basics of connection design strategies and the intentions of framing are well
understood, then it is possible to build upon simple solutions to create an innovative
architectural language of connections in steel.

–
41
CHAPTER 4

---

F a b r i cat i o n ,
E rect i o n a n d
the I m p l i cat i o n s
o n De s i g n
---

T ra n s f o r m i n g A rch i tect u ra l De s i g n
I n t o F a b r i cate d E l e m e n t s

P r o ce s s pr o f i l e : A d d i t i o n t o the R o y a l
O n tar i o M u s e u m ( R OM ) – M i chae l Lee - C h i n
C r y s ta l / St u d i o Da n i e l L i b e s k i n d
The Role of Physical and Digital Models

Appreciating Scale

Transportation and Site Issues and the Impact on Design

Erecting the Steel

The Effects of Weather and Climate on Erection

Providing Permanent Stability for the Frame

Coordination with Other Systems

P r o ce s s pr o f i l e : Le s l i e Da n fac u l t y
o f P har m ac y / F o s ter + P art n er s
Shop Fabrication
Steel erection is about teamwork.
A large number of personnel are
Assembling the Pods
on site to oversee the lift of the
“pod” at the Leslie Dan Faculty of
Erecting a Beam Pharmacy in Toronto, ON, Canada,
designed by Foster + Partners.
Erecting the Columns This is the first installation of
its kind for the architect as well
as the fabricator, Walters Inc.
Lifting the 50-Tonne Truss
The bright orange dots on the
chains allow the sighting of levels
Lifting the Pods during erection and to check the
lift for alignment.
T ra n s f o r m i n g arch i tect u ra l
d e s i g n i n t o fa b r i cate d e l e m e n t s
There is significant work involved in transforming the architectural idea of a steel-
framed building into a series of (pre-)fabricated elements that can be readily erected
on the building site. Even into the 21st century, and in spite of advances in technology,
the design, fabrication and erection of steel buildings is a hand-crafted process. There
is human interaction, workmanship and decision-making during every step. With the
exception of steel framing for standard big-box stores or the like, each project is unique,
and aspects of the design, fabrication and construction must be customized to suit the
project. This might seem to run counter to the idea behind the early development of iron
and steel as being suited to mass fabrication and assemblage construction. However,
the industry still relies on these precepts as the basis for achievements in economy
and speed of erection. Aspects of pure craft and pride in workmanship remain core to
steel design.

In instances where the architect’s proposal begins to stretch the limits of the use of suc-
cessful precedents in detailing, fabrication and erection, fabricators are often brought
into the discussion, ahead of the finalization and tendering/bid phase of the project,
to inform the detailing. This runs counter to the procedure in less complex projects
where the steel fabricator will simply bid the project after it has been put out to tender.
In straightforward projects the fabricator might suggest only minor modifications to
the structural set as outlined by the engineer, to improve efficiency.

The ironworkers that erect a project are critical to its proper completion. In all projects,
but particularly with challenging ones, there is usually a lead ironworker whose problem-
solving skills can make or break the pace, speed of erection and timely completion
of the work. The ironworkers will have a sense or feel of the fit of pieces. They will be
responsible for ensuring the proper alignment during erection and the quality of finish
of any site welding and finishing operations. This is also a dangerous job. Even if tied off
and wearing proper fall protection much of the work is done at a great height, during
all sorts of weather and around moving elements that may weigh thousands of tonnes. The ironworkers pose for the press
at the lift of the final piece of steel
This chapter will use two detailed project profiles to describe this process. The Addition for the Royal Ontario Museum by
Studio Libeskind in Toronto, ON,
to the Royal Ontario Museum by Studio Daniel Libeskind and the Leslie Dan Faculty
Canada. There is significant pride
of Pharmacy by Foster + Partners, both in Toronto, are extraordinarily complicated
in workmanship and the achievement
projects that required specialized detailing, fabrication and erection. Nevertheless, an of an accident-free project. The truss
understanding of the methods used in these projects will assist in the understanding element is covered with signatures
of processes used in a wider range of more basic projects. of everyone involved.

–
FABRICATION, ERECTION AND THE IMPLICATIONS ON DESIGN
 P R O C E SS P R O F IL E : A DDI T ION T O T H E
R OY A L ON T A R IO MUS E UM ( R OM ) -
MI C H A E L L E E - C H IN C R YS T A L / S T UDIO
D A NI E L LIB E SKIND
Design Architect: Studio Daniel Libeskind
Local Architects: Bregman and Hamann
Engineers: ARUP London/Halsall Associates
General Contractor: Vanbots Construction Corporation
Steel Fabrication and Erection: Walters Inc.

Overall structural isometric of the

ROM as drawn by the fabricator and
erector, Walters Inc. of Hamilton,
ON, Canada. This drawing served
as an overall reference for the entire
project. It shows every single piece
of steel.

Complex buildings, particularly those with irregular geometries, require the use of mul-
tifaceted drawings and models, both digital and physical, as the means of communica-
tion among team members. Simple orthographic drawing convention was not useful in
defining the volumes or details of this project at virtually any stage of design, fabrication
or construction. 3D architectural modeling provided the basis for the eventual genera-
tion of the more technical structural steel models created by the fabricator. Standard
architectural plans, sections and elevations were developed for bids and permissions,
but these drawings required significant supplementation to make them serve as com-
munication tools. The varied angled planes of the walls generated a plethora of unique
steel diagrid components and connections. Material take-offs and dimensioning needed
to be done via drawings taken in plane with the angled surfaces. While methodologies
The ROM addition began its life as
a classic napkin sketch. for constructing and assembling the planar areas of the skin of the building may be
straightforward or repetitive, each face, peak and valley required distinct detailing to
account for the technical challenges presented by unceasing anomalies.

–
45
In most “standard” architectural projects the architect and engineer define and prepare
contract documents for bidding, often in concert with the project management team.
In this instance it was the steel fabricator, detailer and erector in concert with the engi-
neers who had the facility and expertise to transform the three-dimensional crystalline
aspirations into actual steel members and realizable connections.

The Role of Physical and Digital Models

As in most architectural projects, physical models were used in addition to digital
models. There were models of the traditional finely crafted type complete with interior
lights, people and cars used for client-related display purposes. Additional models were
created specifically to comprehend and then work through the geometry of the project
and create the structural details.

One of the massing study models

created by the architects to look at
the intricacies of the crystalline form
as it overlays the rectangular base
of the original historic building.
Many models were created before the
final form was settled. This physical
model has little linkage to any sort of
digital model used to actually con-
struct such a complicated building.
It is a tool to convince the client and
compare massing options.

Three-dimensional physical models were also used to visualize the steel structure,
showing the floor framing layers or the steel diagrids of the crystal faces overlaid on
the building volumes. The set of fabrication drawings used in the shop comprises one
drawing for each unique piece of the frame.

Although the triangulation in the diagrid form itself gives stability to many of the
inclined planes, moment connection systems are also used throughout the structure
to reinforce and increase lateral stability, particularly where large truss members or
skylight enclosures were left hanging or cantilevering during construction but also in
the final design.

Left: A model used by the fabricator

to examine the steel on the faces of
the crystals.

Right: This paper model uses the

drawings for the steel floor framing to
create a sense of the “floating” floor
plates themselves, as independent of
the sloped diagrid walls. There are
numerous cutouts in the floors and
not much aligns vertically. The floor
plates of the model are held apart by
thin wires.

–
FABRICATION, ERECTION AND THE IMPLICATIONS ON DESIGN
 Walters Inc. used proprietary 3D modeling software to work out the myriad of connec-
tion details. Such programs allow the detailer to generate a three-dimensional model of
all steel components that incorporates loading and is able to be rotated and pulled apart
to look at the distinct sections, member sizes, plate thicknesses or bolting and welding
requirements. As virtually none of the steel in this building was intended to be exposed,
the choice of member shape and size was left to the detailer’s discretion in response to
issues of strength, connectability and economy. Were AESS the end wish, the detailer
would likely have seen a significant increase in input from the architectural team.

The 3D model generated by the fab- The structural design of the steel is initiated by the structural engineers and completed
ricators was created with specialized by the fabricator and detailer. The engineering data are fed into specialized industry-
steel detailing software. The model
standard software that is used by the fabricator to design and detail each connection.
of the whole building is required to
This detailing must acknowledge the load transfers that occur in the joints, include
connect all of the separate joints into
a structurally cohesive whole. the dimensions of all steel elements that are resolved at a given joint, and account for
bolting and welding.

The detailed design of each node in the larger model will correspond to a set of actual
fabricated pieces in the project. The digital model must also take into account limits
on member sizes for shipping and erection. From this information a separate drawing
sheet is created that will be used to fabricate each unique element.

Left: Digital model showing the

detailing of a face of the crystal.

Right: Photograph taken at the same

angle as the digital model, showing
how precisely the two images align:
the built case exactly replicates what
is set out on the drawing.

–
47
In a standard project based upon rectangular bays, the reference to elements is nor-
mally based on their column-and-grid intersection and floor level. For a project like
the ROM, alternate means were developed to reference placement. Each piece of steel
was assigned to one of five major crystals. Within these, vertices refined the location.
In addition, many of the elements had such unusual shapes as to warrant nicknames
which, given the complexity of the project, proved more useful than locating a piece
by its column-and-grid number.

The element illustrated here first as a digital model, then during fabrication and finally
in the fabrication shop was affectionately dubbed “The Owl”.

Drawing of the element as extracted

from the digital model. It was to be
shop-fabricated so that the most
complex pieces that required weld-
ing could be completed in the shop.
The element was sized to fit on a
flatbed truck for transport. As the
joints of site connection were to be
bolted, all bolt holes were drilled in
the shop and any plate attachments
required to be movable were precut
and in some instances loosely fit so
as to be erection-ready.

Top: The digital image was then

transformed into a single sheet of
drawings to be used in the shop to
fabricate the element.

Left: “The Owl” nearing completion.

All of the smaller steel pieces have
been cut based on the drawing sheet.
The steel element required signifi-
cant lifting and turning in the shop
during fabrication to ensure access
to do the work.

Right: “The Owl” is in place in the

structure on site.

–
FABRICATION, ERECTION AND THE IMPLICATIONS ON DESIGN
 The level of detail provided by the digital detailing model allows the designers to get
a real feel of the way that the piece will work in the field. As the digital model created
by the fabricator is used to generate a very precise set of drawings from which the
elements are fabricated, there should ideally be no difference in the final erected piece.
Any adjustments to force-fit one element on a project like this would result in a disas-
trous ripple effect of non-fit for all subsequent pieces. If a project has odd angles or
uses AESS the fit tolerances are normally reduced to one half of standard dimensional
tolerance that would be used for standard structural steel. There are no slotted holes
or shim plates permitted to ease the fit of members.

Even though digital technologies are used to detail the connections,

it is very important to remember that the elements are hand-crafted.
The pieces of steel required for the elements are measured, cut and
assembled via welding, using rudiments such as the carpenter’s square
and a pencil. Not all pieces are cut using CAD / CAM.

Tack welds are used in the shop to stabilize the position of the individual
elements. This allows either the overhead bay crane or temporary sup-
ports to be removed and full welding done later.

Appreciating SCALE
One of the more difficult aspects when conceiving and detailing a steel
structure is to appreciate the scale or size of the pieces. Much of the steel
that we may have experienced is situated far overhead, removing any
sense of comparison. This is less of an issue in the design of concealed
structural steel than it is for AESS, which is often situated near the viewer
for closer examination and scrutiny of the details. This also impacts the
selection of fabrication methods and style.

Transportation and Site Issues and the Impact on Design

Individual pieces of steel cannot be any larger than can be transported
to the site. This limit in size will determine the placement of the con-
nections between pieces: the more connections that can be shop-
fabricated, the more economical the pieces, and the quicker the erec-
tion. It is preferable to weld in the shop and bolt on the site. If the
project aesthetic is for all-welded connections, then further thought
has to be given to how the site welding will be accomplished during
the erection process.

Top: Two men in the fabrication shop For almost every project there is a distance to be traveled between the fabrication
reference a drawing to transfer mark- shop and the construction site. The necessary route of travel must inform the design
ings onto a piece of ROM steel.
and detailing of the connections. The fabricator must know the overhead clearance of
every overpass as well as critical turning radii for the carrier. Access to the site may be
Bottom: Seeing the ironworkers in
relation to the steel elements gives further constricted as the widths of local streets may be significantly smaller.
a better understanding of the scale.
Preference is given to making the pieces fit on a standard trailer, as most fabricators
will own a fleet of these. Custom trailers or sets of wheels can be fabricated for the
project. Ensuring that the steel pieces fit within the width of the trailer is also helpful,
as any oversized elements will also require a police escort, or in extreme cases, road
closure, to assist in shipping to the site. Timing to avoid peak traffic hours can alleviate
some congestion.

–
49
The permitted member size will also be impacted by the amount of staging area for At 17.18 m / 53 ft – 4 1/16 in
the project. Even if the member size is limited due to transportation, some controlled this element was at the upper end of
the size of steel that could fit on a
sub-assembly can take place in the staging area for the project prior to lifting. This can
flatbed. The nodes into which the other
speed erection time and make the connections easier to access. The site crane can be
elements of the diagrid would fit were
used to lift and rotate the members in the staging area in order to allow the ironworkers shop-welded to ensure the maximum
ground access to complete the connections. degree of accuracy of the piece.

Left: The staging area on the north

edge of the site was extremely tight
so the steel was offloaded and laid
very compactly in a sequence that
reflected the order of erection.
Many of the larger angled pieces of
the diagrid were shipped essentially
as straight members with their palm-
like heads attached in the shop, and
assembled into larger configurations
in the staging area prior to erection.
As the erection proceeded, the stag-
ing area steadily shrunk as building
displaced the free area of the site.
This made sequencing and place-
ment of deliveries even more critical.

Right: Ironworkers are assembling

a number of smaller pieces to create
a larger entity to erect. They are
using the limited staging area in
front of the project. This requires
that the erector carefully sequences
the deliveries to ensure that only the
pieces to be erected on any one or
two days are at the site.

–
FABRICATION, ERECTION AND THE IMPLICATIONS ON DESIGN
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
blossom could be so lovely for her. But the more she loved and
cherished her own plant, the more bitterly did she grieve over the
destruction of the gardens of the two little girls who had been so
kind and forgiving to her. She knew for what purpose they had taken
so much pains with them, especially with the heliotrope and
geranium which had been so ruthlessly torn to pieces; for Mrs.
Porter had told her, and her sorrow and repentance were very bitter
and very sincere.
One Sunday morning, towards the end of September, Maggie and
Bessie went over with their mother to see her. She was lying with
her sunken eyes fixed on the marigolds, which stood on a small
table beside the bed; and, oh, how wan, white, and wasted she
looked! Yet there was a look of perfect peace on the poor face; and,
when the children came in, she turned to them with a bright smile.
"They're coming on nice, aint they?" she said; "don't they look
pretty?"
Maggie and Bessie were rather uncomfortable, for they did not think
the forlorn marigolds pretty, and they did not wish to hurt Dolly's
feelings by saying so; but mamma came to their relief, by saying, as
she could with truth,—
"It has agreed with your pets to be up here, Dolly; they have done
better since you came."
"Yes," said Dolly; and then asked, "Could you give me a nice bit of
white paper and a scissor?"
"Certainly," said Mrs. Bradford, and sent Maggie over to the house
for these things.
When Maggie came back, Dolly wanted to raise herself and take the
things from her, but could not do it. Mrs. Bradford put her arm under
the pillow and lifted her. Then the child tried to fold and cut the
paper; but the trembling fingers had no power, and paper and
scissors fell from them; while Dolly looked about her with a piteous,
disappointed air.
"What is it you want, Dolly?" asked Mrs. Bradford; "cannot we do it
for you?"
"I know," said Lem; "she wants to fix up her posy, like the gardener
fixes 'em up to the big farm." Lem meant the homestead. "She seen
him through the hedge, one day, doin' of it, and she said this
mornin' she wanted hers fixed up that way."
Mrs. Bradford understood at once. Poor, simple Dolly had seen the
gardener shielding his choice blossoms by a circlet of fringed paper;
and she would fain do as much for the stunted little favorite which
was so lovely in her eyes.
"Maggie will cut it for you," said the lady; and, under her mother's
direction, Maggie's deft little fingers soon prepared the paper to suit
Dolly.
But she could not be satisfied without putting it about the flower
with her own hands, while Lem held the pot for her; and it was
touching to see how the poor, wasted fingers fluttered feebly about
the blossom that was to outlive her,—touching it so tenderly, and
folding the fringed paper about it with such care. It was done at last,
and, as Mrs. Bradford laid her back, she looked at her work with a
contented smile; and then, exhausted with the effort, closed her
eyes, and whispered faintly, "Sing."
The little ones sang her favorite hymns, until she slept,—slept the
last sleep which was to know an awakening upon earth,—and then
stole softly out with their mother.
But mamma was back and forth all day,—far more so than usual;
and in the afternoon, when the hour came for Sunday school, the
children, knowing she was there, ran over to give her a kiss before
they went to their class.
"We'll ask Dolly what she wants us to sing," said Maggie; "for you
know she can hear us quite well from our Sunday bower."
The door stood open, for the day was so soft and warm, that, save
for the changing leaves which showed that autumn was at hand,
they might have thought themselves in midsummer. It was a lovely
afternoon,—scarce a breath of air was stirring, and the lake lay calm
and placid, the trees and rocks reflected on its surface with
surprising clearness. A Sabbath hush was in the air; a kind of glory
from the golden sunshine seemed to fall on all around,—on lake and
mountain, woods and rocks, on the lawn and the cosy old house. It
streamed through the lattice of Dolly's little window too, and fell
upon the small head which lay on the pillow. Mrs. Porter would have
shut it out; but Dolly murmured, "No, no," and seemed to like it.
There was even a deeper stillness within the room than without, for
there was an angel waiting there, and those who watched little Dolly
felt his presence.
The children felt the solemn hush; and their little feet paused upon
the threshold of the open door. Mamma and papa were there, Uncle
Ruthven and Mrs. Porter; and poor Lem, crouched at Mr. Stanton's
feet, his hands clasped about his knees, his head bent upon them.
Mamma put out her hand, and beckoned to the children; and, with
careful steps, they came to the bedside.
"Would you like to speak to my little girls, Dolly?" asked Mrs.
Bradford, gently.
Dolly opened her eyes, and fixed them on the children, with a wistful
smile.
"You was good to Doll," she said, in a faint whisper. "Jesus sent you.
He loves you, 'cause you was good—and—I'll be an angel—and tell
Him—you teached me about Him, and—He'll love you more. Good-
by."
"Good-by, Dolly," said Bessie, not knowing this was to be the last
good-by, and yet with the tears gathering in her eyes.
"Good-by, Dolly," whispered Maggie; "we are going to our Sunday
school, and you will hear us sing."
"We'll think a good deal about you, and sing all your hymns, shall
we?" asked Bessie.
"Rest for the weary," sighed Dolly.
"My darlings," said mamma, "ask Aunt May to leave the lessons for
this afternoon, and let you sing as long as you can;" and drawing
them to her, she kissed first one, and then the other, with a long,
tender kiss.
Dolly's eyes followed them, as they went out, and then came back to
Mrs. Bradford's face with a longing, wistful look.
"What is it, my child?" asked the lady.
"I guess, if I'd had a mother, she'd kiss me, like that,—don't you?"
"Shall I kiss you, Dolly?" asked Mrs. Bradford, with tearful eyes.
"Could you?" said Dolly, with a brightening look.
Warm from the loving mother's heart came the motherly kiss, which
Dolly had never known before; and with a long, satisfied sigh, she
again closed her eyes.
Then came the sweet voices of the children and their teacher, hymn
after hymn of infant praise floating in, as it seemed, on that soft,
shimmering sunshine, and filling the little room with music. Dolly lay
still, and they could not tell whether she were listening or not.
Presently, she opened her eyes again, started, and murmured,—
"Oh! I don't want to go in the Ice Glen; it's dark and cold,"—then,
more gently, "well, never mind; Jesus will take care of me, I guess,
—yes, Jesus will. He'll let me—be an angel—to praise Him—day—and
—night. He does—care—for me."
Slowly, slowly the words dropped from her lips; then came one or
two fluttering sighs; and a little ransomed soul, thirsting for the
water of life, had flown away, and was safe within the bosom of Him
who has said, "Suffer little children to come unto me." The little,
weary, homesick child had gone home to the love that never fails, to
the care that never tires.
Lem came over to the Lake House, the next day, carrying one of
Dolly's flower-pots on each arm; and, setting them down before
Maggie and Bessie, who were on the piazza with Uncle Ruthven and
Aunt Bessie, drew his sleeve across his eyes, and said,—
"She telled me I was to bring 'em to you, and say, maybe they'd go
a little bit to make up for the sp'ilin' of your gardens, and maybe,
when the flowers was out, they'd do to go to the show. That was
what she was settin' so much by 'em for, when she lay a dyin'."
The tears which had not fallen over the happy little child who had
gone to be an angel, fell fast over the simple tokens of gratitude and
repentance she had left behind her; and faithful was the care
bestowed upon them by our Maggie and Bessie.
Not with any thought of taking them to the flower show, however; it
was only for Dolly's sake: it would never do to display these
wretched little plants beside some of the really beautiful and
flourishing things which their more fortunate brothers and cousins
had raised. Besides, these were not of their own growing, and
Maggie and Bessie had, long since, given up all thought of trying for
a prize.
A few days after Dolly's death, Mrs. Bradford took up Maggie's
second volume of "The Complete Family," which she had not looked
over for some time, and there she found written something which
touched her very much. Mingled with many other things, giving an
account of their summer among the mountains, and written in
Maggie's own droll, peculiar way, ran the story of Lem and Dolly, of
their persecutions, and of the difficulty she and Bessie had had in
forgiving their many injuries; but all that was not new to the mother,
who now read for the first time what Maggie had written during the
last week. It ran thus, leaving out Maggie's mistakes:—
"M. and B. Happy were very thankful to our Father in
heaven, because he let them be of a mind to forgive Dolly.
If they had not forgiven her, and made up their resolutions
to do a kind thing for her, then B. would have run away
when she saw Dolly, and not waited to speak to her and
give the banana, and so nobody might have known that
Dolly was sick, and she might have died without knowing
about Jesus, who died for her; but she never knew it till
Bessie told her. And, oh, how dreadful that would have
been for M. and B. Happy! but God was so good as to
spare them of it, and Dolly learned about Jesus, and loved
Him, and wanted to please Him, only she did not have
much time; but Jesus does not care about that, so long as
she believed on Him, and loved Him, and He took Dolly
away to His own heaven to live with Him. And M. and B.
Happy were happy about it, even if Dolly was dead,
because papa and mamma, and all our grown-up, wise
people, think she is happy with Jesus; and we hope our
Father will let it be a little jewel to carry to Him, when the
angel takes us over the river, and the Elder Brother will
say we did it unto Him, because we did it to His poor little
lamb that did not know about Him. And now M. and B.
Happy do not mind so much about the gardens, even
though they can't try for a prize, and B. says she had
rather have Dolly's little marigold than the prettiest prize
that ever was, but I am afraid M. would not; but then, you
see, she is not so very perfect as B., and besides I don't
like the smell of the marigolds: I think it's awful. And God
let M. have a very happy dream. M. knows it is foolish to
think much about dreams, because they are not a bit of
 consequence, and she hopes any one who reads this will
not think she was so foolish as to believe any thing about
it; but it did make her feel a little glad about it, and B.
liked it too. The dream was this: I was out by the lake
with Bessie, but it was the night, and oh! there were so
very many stars, and Dolly's little bed was out by the lake
too, and she was in it, quite alive. And we heard voices all
around, but we could not see where they came from; but
we knew it was the angels, and they were calling to Dolly,
and she came out of her bed, and tried to go, but she
could not, because she had no wings. Then such a
beautiful thing happened,—the stars came down out of
the sky, and fixed themselves down to the ground where
Dolly stood, and she went up, up, up on them, just as if
they were steps, to heaven. And when she stepped over
each one, it went right back to its place in the sky; but it
left a long light behind it, like the shooting star we saw
the other night; and at the top of the stair of stars was a
soft, white cloud; and when Dolly came to it, a hand came
out of the cloud, and took her in, and we knew she was
quite safe, and would never come back again. But for all I
was glad M. cried, and dear mamma came and woke her
up, and asked me why I cried, and kissed me, and I told
her I was glad Dolly went to heaven, because she had no
precious mamma to kiss and love her, or to tell her
troubles and happinesses to. So it was a very happy,
grateful thing, all about Dolly."
A very happy, grateful thing, the dear mamma thought it too; and
very happy, grateful tears were those which dimmed her eyes as she
read her little daughter's simple story, and then thanked God that
the lessons of love and forgiveness which were given to her little
ones fell not upon stony ground, but took root and bore precious
fruit in those tender young hearts.
 XVIII.

GOOD-BY TO CHALECOO.
ND now there was much talk of going home, and the time
for the flower show was at hand, and our Maggie and
Bessie could not help a little feeling of sorrow, that they
had nothing to show that they had tried to do as well as
the others. They had thought they should not mind it so very much;
but as the time drew near, they found they did; and many a sigh and
sad thought went to the memory of the lost heliotrope and
geranium.
The day came, and the whole party from the Lake House, from
grandmamma down to baby, were to go and spend the day at the
homestead, and to have a grand family dinner after the flower show.
Soon after breakfast, the wagons came to the door, and the happy,
merry party were ready to be packed in. The boys had already taken
their seats in the last one, where the prize flowers and vegetables
had been stored; and the little girls were waiting their time to be put
snugly in between some of the older people, when Bessie suddenly
bethought herself of the marigolds, which had not been attended to
that morning.
"O Maggie!" she said: "we forgot to water Dolly's marigolds. Let's
run and do it before we go."
Away they scampered to the side of the house where they had stood
Dolly's treasures, but came back in a moment, with wondering faces,
crying out,—
"Somebody has moved our marigolds."
"Where are our marigolds?"
"Never mind the marigolds now," said papa, catching up Bessie, and
putting her into the wagon, where, the next moment, she was
seated on Colonel Rush's knee,—"never mind the marigolds; they
are safe, and will keep until you come back again;" and then he
whisked Maggie into the wagon, and she was nestled into a seat
beside Uncle Ruthven, with his arm about her to keep her from
falling out.
Away they went, the whole party as merry as crickets,—laughing,
singing, and joking, as they drove down the mountain. They might
make as much noise as they pleased, on this lonely mountain road;
there was no one but the squirrels and the wood-pigeons to be
consulted, and they did not seem to object to the fun. The woods
were lovely to-day. Crimson and gold, scarlet and purple, were
gaining fast upon the green of the past summer; each moment,
some one was calling to the others to look here, and look there, at
the brilliant leaves, so wonderful in the richness and variety of their
gay coloring.
When they had come down into the valley, where farms and
cottages lay, and where people were coming and going, papa said
they had better make less noise, or these good, quiet folks would
think them a band of wild Indians coming down from the mountains.
But the boys were beside themselves with fun and frolic, and it
seemed impossible for them to be quiet. They had a flag with them,
which they waved and cheered whenever they passed a house or
saw laborers at work in the fields; and the people seemed to like it,
and came running to see the fun, and waved and cheered in return,
as good-naturedly as if they thought it was all done for their
pleasure.
As they passed Aunt Patty's cottage, she drove out of the gate in her
low pony carriage, with Nonesuch before it, on their way to the
homestead. The old lady nodded and smiled, as if she were glad to
see them so happy, but Nonesuch seemed not only surprised, but
displeased, at finding himself in such jolly company; and, after some
shaking of his head and putting back of his ears, stood stock still in
the middle of the road; nor could all Aunt Patty's coaxing or
scolding, or even some gentle touches of the whip, persuade him to
go on, till the whole party were out of sight. Aunt Patty and
Nonesuch often had such differences of opinion, and I am sorry to
say the donkey generally had the better of the old lady.
What a delightful bustle there was when our friends arrived at the
homestead, and the whole family came pouring out to receive them!
For the time, Maggie and Bessie forgot the little sore spot in their
hearts which was caused by the thought that they had no share in
that which brought them all together, until lisping little Katy
Bradford, who was very fond of her young cousins, said,—
"Maggie and Bethie, I'm tho thorry you have no flowerth for the
thow."
"Yes," said Bessie, "it's a very mournful thing for us; but we try not
to think too much about it."
"Papa ith going to give very nith prithes," said Katy, taking a very
poor way to console her cousins; but she meant well. "We think he
ith going to give thome one a canary-bird. Thith morning there hath
been a bird thinging—oh, tho thweetly!—in the libr'y where papa
hath the pritheth, and will not let uth go in, and Aleck thaid it wath a
canary."
Maggie gave a little sigh.
"Bessie and I want a canary very much," she said. "There is one in
the nursery at home; but we want one for our own room, and we
are going to ask mamma to let us have it next Christmas."
"I'd jutht like you to have thith one, 'cauthe you're tho good and I
love you," said Katy, and she put up her lips, for a kiss, to first one
little cousin and then the other.
And now Mr. Alexander Bradford said he should like to have papa,
and Uncle Ruthven and the Colonel come with him, and act as
judges on the fruit and flowers.
While the gentlemen were gone, making these last arrangements,
the children had a good play; and in about an hour's time they were
all called in to take part in the great event of the day. The spot
chosen for this was the latticed piazza which served as the children's
summer play-room; and here a long table was set out with the fruit,
vegetables, and flowers, each of which it was hoped by the young
owners might gain a prize.
The place looked very pretty. It was festooned with dahlias,
chrysanthemums, and other bright-colored autumn flowers and
leaves; and, although the display upon the table might not have
seemed very grand to less interested eyes, the children desired
nothing better; and it certainly did them great credit.
"Bessie," whispered Maggie, as they went in, "does it make you feel
a little as if you was homesick for our geranium and heliotrope?"
"Yes," answered Bessie, in the same tone; "it makes the cry come in
my throat, Maggie; but I am not going to let it come out, and I shall
try to find enough of 'joyment in the others' 'joyment."
They kept very close together, these two generous little girls, and
hand in hand walked round the table to look at the pretty sight. Each
article was labelled with its owner's name, and behind such as took
a prize was the reward it was thought to have merited. Not a child
but had some one pretty or useful gift; even the little Persian, who
had not been very successful, but to whom Mr. Alexander Bradford
had given a humming-top and ball, as the reward of his industry and
perseverance.
Fred displayed an enormous melon which had been ripe for some
days, and was now rather too mellow and soft, and, having been
jolted somewhat severely on its ride down the mountain, had fallen
to pieces, presenting, as joking Fred said, "a very meloncholy sight."
But Cousin Alexander had seen the melon in its glory, before it was
taken from the vine; and, in spite of its present distressed
appearance, Fred found a handsome six-bladed knife placed beside
the fragments,—"A blade for each piece, and the handle thrown in,"
said pleased Fred; adding, that he thought Cousin Alexander wanted
an excuse for giving presents.
The little girls were standing lost in admiration of a miniature set of
croquet, just the thing for small hands, and which had rewarded the
care bestowed by Katy upon a lovely tea-rose, when Harry called
suddenly from the other side of the room,—
"Hallo! Midget and Queen Bess, how came these old things here?"
Then in a tone of still greater astonishment, "Why, I declare! Oh,
what jolly good fun! Come here, pets, and see this!"
Maggie and Bessie ran round to the other side; and there, to their
great surprise, stood Dolly's two marigolds. Forlorn enough they
certainly looked among the flourishing plants and bright blossoms
which had been the fruit of their cousins' labors; even more forlorn
than they had done when Dolly left them as her dying legacy to the
dear little ones who had been her friends.
The flower which had been in blossom when she died, now hung
black and withered on its feeble stem, kept there only by the fringed
paper which she had put about it with such touching care. The
second bud had half opened into another scragly, stunted flower,
about which not even the most loving eyes could see the slightest
beauty, and, in spite of the care which Maggie and Bessie had given
them, the leaves of both plants were wilted and drooping. But there
was more than one heart at that table for which those feeble, sickly
plants had a value far beyond that of the richest and rarest exotic.
Beside the marigolds stood a bird-cage, and in it, hopping about,
and with his little head perking from side to side, as he watched the
scene so curious and new to him, was a beautiful canary-bird. He
was not singing now, for he did not know what to make of it all, and
was not quite sure whether he were pleased or no; but, as the
children stood looking from him to the marigolds in blank
amazement, he gave a little inquiring "cheep, cheep!" as a first move
to a better acquaintance.
"Oh, the darling birdie!" cried Bessie; "who is he for?"
But Maggie exclaimed with a trembling lip,—
"Fred, Fred! it wasn't fair. You ought not to make fun of poor Dolly's
marigolds, and to hurt our feelings that way."
"I did not do a thing," said Fred, "and knew no more about it than
yourself."
"Nor I," said Harry: "most likely it was papa or some grown-up
person; and certainly no one has meant to make fun of you. Don't
you see the card on the cage, and what is written on it?"
Maggie looked at the card, as her brother moved the cage nearer to
her.
"'For our Maggie and Bessie—the dear'—oh! what is it Harry? read it
to me quick."
Harry read it,—
"For our Maggie and Bessie, the dear little workers in the
garden of the Lord, who tended the Christian plants of
patience, kindness, and forbearance, till their lovely
blossoms overran the evil weeds of malice and ill-will, and
sowed the seeds of that which brought forth fruit for the
glory of God."
"I don't understand it," said Maggie. "Does it mean the canary is for
Bessie and me?"
"Of course," said Harry.
"But I am sure we ought not to have any credit about the
marigolds," said Maggie, still wondering. "If there is any, it is Dolly's
or Lem's."
"And Harry," said Bessie, "the marigolds are pretty ugly. I don't much
think we ought to have a prize, even if we had grown them up."
"Dolly left you the marigolds," said Harry; "so, if they win a prize you
ought surely to have it, and I am glad of it,—that I am. But I don't
quite think it was these poor little scrubs that had that honor."
"But, O Maggie! just to think of that lovely, darling, little birdie being
for us," said Bessie, pleasure beginning to have its way over
surprise; "and we never 'spected a thing 'cause we had no flowers."
"Yes," said Maggie, now in great delight as she began to understand
how it was, "and we would rather have had it than any thing else."
Never was a birdie coaxed with more pretty names than was this
one during the next ten minutes; and he seemed to like them well,
for, after answering with one or two more half-timid "cheeps," he
broke into a soft trill, which soon swelled into a clear, sweet song of
joy.
Maggie and Bessie were in ecstasies, and Cousin Alexander certainly
had reason to think his kindness had given all the pleasure he
intended it should.
This was the last day they were to spend at the homestead, and the
children made the most of it. Every nook and corner was visited, and
all kinds of odd traps were dragged to light, and presented by the
young cousins to be kept in memory of the old place, "family relics,"
Maggie called them; and very curious "family relics" some of them
were. Among other things were two or three peacock feathers, a
turkey wing, some pebbles from the brook where papa used to sail
his boats when he was a boy, a piece of rusty tin pipe, which,
because it looked black and smoky, and came from the field where
the burnt barn had stood, they persuaded themselves must be a
part of the very leader down which papa slid when he ran for the
ladder to save his little brother,—all these, and other treasures of like
value, were carefully collected and stowed in the wagons, to be
carried to the Lake House, and thence to the city.
But at last the busy, happy day came to an end, and farewell had to
be said to the dear old homestead and the kind family there.
Birdie did not like his ride up the mountain at all, but chirped in a
very miserable, beseeching manner all the way; and, when he was
safely at the Lake House and hung up out of the reach of Mrs.
Porter's old pussy cat, tucked his head under his wing, and went to
sleep at once, as if he were glad to forget all his troubles.
But he was bright enough the next morning; for he woke the little
girls with his song some time before the hour at which they were
accustomed to rise. Bessie, always a light sleeper, was the first to be
roused by his sweet notes, that soft, half-doubtful little trill with
which he began; but, as it rose into a gush of joyous music, Maggie,
too, stirred, and opened her eyes. She listened a moment, then
turned towards Bessie, who lay with her eyes fixed on the bird with
a dreamy, thoughtful look.
"What are you thinking of, Bessie?" she asked, softly.
"I was thinking," said Bessie, "that it seemed as if our Father was
letting the jewel of forgiveness sparkle a little for us here before we
carried it over the river to Him."
"Yes," said Maggie, "I was thinking something like that last night,
but I did not put it in such nice words; and I am just going to put in
the Complete Family, that B. Happy said it. And perhaps, Bessie, if
we had not taken up the jewel of prayer, and asked our Father for
help, we might never have found the other jewels."
"Or, if He had not helped us very much, we might not have taken
them up, when we did find them," said Bessie. "It was pretty hard
work to take up that first one of giving the banana to Dolly; and,
Maggie, do you know I did such a very naughty thing as 'most to
wish He did not give me the chance I had asked for: but, after that,
all the rest were very easy to take up, and I did not find it at all hard
to forgive Dolly every thing she had done."
"Yes," said Maggie: "I guess that's always the way, and after all, I
did not have to forgive Lem and Dolly near so many times as
'seventy times seven.' Oh, yes, you darling birdie! do you want to
say you know all about it? Bessie, let's think the canary is a kind of
keepsake from Dolly, 'cause you know it seems as if it came by her,
and mamma says it is of no use to take the marigolds to town, for
they will be quite dead in a few weeks."
"Yes, so we will, Maggie, and that's a very nice idea of you; and then
we might call our birdie 'Marigold,' for memory of the poor little
plants as well as Dolly."
"Oh, yes!" said Maggie; "that's lovely, so we just will."
So from this day the canary was called Marigold, nor was it long
before he knew his name, and would answer with a chirp when it
was called.
In two or three days more, they said good-by to Chalecoo and all its
pleasures. The parting was a hard one on all sides, especially for Mr.
Porter's family, who knew how much they would miss the sweet
childish voices, the merry laughter, and patter of little feet, which
had made the old house so gay and bright through all the long
summer.
As for poor Lem, he was in despair. He had begged hard to go with
Mr. Stanton, promising the best of behavior if he were only allowed
to do so; but the gentleman did not think the city was the best place
for a boy like Lem, and thought it wiser to leave him in the care of
Mr. Porter, who promised to keep him for the winter, and give him
work if he would try to do well, and be honest and industrious. In
the spring, if Mr. Porter could give a good account of him, Mr.
Stanton meant to send him out to sea, with some good, careful
captain who would try to do well for the boy. Lem had such a fancy
for a roving life, that this was thought the best thing for him; but
just now even this promised pleasure was lost sight of in his grief at
the loss of his kind friend. His father had never come back; and,
from all that could be learned, it was believed that he had gone to a
far-away country, leaving his poor children to shift for themselves.
All agreed that it was better so. A heavenly Father had cared for
these poor desolate ones, and sent them help in the time of their
greatest need. One had no longer need of earthly care, but was safe
with Jesus in that home which He had bought for her with His
precious blood; and for the other, there was much to be hoped. A
strong desire to please Mr. Stanton, and a fear of doing what would
have grieved Dolly, kept him from much that was wrong; and he
could scarcely be known for the same boy, who a few months since
had been a terror to every small child and harmless animal, and a
torment to every farmer and housekeeper in Chalecoo.
"Good-by! good-by! good-by!" The words, so hard to say, were
spoken; and dear old Mrs. Porter stood upon the piazza steps,
wiping her eyes with her apron, as she watched the wagons going
slowly past the lake, and carrying our friends down the mountain for
the last time.
"Well, I hope we may see them all back another summer," she said
to Dolly and Fanny, who stood beside her, feeling almost as
mournful; "if I'd known I'd feel so bad to part with them, I don't
know as I could have made up my mind to take them: but those
dear little ones have just taken the heart right out of me. Well, God
bless them, wherever they may go."
"As He does," said Fanny, "for surely they have brought a blessing
here this summer. Who would have thought such little things could
do a bit of good to those two?" and she looked at Lem, who lay with
his face buried in the grass, trying to hide his tears; "and yet see
what they've been the means of bringing to them."
"Ay, Fanny," said her mother, "little hands may do God's work, if they
but take it up in His strength and with His help."
"Well," said Mr. Porter, when he had taken the homeward-bound
party safely to the place where they were to take the boat down the
river, "I reckon one of the best jobs I ever did was to take you up
Chalecoo mountain for the first time, and one of the worst to bring
you down for the last."
"But you can find consolement to think we are coming back some
other time," said Maggie; "and we thank you very much for letting
us have a nice time this summer, Mr. Porter."
"Yes," said Bessie, "we had a lovely, happy time among the
mountains, even if the sea was not there."
And now as we leave our Maggie and Bessie, are there not some
little friends who will say that they have spent a useful as well as a
happy summer among the mountains?

THE END
Cambridge: Press of John Wilson and Son.

Transcriber's Notes
The cover image, added by the transcriber, is a copy of the title page which is in the
public domain.

Minor punctuation typos have been silently corrected.

Retained both spellings of "Fanny" and "Fannie."

Page 41: Changed "eat" to "ate."

(Orig: cracked and eat his almond.)

Page 354: Retained original sentence, but Dolly was dead.

(Orig: "Well, I hope we may see them all back another summer," she said to Dolly and
Fanny, who stood beside her,)
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