THE NORTH INDIAN KINGDOMS - THE RAJPUTS

Medieval period
1. Lies between the 8th and the 18th century A.D
2. The Early Medieval period (8th-12th century A.O.)
3. Later Medieval period (12th-18th century)
4. Rajputs who belonged to the early medieval period
5. The Rajput Period (647A.D- 1200 A.D.)
6. The Ancient Indian history came to an end with the rule of Harsha and Pulakesin II
7. From the death of Harsha to the 12th century, the destiny of India was mostly in the hands of
various Rajput dynasties.

The popular theories are

1. They are the descendants of Lord Rama (Surya vamsa) or Lord Krishna (Chandra vamsa) or the
Hero who sprang from the sacrificial fire (Agni Kula theory),
2. They belong to the ancient Kshatriya families,
3. They are foreigners.

There were nearly 36 Rajput' clans. The major clans were

1. The Pratiharas of Avanti.
2. The Palas of Bengal.
3. The Chauhans of Delhi and Ajmer
4. The Rathors of Kanauj
5. The Guhilas or Sisodiyas of Mewar
6. The Chandellas of Bundelkhand
7. The Paramaras of Malwa
8. The Senas of Bengal
9. The Solankis of Gujarat.

The Rajputs lacked unity and struggled with one another

They also neglected the frontiers of India and gave way for the Muslims to invade India at a later
period.

The Pratiharas 8th-11th Century A.D

1. The Pratiharas were also known as Gurjara
2. They ruled over northern and western India from the 8th to the 11th century A.D.
3. Nagabhatta I (725-740.A.D.) was the founder of the Pratihara dynasty with Kanauj as his
capital.
4. Vatsaraja and Nagabhatta II played a vital role in consolidating the empire.
5. Mihirabhoja was the most powerful Pratihara king.
6. During his period, the empire extended from Kashmir to Narmada and from Kathiawar to Bihar.
7. Mahendrapala (885-908 A.D.) son of Mihirabhoja, was also a powerful ruler.
8. He extended his control over Magadha and North Bengal

Pratiharas-A bulwark

• The Pratiharas stood as a bulwark of India's defence against the aggression of the Muslims from
the days of Junaid of Sind (725.A.D.) to that of Mahmud of Ghazni

Decline of the Pratiharas

1. Rajyapala was the last Pratihara king.

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2. Vast empire was reduced to Kanauj.
3. The Pratihara power began to decline after Mahmud of Ghazni attacked the kingdom in 1018
A.D.
4. After the decline of the Prathiharas their feudatories Palas, Tomars, Chauhans, Rathors,
Chandellas, Guhilas and Paramaras became independent rulers.
5. There was complete anarchy in Bengal between 750-760 A.D.

Gopala (765-769.A.D.)
1. Restored order and founded the Pala dynasty.
2. Extended his power over Magadha and the Pala dynasty
3. Ruled over northern and eastern India.

Dharmapala (769-815 A.D.)

1. The son of Gopala, succeeded him.
2. He brought Kanauj, Bengal and Bihar under his control
3. Became the master of Northern India after defeating the Pratiharas.
4. He was a staunch Buddhist and founded several monasteries and the famous Vikramasila
University.
5. He also renovated the Nalanda University

Dharmapala's son Devapala (815-855 A.D.)

1. Succeeded him kept the Pala territories intact
2. Captured Assam and Orissa. His successors were weak.
3. During the reign of (998-1038. A.D.) The Palas became powerful again
4. The Pala dynasty started declining after the death of Mahipala.
5. The last Pala king was Govinda Pala

Tripartite Struggle for Kanauj

1. The Pratiharas of Central India, the Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of Deccan wanted to
establish their supremacy over Kanauj and the fertile Gangetic Valley.
2. Their Tripartite struggle lasted nearly 200 years and weakened all of them and enabled the Turks
to overthrow them.

The Tomars of Delhi

1. The Tomars were the feudatories of the Pratiharas.
2. They rose to power and founded the city of Delhi in 736 A.D.
3. In 1043 A.D., Mahipala Tomar captured Thaneshwar, Hansi and Nagarkot.
4. The Tomars became the feudatories of the Chauhans when Delhi was captured by them in
middle of the 1 2th century

The Chauhans of Delhi and Ajmer

1. The Chauhans who were the feudatories of the Pratiharas declared their independence in the
1101 century at Ajmer.
2. In the early part of the 12th century they captured Ujjain from the Paramaras of Malwa and
Delhi from the Tomars.
3. They shifted their capital to Delhi.
4. The most important ruler of this dynasty was Prithvtraj Chauhan

Rathors of Kanauj (1090-1194 A.D.)

1. The Rathors established themselves on the throne of Kanauj from 1090 to 1194 A.D.
2. Jaichand was the last great ruler of this dynasty.
3. He was killed in the battle of Chandwar in 1194A.D. by Muhammad of Ghori.

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The Chandellas of Bundelkhand
1. Established themselves in the 9th century.
2. The Chandella Chief Yasovarman had his capital at Mahoba.
3. Kalinjar was their important fort.
4. The Chandellas built a number of beautiful temples at Khajuraho, the most famous being the
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (1050 A.D.)
5. Qutb-ud-din Aibak defeated, Paramal the last Chandella ruler in 1203A.D.

The Guhllas or Slsodlyas of Mewar

1. The Rajput ruler Bapa Rawat was the founder of the Guhila or the Sisodiya dynasty with its
capital at Chittor
2. During the period of Rana Ratan Singh of Mewar,
3. Ala-ud-din khilji invaded his territory and defeated him in 1307 A.D.
4. The Sisodiya rulers - Rana Sangha and: Maharana Pratap gave a tough fight to the Mughal rulers
of India

The Paramaras of Malwa

1. The Paramaras were also the feudatories of Pratiharas. They asserted their independence in the
10th century and their capital was at Dhara.
2. Raja Bhoja (1018-1069) was the most famous ruler of this period.
3. He constructed a beautiful lake (More than 250 sq. miles) near Bhopal. He set up a college at
Dhara for the study of Sanskrit Literature.
4. The reign of the Paramaras came to an end with the invasion of Ala-ud-din Khilji

Nature of the Rajputs

1. The Rajputs were great warriors and chivalrous by nature.
2. They believed in protecting the women and the weak.

Religion
1. The Rajputs were staunch followers of Hinduism
2. They also patronized Buddhism and Jainism.
3. During their period that the Bhakti Cult started.

Government
1. The Rajput government was feudal in character.
2. Each kingdom was divided into a large number of Jagirs held by the Jagirdars.

Some of the literary works of this period are

1. Kalhana's Rajatarangin
2. Jayadeva's Gita Govindam
3. Somadeva's Kathasaritasagar
4. Chand Bardai, the court poet of Prithviraj Chauhan, wrote Prithviraj Raso in which he refers to
the military exploits of Prithviraj Chauhan.
5. Bhaskara Charya wrote Siddhanta Shinomani, a book on astronomy

Rajasekhara
1. The court poet of Mahendrapala and Mahipala
2. His best known works were
3. Karpu ramanjari , Bala and Ramayana

Art and Architecture

1. Mural paintings and Miniature paintings became popular during this period.
2. Khajuraho group of temples,
3. Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneshwar
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4. The Sun Temple at Konark
5. The Dilwara Temple at Mount Abu

End of the Rajput Power

1. During the Rajput period there were no strong military power
2. To keep the warring princes in check and to co-ordinate their activities against foreign
invasions.

Some popular terms

1. Jauhar: Amass suicide of women in order to escape defilement at the hands of foreign victors.
2. Gita Govindam: 'Song of the cowherd
3. Rajatarangini -'River of Kings',
4. Kathasaritasagara -Ocean of tales'

THE KINGDOMS OF THE DECCAN

1. The southern part of India is called the Deccan or the Dakshinapatha
2. The Deccan was separated from Northern India by the Vindhya and Satpura mountains, the
Narmada and Tapti and the dense forests
3. The Deccan was separated from Northern India by the Vindhya and Satpura mountains, the
Narmada and Tapti and the dense forests
4. The medieval period witnessed the rise of the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan
5. This period also saw the extension of the Delhi Sultanate namely the Khiljis and the Tughluqs
into South India.

The Chalukyas (6th -12th century A.D.)

1. The Early Western Chalukyas -6th-8th century A.D.
2. The Later Western Chalukyas 10th-12th century A.D.
3. The Eastern Chalukyas-7th-12th century.A.D

Early Western Chalukyas (6th-8thcentury A.D.)

1. The Chalukyas rose to power in Karnataka in the 6th century A.D
2. Their capital was Vatapi, (modern Badami) in the Bijapur district
3. Had a humble beginning under Jayasimha and Ramaraya. Pulakesin-I (543-566.A.D)

Real founder
1. Pulakesin II (610-642 A.D.)
2. Greatest ruler of this dynasty
3. He defeated Gangas, Malavas and Gurjaras.
4. He successfully opposed Harsha's attack in the north and defeated him in 637 A.D.
5. In the south he was constantly struggling with the Pallavas.
6. Pulakesin II defeated the Pallava King Mahendravarma I after which he crossed the Cauvery
7. Made friendly alliances with the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas
8. Made friendly alliances with the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas
9. Pulakesin II lost his life during the war.
10. Vikramaditya-I, Vijayaditya and Vikramaditya-ll were the other important rulers of this
dynasty
11. The last of the Chalukya Kings of Badami.

Later Western Chalukyas of Kalyani (10th -12th century A.D)

• The founder of this dynasty brought the Rashtrakuta rule to an end.

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The important rulers
1. Someshwara-ll
2. Vikramaditya-VI
3. Vikramaditya-VI
4. Someswara IV was the last ruler

Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (7th -12th century A.D)

1. Vishnu Vardhana, a brother of Pulakesin-ll, was the founder of the Eastern Chalukya Empire of
Vengi.
2. One of their descendants namely Kulothunga Chola (1071-1122 A.D.)
3. He was enthroned as a Chola ruler.

Contributions of the Chalukyas

1. The Chalukya kings were the followers of Hinduism.
2. Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesin-ll who composed the Aihole Inscription was a Jain
3. Great patrons of architecture
4. Built around 70 Vishnu temples in Aihole.
5. Hence Aihole has been called the 'Cradle of Indian Temple architecture
6. Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal
7. Telugu literature developed during this period.

The Virupaksha temple:

• This temple was built by Lokamahadevi.the queen of Vikramaditya 11.In front of the Hall of the
Priests or Antarala there is a pillared Mandapam or a meeting placefor the people.
• The Virupaksha temple is built on the model of the Kailasanatha temple at Kancheepuram.

The Rashtrakutas (8th -10th century A.D.)

1. The period of the Rashtrakuta ascendancy (753-975A.D.) constitutes perhaps the most brilliant
chapter in the history of the Deccan.
2. The Rashtrakutas were the descendants of the Rathors of the North.
3. Kannada was the mother tongue of the Rashtrakutas

Rashtrakutas (background)
1. Means designated officers-incharge of territorial divisions called Rashtras
2. The members of the family were district officers under the early Chalukyas of Badami.

Dantidurga
1. He occupied Ellora in 742 AD and became a feudatory of Kirtivarman of Badami
2. He captured Maharastra, Gujarat and most of the districts of central and northern Madhya
Pradesh.
3. Rashtrakuta territory extended around Nasik in the Northern Deccan with Malkhed as its capital
4. Dantidurga died in 756 A.D. and was succeeded by his uncle Krishna-I (756-775 A.D.).

Govinda-ll
• Govinda-ll (775- 780 A.D.), the son of Krishna I invaded the kingdom of Vengi and entered into
alliances with the rulers of Gangavadi, Kanchi, Vengi and Malwa

Dhurva
• Dhurva (780-792 A.D.) who succeeded Govinda-ll, was an able ruler

Govinda-lll
• Govinda-lll (792 -81 4 A.D.) was succeeded by his fourteen year old son Amoghavarsha-I (814-
880 A.D).

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Krishna lll
1. Krishna lll (936-968 A.D.) was the next famous ruler. He defeated the Cholas at Takkolam and
captured Tanjore.
2. He went as far as Rameshwaram

Karka-ll
• Karka-ll (972-973.A.D.), the last ruler of the Rashtrakutas was defeated by Tailapa-ll, the
Chalukya ruler of Kalyani.

Contributions Ellora
1. The Ellora caves were excavated during the reign of the Chalukyas and
later by the Rashtrakuta Kings.
2. Hindu .Buddhist and Jain deities are found in these cave temples.

The Kailasanatha
1. World‟s largest temple hewn out of a single blocks of rock and is the
most imposing

Krishna-I
2. Kailasanatha temple at Ellora.
3. The Elephanta caves near Mumbai were completed by the Rashtrakutas

Amoghavarsha
1. Great patron of literature.
2. He wrote Marga in the Kannada language

Jinasena (teacher of Amoghavarsha)

1. Wrote Parsavaudaya, a biography of Parsava

The Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra (11th -14th Century A.D.)

Vinayaditya
2. Vinayaditya (1006 -1022 A.D.) carved out a petty principality of Mysore and ruled over it with
Sosavir as his capital.
3. Vishnuvardhana was the first distinguished ruler of Vinayaditya's family. He shifted his capital
to Dwarasamudra.
4. He captured Gangavadi from Kulothunga Chola.
5. Gangavadi served as a buffer state between the Chalukyas and the Chola Empire.

Vira Ballala – ll
1. Vira Ballala – ll (1173-1220 A.D.)the next important ruler, he defeated Billama V of Yadava
Dynasty.
2. He arrested the independence of the Hoysalas.

Narasimhan-ll
1. Narasimhan-ll (1220-1235 A.D.) lost the territory between Krishna and Tungabhadra to
Singhana, a Yadava ruler.
2. He defeated Maravarman Sundara Pandya and restored Rajaraja-lll to the Chola throne and he
erected the pillar of victory at Rameshwaram.

Ballala III
1. Ballala III (1291-1342 A.D) was the last great ruler of this dynasty. In 1310A.D. he was
defeated by Malik Kafur.
2. He fell a victim to the Sultans of Madurai in 1342 A.D.

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Ballala IV
1. His son Ballala IV continued his struggle with the Muslims. With his death the Hoysala
Kingdom came to end.

Contributions
1. Hoysalas paved the way for the rise of Mysore into a big Kingdom.
2. Great patrons of art, architecture and literature.
3. Hoysalas encouraged Kannada literature.

The Kakatiyas of Warangal (12th -14th Century A.D.)

1. Prola-ll (1110 -1158 A.D.) the Kakatiya ruler captured the territory between the Krishna and the
Godavari from the Chalukyas and ruled over it with Hanumakonda as his capital.
2. His son Prataparudra-I (1158-1196.A.D.) shifted the capital to Warangal.
3. The next remarkable ruler was Ganapathi (1199-1261. A.D.).
4. He captured territories up to Kanchi from the Cholas.
5. He invaded Kalinga and Western Andhra.

Daughter of Ganapati (Rudrambha) (1261 -1291 .A.D.)

1. She abdicated the throne in favour of her grandson Prataparudhra-ll (1291-1326 A.D.).
2. During his rule Malik Kafur invaded Warangal in 1309 A.D.
3. Prataprudra – ll yielded and paid him an immense booty.

Ulugh Khan
1. Ulugh Khan, the son of Ghiasud-din Tughluq captured Warangal in 1323 A.D. and sent
Prataparudra II to Delhi
2. His successors continued their struggle with the rulers of the Tughluq dynasty
3. Vinayakadeva the last nominal ruler of this dynasty was put to death by Muhammad Shah I

KOHINOOR (the famous diamond belonged to Kakatiyas)

• Which was unearthed in Kollur on the banks of the Krishna River belonged to the Kakatiyas.

Contributions
1. The Kakatiyas encouraged literature, art and architecture.
2. The thousand Pillar temple at Hanumakonda stands as an everlasting contribution

THE YADAVAS OF DEVAGIRI (12ÿ -14* Century A.D.)

1. The Yadavas of Devagiri claimed their descent from the epic hero Lord Krishna.
2. They were known as Sevunas because they ruled over Sevuna, the region from Nasik to
Devagiri (Daulatabad).

BhjUama-V (1175-1190 A.D.)

1. The Yadava ruler took advantage of the declining power of the Later Western Chalukyas of
Kalyani,
2. Defeated Someswara-IV and declared his independence.
3. Came into conflict with Vira Balalla-ll (1173-1220A.D.), a Hoysala ruler. In the battle of
Lakkundi, Bhillama V lost his life.

Jaitrapala
1. Bhillama V was succeeded by his son Jaitrapala (1191-1210 A.D.)
2. He defeated Kalachuris, Gurjaras and Kakatiyas.
3. Jaitrapala was succeeded by his son Singhana (1210-1247A.D.)

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Singhana
1. He defeated Mahadeva, a Kakatiya ruler.
2. Singhana was the most distinguished ruler of this dynasty.
3. He defeated Vira Ballala-ll the Hoysala ruler and extended his dominion beyond the River
Krishna.
4. He invaded Gujarat many times and annexed Kolhapur which belonged to Silhara dynasty.
5. Singhana was succeeded by his grandson Krishna (1247-1260 A. D). He was succeeded by his
brother Mahadeva (1260-1271 A.D) who annexed north Konkan and put an end to the Silhara
dynasty.
6. Ramachandra Deva (1271-1 309 A.D.) was the last great ruler of this dynasty.
7. Ala-ud-din-Khilji defeated him and made him as a vassal of the Delhi Sultanate.

Sankara Deva (1309 – 1312 A.D.) the son and successor of Ramachandra Deva
1. Malik Kafur defeated and killed him in 1312 A.D.
2. Harapala, brother-in-law of Sankara Deva raised the flag against the Khiljis.
3. Mubarak, son of Ala-ud-din Khilji defeated and killed Harapala. Thus the Yadava dynasty came
to an end.

The Elephanta Caves

The Elephanta Caves were hewn out of rocks by the Rashtrakuta Kings. They are located on
a small island near Mumbai
The Portuguese named it so as they discovered a huge elephant sculpture here. The temple is
dedicated to Lord Shiva and contains many sculptures of gods and goddesses.

Contribution of the Yadavas

Devagiri fort
1. Built during the reign of the Yadavas.
2. It was one of the strongest forts in India
3. The Delhi Sultans later added a Juma Masjid and Chand Minar inside it.

End of the Deccan Kingdoms

1. Further the attacks on them by the Sultans of Delhi ever since the rule of Ala-uddin Khilji led to
their decline

ARAB AND TURKISH INVASIONS

1. Prophet Muhammad was the founder of Islam(570-632 A.D)
2. Islam grew up in the deserts of Arabia.
3. Its first converts were the Arabs.
4. Arab conquest of Sind and Multan 712 A.D.
5. Commercial contacts prevailed between India and Arabia for a long time.
6. The Arabs were attracted by the rich ports of Sind
7. They wanted to extend their political and religious control over it.
8. They were angry with the ruler of Sind who failed to check the pirates who plundered them

Muhammad-bin-Qasim
1. Sent by Al-Hajjajj the Governor of Iraq
2. With the permission of Caliph Walid to conquer Sind
3. He marched against Dahir the ruler of Sind
4. Defeated him in the Battle of Rewar and captured Sind
5. He also captured Multan.
6. He got so much of wealth from Multan that he called Multan – „The City of Gold‟.

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Administrative System
1. Muhammad-bin-Qasim divided Sind and Multan into number of Iqtas or districts
2. Arab military officers were appointed as heads of the Iqtas.
3. Local Hindu officers were allowed to administer the sub¬ divisions of the districts.
4. The Arabs imposed Jizya on non- Muslims.
5. Muhammad-bin-Qasim had an army of 25,000 troops including 6000 Syrian horses, 6000
Camels, 3000 Bactrian Camels
6. An artillery force of 2000 men with five catapults and advanced guards.

End of Muhammad-bin-Qasim
1. Caliph Sulaiman, succeeded Caliph Walid after his death.
2. He was an arch enemy of Al-Hajjaj, the Governor of Iraq.
3. He dismissed Muharrimad-bin Qasim as he was the son-in-law of Al-Hajjaj.
4. He sent him as a prisoner to Mesopotamia and tortured him to death.
5. Sind and Multan remained as part of the Caliph's empire for more than 150 years.

Effects of Arab Conquest

1. The conquest of Sind sowed the seeds for the coming of Islam into India.
2. The Arabs learnt the art of administration, astronomy, music, painting, medicine and
architecture from our land.
3. Indian Philosophy, numerals and astronomy were taken to Europe by the Arabs.

Turkish Invasion
1. The Expansion of Turks into India
2. The Turks got the upper hand over the Caliphs of Baghdad in the 8th and 9th centuries
3. They completed the work begun by the Arabs and extended their dominion beyond Sind and
Multan into India.

Heroic Defence of Women

Rani Bai
The wife of Dahir and the other women of Sind put up a heroic defence within the Fort of Rewar.
When their attempt failed they performed Jauhar to save their chastity and escape from the hands
of the invaders.
Indian impact

Brahma Siddhanta
A Sanskrit work of Brahma Gupta was translated into Arabic. Arabic works mention the names of
Indian scientists like Bhala, Manaka and Sindbad. Dhana was appointed as a chief Medical officer
in a hospital at Baghdad
Manaka, a physician cured a serious disease of Caliph Harun-al-Rashid.

Mahmud of Ghazni
1. He invaded India in 1000 A.D
2. He was the first Turkish invader
3. Mahmud defeated Jaipala,
4. The ruler of the Hindu Shahi dynasty
5. Fateh Daud of Multan and Anandpala of Nagarkot
6. He also crushed the Chandelas. The rulers of Mathura, Kanauj and Gwalior.
7. Returned to Ghazrii with enormous wealth
8. Mahmud's important expedition in Hindustan was against the Somnath temple in 1025 A.D.
9. This was situated on the coast of Kathiawar
10. As the ruler of Kathiawar, Raja Bhima Dev, and his followers fled from the place,

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Estimate of Mahmud of Ghazni
1. Mahmud of Ghazni was one of the greatest Muslim rulers of Asia.
2. He was a great patron of art and letters and he patronised scholars like Firdausi and Alberuni

End of Ghazni's rule in India

1. By 1186 A.D. the power of the House of Ghazni declined and that of Ghori rose up.

Muhammad of Ghori
2. Muhammad was the third important Muslim invader of Hindustan.
3. He became the ruler of Ghori

His invasions
1. As an ambitious and enterprising ruler
2. Started his attacks on India in 1176 A.D

First Battle of Tarain (1191A.D.)

1. In 1189 A.D. Muhammad of Ghori captured the fortress of Bhatinda and advanced into the
kingdom of Prithviraj Chauhan
2. Prithviraj marched against him with a large force and defeated Muhammad of Ghori in the
Battle of Tarain in 1191 A.D
3. Prithviraj also recovered Bhatinda, which was earlier occupied by Mahmud of Ghazni

Second Battle of Tarain (11 92 A.D.)

1. He gave a crushing defeat to the combined forces of the Rajput rulers under Prithviraj at Tarain.
2. Prithviraj was imprisoned and later put to death
3. The Second Battle of Tarain marked the beginning of the Turkish rule in the heart of Hindustan
for the first time in Indian history
4. Muhammad of Ghori appointed Qutb-ud-din Aibak as his commander.

Rajput Uprisings
1. Between 1193 and 1198 A.D. there were many Rajput uprisings
2. Qutb-ud-din Aibak put them down and brought many of their territories under his control
3. Delhi was made the capital of Muhammad of Ghori's territory in India.

Battle of Chandwar (1194 A.D.)

1. Muhammad of Ghori marched against Jaichandra, the greatest Rajput ruler of Kanauj
2. Jaichand was struck in the eye by an arrow and he was killed by Muhammad of Ghori

Conquest of Bengal and Bihar

1. Muhammad-bin-Baktiyar Khilji, one of the commanders of Muhammad of Ghori
2. Destroyed Vikramasila and Nalanda Universities in 1202-1203A.D

Death of Muhammad of Ghori

1. Muhammad of Ghori went back to Ghazrii in order to check his Central Asian enemies.
2. While he was engaged in evening prayer, he was assassinated on 25th March 1206A.D. by some
Shia rebels and Khokhars
3. Muhammad of Ghori was considered to be the real founder of the Turkish Empire in India
because of his various conquests and annexations of the Rajput territory in North India
SULTANATE OF DELHI
The period from 1206 A.D. to 1526 A.D. came to be known as the Sultanate period.

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MAMALUK DYNASTY Qutb-ud-dinAibak (1206-1210A.D.)
1. The rule of Qutb-ud-din Aibak the commander of Muhammad of Ghori marked the beginning of
the Mamaluk rule
2. He assumed sovereign powers on 24th June 1206 A.D.
3. He did not issue coins or read the khutba in his name.
4. He was the founder of the Turkish dominion in India.
5. Mamaluk was the Quranic term for a slave

His immediate task

1. To prevent Ala-ud-din Muhammad, the Shah of Khwarizm from occupying Ghazni and Delhi
2. To prevent the Rajputs from recovering their principalities.
3. To put down Ali Mardan Khan of Bengal, Qubacha and Yalduz.

An Estimate of Qutb – ud - din

1. He built Quwat-ul-lslam mosque at Ajmer
2. Dhai Dinka Jhonpara mosque at Delhi.
3. He started the construction of Qutb Minar at Delhi.
4. He also patronized Hassan Nizami and Fakhre Mudir
5. He was called as Lakh Baksh or Giver of Lakhs for his generosity.

Iltutmish (1211 -1236 A.D.)

1. Born in the llbari tribe of Central Asia.
2. As a boy he was sold as a slave to Qutb-ud-dinAibak.
3. Aibak made him as his son-in-law.
4. He killed Aram Shah, the son of Aibak and became king in 1211A.D.

Conquest of Iltutmish
1. Iltutmish was surrounded by enemies on all sides.
2. As Yalduz considered himself to be the successor of Muhammad of Ghori, Iltutmish defeated
him and put him to death.
3. He captured Bhakkar, where Qubacha took shelter. Bengal was also brought under his control.
4. Iltutmish put down the revolt of the Khilji Maliks of Bengal in 1230 A.D.
5. Iltutmish refused to give shelter to Jalal-ud-din Mangabarni, the Shah of Khwarizm
6. This pleased Chengiz Khan and so he did not invade India.
7. In Rajputana, Iltutmish recaptured Ranthambore and Mandor. He defeated Udai Singh.
8. Iltutmish re-established his authority over Badaun, Kanauj, Benaras and Katchar-the doab
region between the Ganga and the Yamuna
9. Qutb Minar was built in honour of Sufi Saint Khwaja Qutb-ud-din Baktiyar kaki who died in
Delhi. The construction started by Aibak was completed by Iltutmish

End of Iltutmish
1. Iltutmish undertook an expedition against Bamiyan
2. He nominated his daughter Raziah as his successor before his death.

Administration
1. Iltutmish set up Iqtas under Iqtadars.
2. The army was maintained by 'A Corps of Forty' or Chahalgan.
3. He was the first Turkish ruler to introduce Arabic coinage.

Estimate
1. He completed the work of Aibak.
2. He built up the Turkish Kingdom in North India.

11
Coins of iltutmish
1. The silver tanka of Iltutmish weighed 175 mgs and had an Arabic inscription on it.
2. Iltutmish also introduced copper Jital.

Sultana Raziah (1236-1240 A.D.)

1. Raziah was the first woman ruler of Sultanate period.
2. She defeated and killed Firoz Shah who ascended the throne after the death of Iltutmish.
3. She successfully restored the prestige of the Turkish Kingdom in India.
4. Her rule ended in 1240A.D. because of a conspiracy by the Turkish nobles
5. The successors of Raziah were weak and hence Balban rose to power in 1265A.D.

Successors of Raziah
1. Bahram Shah 1240-1242A.D
2. Alaud-din Masid 1242-1246A.D
3. Nasir-ud-din Mahmud 1246 -1264A.D.

.
Balban 1265-1 287A.D.
1. Balban (1265-1 207 A.D.)
2. Balban an llbari Turk became the ruler in 1265A.D.
3. He believed in the Divine Right Theory of Kingship.
4. He introduced Poibos- a form of salutation to the king by kissing his feet in the court.
5. According to Lanepoole, "Balban, a slave, water carrier, huntsman, general, statesman and
Sultan-is one of the most striking figures among the notable men in the long line of Kings of
Delhi".

Internal policies
1. Balban curtailed and destroyed the 'Corps of Forty'
2. He introduced a well organised spy system.
3. A separate military department called Diwan-i-arz was established.
4. Many military posts were set up at Bhojapur, Patiali, Kampil and Jalali
5. Balban suppressed Tughril Khan,
6. Who declared his independence and recovered Bengal.
7. Balban was a great patron of learning
8. He patronized Amir Khusrau who is called as the 'Parrot of India' and Amir Hasan.

Divine right Theory

The ruler was considered as a representative of God on earth.

End of Balban
1. He was shocked when his son Mahmud was killed during an encounter with the Mongols.
2. He never recovered from the sorrow and died in 1287A.D.

End of the Mamaluk Dynasty

1. Balban was succeeded by Kaiqubad his grandson who was very incompetent.
2. The nobles made Kayumar, the infant son of Kaiqubad as ruler.
3. Jalal-ud-din Khilji, the commander of Balban became the regent of the infant king.
4. He killed Kaiqubad and Kayumar and became the ruler of Delhi.

12
KHILJI DYNASTY
Jalal-ud-din Firoz Khilji (1290-1296 A.D.)
1. He followed the policy of peace after he became the ruler.
2. He wanted to rule without bloodshed.
3. Hence, he was called as Clemency Jalal-uddin.

Domestic Policies
1. Jalal-ud-din suppressed a revolt by Malik Chhajju at Kara.
2. He appointed his nephew and son-in law Ala-ud-din Khilji as the Governor of Kara.

Mongol Invasion
1. Jalal-ud-din defeated and arrested the Mongols who tried to advance up to Sunam in 1292 A.D.

End of Jalal-ud-din
1. Jalal-ud-din's policy of peace was not liked by the young Khiljis.
2. Ala-ud-din Khilji the son-in-law of Jalal-ud-din treacherously murdered him

Ala-ud-din Khilji (1296-1316 A.D.)

Ala-ud-din Khilji ascended the throne in 1296A.D.
Conquests in the North
1. Ala-ud-din Khilji sent a strong army under his generals Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan to
conquer Gujarat and they succeeded in doing so
2. Ranthambore was captured and its ruler Hamir Deva was killed.
3. Chittor, Malwa, Mandu, Ujjain, Dhar, Chanderi, Marwar and Jalor were also captured.

Conquest in the South

1. Ala-ud-din Khilji was the first Sultan who invaded South India.
2. He sent his most trustworthy general, Malik Kafur against the rulers of the south.
3. Ramachandra Deva, the Yadava ruler of Devagiri, Prataprudra-ll of Warangal and Vira Ballala-
lll, the Hoysala ruler were defeated
4. He reached as far as Rameswaram and built a mosque there.
5. The kingdoms of the south accepted the over lordship of Ala-uddin khilji and agreed to pay
tribute to him.

The Mongol Invasion

• Ala-ud-din successfully repelled the Mongol invasion more than a dozen times.

Domestic Policies of Ala-ud-din Khilji

1. Ala-ud-din believed in the Divine Right Theory of Kingship.
2. He introduced four ordinances to prevent frequent rebellions.
3. He confiscated religious endowments
4. Free grants of lands
5. Reorganized the spy system,
6. Prohibited social parties and use of wine
7. A permanent standing army was organized by Ala-ud-din.
8. Introduced the system of branding of horses and descriptive roll of individual soldiers to prevent
corruption.
9. The prices of essential commodities were fixed which less than the usual market rates was.
10. Black marketing was strictly prohibited.
11. Revenue was collected in kind and not in cash.
12. Revenue was collected in kind and not in cash.
13. He followed a harsh policy towards the Hindus.
14. Jizya, grazing tax and house tax were imposed on them.
13
Marketing System
Officers like Diwan-i-riyasat an Shahana-i-mandi
Appointed to regularize the market
All merchants were required to register themselves in the office of the Shahana-i-Mandi and sell
their goods at fixed rates.

An Estimate
1. Ala-ud-din was the first to raise a standing army,
2. He built Alai Darwaza,
3. Fort of Siri and the Palace of a thousand pillars.

End of the Dynasty

1. Ala-ud-din died in 1316A.D
2. Due to weak successors like Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah (1316-1320 A.D.)
3. Nasir-ud-din Khusrav Shah (1320A.D.)
4. Finally in 1320 A.D. a group of nobles led by Ghazi Malik, the Governor of Punjab,
5. Invaded Delhi and captured the throne.
6. Ghazi Malik assumed the title of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq and founded a new line of rulers at
Delhi known as the Tughluq Dynasty.

Tughluq Dynasty
• Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq or Ghazi Malik was the founder of the Tughluq dynasty.
Domestic and Foreign Policies
1. Ghiyas-ud-din restored order in his empire. Lot of importance was given to agriculture,
irrigation, judicial, police and postal arrangements.
2. From a humble origin he ascended the throne by his ability and hard work in 1320A.D.
3. Warangal, Utkala or Orissa and Bengal were brought under his control
4. He captured and imprisoned the Mongol leaders who invaded North India.

End of his rule

1. While attending a reception for his victories at Bengal the pavilion
2. On which he stood gave way and Ghiyas-ud-din was crushed to death in 1325 A.D.
3. The crown prince Junakhan succeeded him.

Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq (1325-1361A.D.)
1. Prince Junakhan took up the title Muhammad-bin-Tughluq in 1325 A.D.
2. He stood for political and administrative unity of India.
3. He captured Warangal in 1327A.D.

Domestic Policies
1. Mohammed-bin-Tughlug raised the taxes in the Doab region to fill up his empty treasury.
2. To avoid heavy taxes the people ran away to the forests.
3. As cultivation was neglected severe famines occurred
4. In order to protect his capital, he transferred his capital from Delhi to Devagiri
5. He ordered both the government officials and the common people to shift to Devagiri.
6. Due to practical difficulties he ordered them to return back to Delhi
7. Copper currency system was introduced by the Sultan.
8. The value of coins fell so low that the Sultan withdrew the copper token currency
9. Mohammed-bin-Tughluq raised an army of 3, 70,000 men in order to conquer Tranoxiana,
Khurasan and Iraq.
10. Mohammed-bin-Tughluq's policy of giving huge presents to Tamashirin, the Mongol leader, to
avoid a Mongol invasion was a great burden on his exchequer.

14
11. The domestic policies of Mohammed-bin-Tughluq were good but his operative measures ended
in a failure.
12. His character of taking hasty decisions and inoperative policies were responsible for the
decline of the Delhi Sultanate.

Firoz Tughluq (1 351-1 388 A.D.)

• Firoz Tughluq, the son of the younger brother of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq ascended the throne in
1351A.D.

Administrative Reforms
1. He cancelled all Taquavi (agricultural) loans granted by Mohammed-bin-Tughluq.
2. He increased the salary of the revenue officers.
3. Unlawful and unjust cesses were abolished.

He collected four important taxes such as

1. Kharaj-1/10 of the produce of the land,
2. Khams-1/5 of the warbooty
3. Jizya-Poll Tax
4. Zakat-Tax on Muslims for specific religious purposes.

Contribution
1. 4. He excavated many irrigation canals, constructed 50 dams, 150 wells and 100 bridges.
2. 5. He built the towns like Firozabad, Fatehabad, Jaunpur and Hissar.
3. 6. Firoz prohibited all kinds of mutilations and torture.
4. 7. He imposed Jizya on the Brahmans.
5. 8. An Employment Bureau, Marriage Bureau, (Diwani-i-kherat) and hospitals (Dar-ul-
shafa) were established.
6. 9. Diwan-i-lstibqaq was established to give financial help to the poor.
Foreign Policy
1. In 1353A.D. and 1359A.D. Firoz besieged Bengal.
2. He captured Jainagar and destroyed the Jagannath Temple at Puri.

An Estimate
1. Firoz proved his greatness by
2. His benevolent reforms and contributed to the material prosperity of his people.
3. The Sultan himself wrote his autobiography called Futuhat-i-Firoz Shahi.
4. He patronized the scholar Zia-ud-din Barani
5. During his period a number of Sanskrit books on medicine, science and arts were translated into
Persian.
6. Kutab- Feroz Shahi was a book which dealt with Physics

LaterTughluqs
1. Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq Shah II, Abu Bakr Shah, Nasir-ud-din Mohammed Tughluq were the
successors of Firoz.
2. They were not very strong and powerful.
3. By the end of the fourteenth century, most of the provinces under them became independent.
4. Punjab and Delhi alone remained in the hands of the Tughluqs.
5. It was during their period that the invasion of Timur took place.

Timur's invasion (1398 A.D.)

1. The ruler of Samarqand, Timur was attracted by the fabulous wealth of Hindustan.
2. He invaded India during the period of Nasir Mahmud Tughluq.
3. Occupied Delhi in 1398 A.D. Timur inflicted untold miseries on the people by plundering and
massacring them
15
THE SAYYID DYNASTY (1414-1451 A.D.)
1. Khizr Khan (14 14- 142 1 A.D.) the Governor of Multan took advantage of the chaotic
conditions in India after Timur's invasion occupied the throne of Delhi in 1414 A.D.
2. Khizr Khan, the founder did not assume any royal title.
3. Though he brought Punjab, Dilapur and parts of Surat under his control,
4. He lost Jaunpur, Malwa, Gujarat, Khandesh, Bengal and Deccan.
5. He died in 1421 A.D
6. And was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah (1421-1434A.D.)

Mubarak Shah (1421-1434A.D.

1. He suppressed the Khokhars and the local chiefs of the Doab region.
2. For the first time Hindu nobles were appointed in the court of Delhi.
3. He built a city called "Mubarakbad" on the banks of the river Jamuna.
4. Mubarak's nephew, Muhammad Shah (1434-1445 A.D.) succeeded him.
5. He put down the ruler of Malwa with the help of Bahlol Lodi the Governor of Lahore
6. For the help rendered by Bahlol Lodi he was conferred with the title Khan-iKhanan
7. Muhammad Shah was succeeded by Ala-ud-din Shah (1 445-1457 A.D.).
8. He was a very feeble ruler.
9. Bahlol Lodi the Governor of Lahore occupied Delhi in 1457A.D. and allowed Ala-ud-din Shah
to retire to Badaun where he died in 1478 A.D.

LODI DYNASTY Bahlol Lodi {1451 -1489 A, D.)

1. The Lodi Dynasty was founded by Bahlol Lodi.
2. It was the last of the ruling dynasties of the Sultanate period.
3. He was a shrewd politician who clearly realized his limitations.
4. He always took steps to satisfy his nobles.
5. He conquered Mewat, Samthal, Sakit, Etawa and Gwalior. Hediedin 1489A.D.
6. Bahlol Lodi did not take his seat on the throne but sat on the carpet in front of the throne along
with his nobles in order to get their recognition and support.

Sikandar Shahi (1489-1517 A.D.)

1. Bahlol's son Sikandar Shahi (1489-1517 A.D.) ascended the throne under the title of Sikandar
Shah.
2. He built the city of Agra which became an important administrative and cultural center of the
Lodi's.
3. He organized an efficient spy system.
4. He improved agriculture and industry.
5. He enjoyed "Shehnai "music. A reputed work on music titled "Lahjati-Sikandar Shahi was
prepared during his reign.
6. He was an orthodox Muslim and put serious restrictions on the Hindus.

End of Lodi Dynasty

1. Ibrahim Lodi (1517-1526 A.D.) succeeded Sikandhar Lodi. He was an uncompromising and
intolerant ruler.
2. Ibrahim Lodi humiliated many of his nobles and killed some of them cruely.
3. Dilwar khan Lodi the son of Daulat khan Lodi was treated cruely by Ibrahim Lodi.
4. In order to take revenge on him, Daulat khan Lodi invited Babur the ruler of Kabul
5. Babur accepted his invitation, invaded India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of
Panipat in 1 526 A. D.

Administration under the Delhi Sultanate

1. The Sultanate of Delhi which extended from 1206 A.D. to 1526 A.D., for a period of about 320
years
16
2. A Theocratic as well as a Military State.
3. Administration was based on Islamic laws.

Ministers to Sultan
1. Wazir
Prime Minister and Finance Minister
2. Diwani-I-Risalt
Foreign Affairs Minister.
3. Sadr-us-Suddar
Minister of Islamic Law.
4. Diwan-l-lnsha
Correspondence Minister
5. Diwan-I-Ariz
Defence or War Minister
6. Qazi-ul-quzar
Minister of Justice.

Central Administration
1. The Sultan was the head of the empire. He enjoyed vast powers.
2. Many officials were also appointed to take care of the administration.

Provincial Administration
1. The empire was divided into several Iqtas.
2. Iqtas were administered by Iqtadars
3. Iqtas were divided into smaller units called Shiqqs, Parganas and the Villages.
4. Important officials of the Pargana were the Amil or Munsif,

Local Administration
1. The village was the smallest unit of administration.
2. Local hereditary officers and the Panchayats in each village carried out the village
administration.
3. The Panchayat looked after education, sanitation, justice, revenue etc.
4. The Central Government did not interfere in the village administration.

Revenue Administration
• Land revenue was the main source of income.

Judicial Administration
1. The Sultan was the highest judicial authority.
2. Qazi-ul-quzar was the Chief Judicial officer.
3. There was a Quazi in every town.
4. Usually severe punishments were given to the criminals.

Military Administration
1. The Sultan was the Commander of the army
2. The four divisions of the army were the Royal army, Provincial or Governor's army, Feudal
army and War Time army.

Social life of the Sultanate period

• The important characteristic of the society was the division of people on the basis of their
nationality
• Foreign Muslims, Indian Muslims and Hindus.

Economic conditions of the people

17
1. The people were mainly involved in agriculture and industry
2. Textile industry was the primary industry.
3. Sugar industry, paper industry, metal work, stone cutting, pearl diving, ivory and sandal works
were the other industries of this period.

Textiles
1. Indian textiles were in great demand in foreign countries.
2. Bengal and Gujarat were famous for their quality fabrics.
3. Cotton, woollen and silk of different varieties were produced in large quantities.
4. The clothes were studded with gold, diamonds, pearls, silver and stones

CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE DELHI SULTANATE

Art and Architecture
1. Delhi Sultans had a genius for architecture.
2. There was a blend of Indian and Islamic styles

The three well developed styles were

1. Delhi or Imperial Style,
2. Provincial Style
3. Hindu architectural style

Contributions
1. 3. Qutubminar, Quwat-ul-lslam mosque,the tombs of Nasir-ud-din Muhammad and Balban
were built by the Mamaluk rulers.
2. 4. Siri the new town in Delhi
3. 5. Dargah of Hazrat Nizam - ud - din Aulia
7. The Alai Darwaza belonged to Khilji period
8. The rulers of Tughluq period did not give importance to ornamentation.
9. Their buildings were solid and strong
10. The Lodi Garden and Moti Masjid in New Delhi and the tomb of Sikandar Lodi are some
examples of Lodi architecture.
Literature
Great scholars namely
• Alberuni,
• Amir Khusrau
• Zia-ul-Barani

Many Sanskrit works were translated into Arabic.

Urdu language originated during the Sultanate period.
Scholars of sultanate period
1. Alberuni an Arabic and Persian Scholar served under Mahmud of Ghazni
2. He learnt and translated two Sanskrit works into Arabic.
3. He was impressed by the Upanishadsand BhagavatGita
4. In his work Tarikh-ul-Hind,
5. Referred to the socio-economic conditions of India
6. Amir Khusrau was a great Persian poet
7. He is said to have written four lakh couplets.
8. He was a great singer and was given the title 'Parrot of India'.

Impact of Turkish Conquest

1. The Turkish conquest of India had its impact on various fields.
2. It paved the way for a centralized political organization.
3. It restored contacts with the rest of Asia and parts of Africa.
4. A permanent army was established.
18
5. Trade developed due to the uniform legal system, tariff regulations and currency.
6. Persian became the court language and brought uniformity in administration.

Disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate

1. The disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate had begun during the Tughluq period.
2. The invasion of Timur and the incompetent and intolerant nature of some of the Sayyid and Lodi
rulers led to the crumbling of the Delhi Sultanate.
3. The first to break free from Delhi in the South were the rulers of the Vijayanagar and Bahmani
Kingdom.
4. Khandesh, Bengal, Sind, Multan, Gujarat, Malwa, Jauripur, Kashmir, Assam and Orissa also
asserted their independence.
5. Further the defeat of Ibrahim Lodi in the first Battle of Panipat in 1526 A.D. by Babur ended the
Lodi dynasty
6. Brought the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate in India.

THE VIJAYANAGAR AND BAHMANl KINGDOMS

After the reign of Muhammed-BinTughluq. Bengal and Multan were the first to break away from
Delhi.
The Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1 672 A.D.)
1. Harihara and Bukka served under the Hoysala King Vira Ballala III
2. They founded the city of Vijayanagar on the southern banks of Tungabhadra in 1336 A.D.
3. Their capital was Hampi.

Vijayanagar Empire was ruled by four important dynasties namely

1. Sangama
2. Saluva
3. Tuluva
4. Aravidu.

Harihara I
1. Harihara I became the ruler in 1336 A.D.
2. He captured Mysore and Madurai.
3. He was succeeded by Bukka-I in 1356 A.D.

KRISHNADEVA RAYA (1509-1529 A.D.)

1. Krishnadeva Raya of the Tuluva dynasty was the most famous king of the Vijayanagar Empire
2. According to Domingo Paes a Portuguese traveller
3. "Krishnadeva Raya was the most feared and perfect king there could possibly be".

CONQUESTS
1. He conquered Sivasamudram in 1510A.D and Raichur in 1512A.D
2. Orissa and Warangal in 1523 A.D.
3. His empire extended from
4. The river Krishna in the north to River Cauvery in the south
5. Arabian Sea in the west to Bay of Bengal in the east

Contributions
1. An able administrator.
2. He constructed large tanks and canals for irrigation purposes.
3. He improved the naval power as he understood the importance of overseas trade.
4. He maintained friendly relationship with the Portuguese and Arab traders and increased the
revenue of his government.
5. Krishnadeva Raya was a great scholar.
6. He was a patron of art and architecture.
19
7. The Vijaya nagar Empire reached its zenith of glory during Krishnadeva Raya's period.

Ashtadiggajas
A group of eight scholars adorned his court. Allasani Peddanna, Nandi
Thimmana, Tenali Rama, Bhattu,Murthy, Puna Vira Bhadra,Dhurjathy, Mallana and
Panaji ,Surana.

BATTLE OF TALIKOTA (1 565 A.D.)

1. The successors of Krishnadeva Raya were weak
2. During the rule of Ramaraya,
3. The combined forces of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda and Bidar declared war on
Vijayanagar.
4. Ramaraya was defeated. He and his people were mercilessly killed.
5. Vijayanagar was plundered and left in ruins

The Glories of the Vijayanagar Empire

Administration
1. Well organized administrative system.
2. The king was the fountain head of all powers in the state.
3. There was a Council of Ministers to assist the King in the work of administration.
4. The Empire was divided into six Provinces.
5. Each Province was under a Governor called Naik
6. The Provinces were divided into districts which were further divided into smaller units namely
Villages.
7. The administration of the villages through its hereditary officers like accountants, the
weightsmen, watchmen and officers incharge of forced labour.

Mahanayakacharya
The Central administration maintained contact with the villages through an officer called
Mahanayakacharya.

The Army
1. The army consisted of the infantry, cavalry and elephantry.
2. The commander-in-chief was in charge of the army.

Revenue Administration
1. Land revenue was the main source of income
2. The land was carefully surveyed and taxes were collected based on the fertility of the soil.
3. Great attention was paid to agriculture and the construction of dams and canals.

Judicial Administration
1. The king was the supreme judge.
2. Severe punishments were inflicted on the guilty.
3. Fines were collected from those who violated the law.

Position of Women
1. Women occupied a high position and took an active part in political, social and literary life of
the empire
2. They were educated and trained in wrestling
3. In the use of various weapons of offence and defence, in music and fine arts
4. Some of them received education of high order.
20
5. Nuniz writes that the kings had women astrologers, clerks, accountants, guards and wrestlers

Social life
1. The society was well organized.
2. Child marriage, polygamy and sati were prevalent.
3. The kings allowed freedom of religion

Economic conditions
1. Led by their irrigational policies. Numerous industries such as Textiles, mining, metallurgy and
perfumery existed.
2. They had commercial relations with, the islands in the Indian Ocean,
3. The Malay Archipelago, Burma, China, Arabia, Persia, South Africa, Abyssinia, Portugal

Contribution to Architecture and Literature

1. The Hazara Ramasami temple
2. Vittalaswamy temple
3. The bronze image of Krishnadeva Raya is a masterpiece
4. Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu and Kannada literature were developed.
5. Sayana wrote commentaries on Vedas.
6. Krishnadevaraya wrote Amuktamalyada in Telugu
7. His Sanskrit works were Usha Parinayam and Jambavathi Kalyanam.

Decline of the Empire

1. The rulers of the Aravidu dynasty were weak and incompetent.
2. Taking advantage of their weakness the provincial governors became independent.
3. The rulers of Bijapur and Golconda annexed some areas of Vijayanagar.

THE BAHMANI KINGDOM (1347-1 526 A.D.)

The Bahmani kingdom was the most powerful Muslim kingdom
Political History
1. The founder of this dynasty was Hasan Gangu Bahmani.
2. He was a Turkish officer of Devagiri.
3. He established the independent Bahmani kingdom in 1347 A.D.
4. His kingdom stretched from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal
5. Included the whole of Deccan up to the river Krishna with its capital at Gulbarga

Muhammad Shah-I (1358-1377.A.D.)

1. The next ruler was an able general and administrator.
2. He defeated Bukka-I the ruler of Vijayanagar and Kapaya Nayaks of Warangal.

Muhammad Shah-ll (1378-1397.A.D.)

1. Ascended the throne in 1378 A.D.
2. He was peace loving and hence he developed friendly relations with his neighbours
3. He built many mosques, madrasas (a place of learning) and hospitals

Feroz Shah Bahmani (1397-1422 A.D.)

1. He was a great genera
2. He defeated Deva Raya I, the Vijayanagar ruler.

Ahmad Shah (1422-1435 A.D.)

1. Succeeded Feroz Shah Bahmani
2. He was a cruel and merciless ruler
3. He conquered the kingdom of Warangal and changed his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
21
4. He died in 1435A.D.

Muhammad Shah-lll (1463-1482 A.D.)

1. He became the Sultan at the age of nine in 1463A.D.
2. Muhammad Gawan became the regent of the infant ruler.
3. Under his able guidance the Bahmani kingdom became very powerful
4. Muhammad Gawan defeated the rulers of Konkan, Sangameshwar, Orissa and Vijayanagar.

Muhammad Gawan
He was a very wise scholar and able administrator.
He improved the administration, organized finances, encouraged public education,
Reformed the revenue system, disciplined the army and eleminated corruption.
Muhammad Gawan fell a victim to the jealousy of Deccan Muslims.
He was falsely accused by them and so was persecuted and sentenced to death in 1481 by
Muhammad Shah III.

The Five Muslim Dynasties

Muhammad Shah-lll died in 1482
His successors were weak and the Bahmani Kingdom disintegrated into five kingdoms namely
1. Bijapur
2. Ahmednagar
3. Bera
4. Golconda
5. Bidar

Administration
1. The Sultans followed a Feudal type of administration.
2. The kingdom was divided into many provinces called Tarafs
3. Each Taraf was under a Governor called Tarafdar or Amir.

Golgumbaz
Golgumbaz in Bijapur is called the whispering gallery.
This is so, because when one whispers in one corner, a lingering echo is heard in the opposite
corner.

Contribution to Education, Art and Architecture

1. The Bahmani Sultans gave great attention to education. They encouraged Arabic and Persian
learning.
2. Urdu also flourished during this period
3. Numerous mosques, madarasas and libraries were built
4. The Juma masjid at Gulbarga,
5. The Golconda fort
6. The Golgumbaz at Bijapur
7. The Madarasas of Muhammad Gawan
8. Decline of Bahmani Kingdom
9. The constant wars between the Bahmani and Vijayanagar rulers,
10. Inefficient and weak successors of Muhammad Shah III
11. Rivalry between the Bahmani rulers and foreign nobles were a few causes for the downfall of
the Bahmani kingdom

22
BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
1. Bhakti movement in medieval India is a different kind. This medieval Bhakti movement was the
direct result of the influence of the spread of Islam in India.
2. The preaching of Sufi teachers shaped the thinking of Bhakti reformers like Ramananda, Kabir
and Nana

Sufism
1. Sufism was a liberal reform movement within Islam.
2. It had its origin in Persia and spread into India in the eleventh century.
3. The first Sufi saint Shaikh Ismail of Lahore started preaching his ideas
4. Most famous of the Sufi saints of India was Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, who settled in Ajmer
which became the centre of his activities.
5. He had a number of disciples who are called Sufis of the Chishti order
6. Another well-known Sufi saint was Bahauddin Zakariya who came under the influence of
another famous mystic Shihabuddin Suhrawardi
7. His branch of Sufi saints was known as the Sufis of the Suhrawardi Order.
8. Yet another famous Sufi saint was Nizamuddin Auliya who belonged to the Chishti order and
who was a mighty spiritual force.
9. Sufism stressed the elements of love and devotion as effective means of the realisation of God
10. Love of God meant love of humanity and so the Sufis believed service to humanity was
tantamount to service to God.
11. In Sufism, self-discipline was considered an essential condition to gain knowledge of God by
sense of perception
12. While orthodox Muslims emphasise external conduct
13. The Sufis lay stress on inner purity.
14. While the orthodox believe in blind observance of rituals,
15. The Sufis consider love and devotion as the only means of attaining salvation
16. Sufism also inculcated a spirit of tolerance among its followers
17. Ideas emphasised by Sufism are meditation, good actions, repentance for sins, performance
of prayers and pilgrimages, fasting, charity and suppression of passions by ascetic practices.
18. These liberal and unorthodox features of Sufism had a profound influence on medieval Bhakti
saints

Bhakti Movement

1. In the ninth century Sankara started a Hindu revivalist movement giving a new orientation to
Hinduism.
2. He was born in Kaladi in Kerala
3. His doctrine of Advaita or Monism was too abstract to appeal to the common man.
4. There was a reaction against the Advaita concept of Nirgunabrahman (God without attributes)
with the emergence of the idea of Sagunabrahman (God with attributes)
5. In the twelfth century, Ramanuja, who was born at Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai,
preached Visishtadvaita.
6. According to him God is Sagunabrahman.
7. He also advocated prabattimarga or path of self-surrender to God
8. He invited the downtrodden to Vaishnavism
9. The thirteenth century, Madhava from Kannada region propagated Deviator dualism of Jivatma
and Paramatma.
10. According to his philosophy, the world is not an illusion but a reality.
11. God, soul, matter are unique in nature.
12. Nimbarkaand Vallabhacharyawere also other preachers of Vaishnavite Bhakti in the Telungana
region
13. Surdas was the disciple of Vallabhacharya and he popularized Krishna cult in north India
14. Mirabai was a great devotee of Krishna and she became popular in Rajasthan for her bhajans.
23
15. Tulsidaswas a worshipper of Rama and composed the famous Ramcharitmanas, the Hindi
version of Ramayana
16. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Ramananda, Kabir and Nanak remained great apostles
of the Bhakti cult.
17. They helped the common people to shed age-old superstitions and attain salvation through
Bhakti or pure devotion.
18. They helped the common people to shed age-old superstitions and attain salvation through
Bhakti or pure devotion.
19. Denounced all forms of idolatry.

Ramananda
1. Ramananda was born at Allahabad.
2. He was originally a follower of Ramanuja.
3. Later he founded his own sect and preached his principles in Hindi at Banaras and Agra.
4. He was the first to employ the vernacular medium to propagate his ideas.
5. He was the first to employ the vernacular medium to propagate his ideas.
6. He opposed the caste system and chose his disciples from all sections of society disregarding
caste

His disciples were:

a) Kabir
b) Raidasa, a cobbler
c) Sena, a barber
d) Sadhana
e) Dhanna, a Jat farmer
f) Naraharai, a goldsmith
g) Pipa, a Rajput prince

Kabir
1. Among the disciples of Ramananda the most famous was Kabir
2. Among the disciples of Ramananda the most famous was Kabir
3. But he was brought up by a Muslim couple who were weavers by profession
4. He possessed an inquiring mind and while in Benares learnt much about Hinduism.
5. Kabir‟s object was to reconcile Hindus and Muslims and establish harmony between the two
sects
6. Urged that to achieve this one must have a pure heart, free from cruelty, dishonesty, hypocrisy
and insincerity.
7. He is regarded as the greatest of the mystic saints and his followers are called Kabirpanthis

Guru Nanak
1. founder of the Sikh religion and a disciple of Kabir
2. He was born in Talwandi near Lahore
3. He denounced caste distinctions and rituals like bathing in holy rivers.
4. His conception of religion was highly practical and sternly ethical.
5. Abide pure amidst the impurities of the world‟ was one of his famous sayings.

Chaitanya was another well-known saint and reformer of Bengal who popularised the Krishna
cult.
He believed that through love and devotion, song and dance, a devotee can feel the presence of
God
Gnanadeva was the founder of the Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra in the thirteenth century.
It was called Maharashtra dharma.
He wrote a commentary of Bhagavat Gitacalled Gnaneswari.
Namadeva preached the gospel of love. He opposed
24
Idol worship and priestly domination. He also opposed the caste
System. In the sixteenth century,
Ekanatha opposed caste distinctions and sympathetic towards the lower castes.
Another Bhakti saint of Maharashtra was Tukaram, a contemporary of Sivaji.
Responsible for creating a background for Maratha nationalism
Importance of the Bhakti Movemen
1. Bhakti movement provided an impetus for the development of regional languages such as Hindi,
Marathi, Bengali, Kannada, etc.
2. Bhakti movement provided an impetus for the development of regional languages such as Hindi,
Marathi, Bengali, Kannada, etc.
3. The lower classes were raised to a position of great importance.
4. The importance of women in society was also increased because the Bhakti movement gave
equal importance to them.

MUGHAL EMPIRE
Babur (1526-1530)
1. Founder of the Mughal Empire in India.
2. His original name was Zahiruddin Muhammad
3. He was related to Timur from his father‟s side and to Chengiz Khan through his mother.
4. Babur succeeded his father Umar Shaikh Mirza as the ruler of Farghana.
5. Took interest in conquering India and launched four expeditions between 1519 and 1523

Military Conquests
1. He occupied Lahore easily by defeating its governor, Daulat Khan Lodi
2. He proceeded against Delhi where Ibrahim Lodi was the Sultan.
3. On 21st April 1526 the first Battle of Panipat took place between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi,
4. Babur‟s success was due his cavalry and artillery
5. Babur occupied Delhi and sent his son Humayun to seize Agra. Babur proclaimed himself as
“Emperor of Hindustan”

Rana Sangha
1. His subsequent victories over Rana Sangha and the Afghans secured his position as the ruler of
India
2. Rana Sangha of Mewar was a great Rajput warrior.
3. He marched against Babur and in the Battle of Khanua (near Agra) held in 1527
4. Babur won a decisive victory over him. Babur assumed the title Ghazi
In 1528, Babur captured Chanderi from another Rajput ruler Medini Rai.
• In the next year, Babur defeated the Afghans in the Battle of Gogra in Bihar.
• Babur died at Agra in 1530 at the age of forty seven

Humayun (1530-1540)
1. Humayun was the eldest son of Babur.
2. Humayun means “fortune” but he remained the most unfortunate ruler of the Mughal Empire
3. Humayun had three brothers, Kamran, Askari and Hindal
4. Humayun divided the empire among his brothers but this proved to be a great blunder on his
part.
5. Kamran was given Kabul and Kandahar.
6. Sambhal and Alwar were given to Askari and Hindal
7. Humayun captured Gujarat from Bahadur Shah and appointed Askari as its governor
8. But soon Bahadur Shah recovered Gujarat from Askari who fled from there
9. Sher Khan became powerful in the east
10. Humayun marched against him and in the Battle of Chausa, held in 1539,
11. Sher Khan destroyed the Mughal army and Humayun escaped from there.
25
12. Humayun reached Agra to negotiate with his brothers.
13. Humayun was forced to fight with Sher Khan alone in the Battle of Bilgram in 1540
14. This battle was also known as Battle of Kanauj.
15. After losing his kingdom, Humayun became an exile for the next fifteen years

Sur Interregnum (1540-1555)

1. The founder of the Sur dynasty was Sher Shah,
2. Whose original name was Farid.
3. He was the son of Hasan Khan, a jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar
4. Farid served under the Afghan ruler of Bihar, Who gave him the title Sher Khan for his bravery.

Sher Shah Sur (1540-1545)

1. His conquests include Punjab, Malwa, Sind, Multan and Bundelkhand
2. His empire consisted of the whole of North India except Assam, Nepal, Kashmir and Gujarat

Sher Shah’s Administration

1. Although his rule lasted for five years, he organized a brilliant administrative system.
2. The king was assisted by four important ministers:
3. Diwan –i- Wizarat – also called as Wazir- in charge of Revenue and Finance
4. Diwan-i-Ariz– in charge of Army
5. Diwan-i-Rasalat- Foreign Minister
6. Diwan-i-Insha- Minister for Communications
7. Sher Shah‟s empire was divided into forty seven sarkars
8. Each sarkarwas divided into several parganas
9. Shiqdar (military officer),
10. Amin (land revenue)
11. Fotedar (treasurer)
12. Karkuns (accountants)
13. There were also many administrative units called iqtas
14. The land revenue administration was well organized under Sher Shah
15. Land survey was carefully done.
16. All cultivable lands were classified into three classes – good, middle and bad.
17. The state‟s share was one third of the average produce and it was paid in cash or crop.
18. Sher Shah introduced new silver coins called “Dam” and they were in circulation till 1835.
19. Police was efficiently reorganized and crime was less during his regime.
20. Shah borrowed many ideas like the branding of horses from Alauddin Khalji
21. Sher Shah had also improved the communications by laying four important highways.

1. Sonargaon to Sind
2. Agra to Burhampur
3. Jodhpur to Chittor
4. Lahore to Multan

Estimate of Sher Shah

1. Sher Shah remained a pious Muslim and generally tolerant towards other religions.
2. He employed Hindus in important offices
3. Now the old fort called Purana Qila and its mosque is alone surviving
4. He also built a Mausoleum at Sasaram, which is considered as one of the master pieces of
Indian architecture.
5. Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote the famous Hindi work Padmavat during his reign
6. After Sher Shah‟s death in 1545 his successors ruled till 1555 when Humayun reconquered India

26
Humayun (1555-1556)
1. When Humayun left India in 1540, he married Hamida Banu Begum on his way to Sind.
2. When they stayed in Amorkot, a Hindu kingdom ruled by Rana Prasad, Akbar was born in
1542.
3. Humayun then proceeded to Iran and sought help from its ruler.
4. He later defeated his brothers, Kamran and Askari.
5. In 1555, Humayun defeated the Afghans and recovered the Mughal throne
6. After six months, he died in 1556 due to his fall from the staircase of his library.
7. Although Humayun was not a good General and warrior, he was kind and generous.
8. He also loved painting and wrote poetry in Persian language
Akbar (1556-1605)

1. His position was dangerous because Delhi was seized by the Afghans.
2. In the second Battle of Panipat in 1556, Hemu was almost on the point of victory. But an arrow
pierced his eye and he became unconscious.
3. His army fled and the fortune favoured Akbar. The Mughal victory was decisive
4. During the first five years of Akbar‟s reign, Bairam Khan acted as his regent.
5. After five years he was removed by Akbar due to court intrigues and sent to Mecca
6. Akbar due to court intrigues and sent to Mecca. But on his way Bairam was killed by an Afghan
7. Akbar‟s military conquests were extensive
Relations with Rajputs
1. He married the Rajput princess, the daughter of Raja Bharamal.
2. Rajputs served the Mughals for four generations
3. Many of them rose to the positions of military generals
4. Raja Bhagawan Das and Raja Man Singh were given senior positions in the administration by
Akbar
5. One by one, all Rajput states submitted to Akbar
6. But the Ranas of Mewar continued to defy despite several defeats.
7. In the Battle of Haldighati, Rana Pratap Singh was severely defeated by the Mughal army led
by Man Singh in 1576
8. Following the defeat of Mewar, most of the leading Rajput rulers had accepted Akbar‟s
suzerainty
9. Akbar‟s Rajput policy was combined with a broad religious toleration.
10. He abolished the pilgrim tax and later the jiziya.
11. The alliance secured to the Mughals the services of the bravest warriors.
12. On the other hand it ensured peace in Rajasthan and a number of Rajputs who joined the
Mughal service rose to important positions

Religious Policy

1. Akbar rose to fame in the pages of history due to his religious policy.
2. Akbar was a pious Muslim. Soon after marrying Jodh Bai of Amber, he abolished the pilgrim
tax
3. In 1562, he abolished jiziya
4. He allowed his Hindu wives to worship their own gods.
5. In 1575, he ordered for the construction of Ibadat Khana (House of worship) at his new capital
Fatepur Sikri
6. Akbar invited learned scholars from all religions like Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity and
Zoroastrianism
7. He disliked the interference of the Muslim Ulemas in political matters.
8. In 1579, he issued the “Infallibility Decree” by which he asserted his religious powers
9. In 1582, he promulgated a new religion called Din Ilahi or Divine Faith
10. It believes in one God
11. It contained good points of all religions
27
12. Its basis was rational.
13. It upholds no dogma.
14. It was aimed at bridging the gulf that separated different religions.
15. However, his new faith proved to be a failure
16. It fizzled out after his death
17. It had only fifteen followers including Birbal. Akbar did not compel anyone to his new faith

Land Revenue Administration

1. Akbar made some experiments in the land revenue administration with the help of Raja Todar
Mal.
2. The land revenue system of Akbar was called Zabti or Bandobast system.
3. It was known as Dahsala System which was completed in 1580.
4. The revenue was fixed on the average yield of land assessed on the basis of past ten years
5. The land was also divided into four categories
I. Polaj (cultivated every year)
II. Parauti (once in two years),
III. Chachar (once in three or four years)
IV. Banjar (once in five or more years)
V. Payment of revenue was made generally in cash.

Mansabdari System
1. Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system in his administration
2.Under this system every officer was assigned a rank (mansab)
3. Lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5000 for the nobles
4. Princes of royal blood received even higher ranks.
5. The ranks were divided into two – zat and sawar.
6. Zat means personal and it fixed the personal status of a person.
7. Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen of a person who was required to maintain
8. Every sawar had to maintain at least two horses
9. All appointments and promotions as well as dismissals were directly made by the emperor.

Jahangir (1605-1627)
1. When Akbar died, Prince Salim succeeded with the title Jahangir (Conqueror of World) in
1605.
2. Son Khusrau revolted but was defeated and imprisoned.
3. One of his supporters, Guru Arjun, the fifth Sikh Guru, was beheaded.

Nur Jahan
1. In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa who was known as Nur Jahan (Light of World).
2. Nur Jahan’s elder brother Asaf Khan was appointed as Khan-i-Saman, a post reserved for the
nobles.
3. In 1612, Asaf Khan’s daughter, Arjumand Banu Begum (later known as Mumtaj), married
Jahangir‟s third son, prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan).

Shah Jahan (1627-1658)

1. Shah Jahan launched a prolonged campaign in the northwest frontier to recover Kandahar and
other ancestral lands.
2. His Deccan policy was more successful.
3. He defeated the forces of Ahmadnagar and annexed it
4. Both Bijapur and Golkonda signed a treaty with the emperor
5. Shah Jahan carved four Mughal provinces in the Deccan – Khandesh, Berar, Telungana and
Daulatabad

28
War of Succession
1. The last years of Shah Jahan‟s reign were clouded by a bitter war of succession among his four
sons
2. Dara Shikoh (crown prince)
3. Shuja (governor of Bengal)
4. Aurangazeb (governor of Deccan)
5. Murad Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat)
6. Aurangazeb emerged victorious in this struggle
7. He entered the Agra fort after defeating Dara
8. He forced Shah Jahan to surrender
9. Shah Jahan was confined to the female apartments in the Agra fort and strictly put under vigil
10. But he was not ill-treated.
11. Shah Jahan lived for eight long years lovingly nursed by his daughter Jahanara

Aurangazeb (1658-1707)
1. Aurangazeb was one of the ablest of the Mughal kings
2. He assumed the title Alamgir, World Conqueror.
3. His military campaigns in his first ten years of reign were a great success.
4. He faced serious difficulties in the latter part of his reign.
5. The Jats and Satnamis and also the Sikhs revolted against him.
6. These revolts were induced by his harsh religious policy
7. The Deccan policy of the Mughals started from the reign of Akbar,
8. Aurangazeb, as governor of Deccan, followed an aggressive Deccan policy.
9. When he became the Mughal emperor for the first twenty five years, he concentrated on the
northwest frontier
10. At that time, the Maratha ruler, Sivaji carved out an independent Maratha kingdom in the
territories of north and south Konkan
11. To contain the spread of the Marathas, Aurangazeb decided to invade Bijapur and Golkonda.
12. He defeated Sikandar Shah of Bijapur and annexed his kingdom.
13. Then, he proceeded against Golkonda and eliminated the Kutb Shahi dynasty.
14. The destruction of the Deccan kingdoms was a political blunder on the part of Aurangazeb.
15. The barrier between the Mughals and the Marathas was removed and there ensued a direct
confrontation between them.
16. According to J.N. Sarkar, the Deccan ulcer ruined Aurangazeb.

Religious Policy
1. His ideal was to transform India into an Islamic state.
2. He created a separate department to enforce moral codes under a high-powered officer called
Muhtasib.
3. Drinking was prohibited. Cultivation and use of bhang and other drugs were banned
4. Aurangazeb forbade music in the Mughal court
5. He discontinued the practice of Jarokhadarshan
6. He also discontinued the celebration of Dasarah and royal astronomers and astrologers were also
dismissed from service
7. When he began a policy of destroying Hindu temples.
8. The celebrated temples at Mathura and Benares were reduced to ruins.
9. In 1679, he reimposed jiziya and pilgrim tax.
10. The celebration of Muharram was stopped
11. His invasions against the Deccan sultanates were partly due to his hatred of the Shia faith
12. He was also against the Sikhs and he executed the ninth Sikh Guru Tej Bahadur.
13. His religious policy was responsible for turning the Rajputs, the Marathas and Sikhs into the
enemies of Mughal Empire
14. It had also resulted in the rebellions of the Jats of Mathura and the Satnamis of Mewar.
15. Therefore, Aurangazeb was held responsible for the decline of the Mughal Empire.
29
Personality and Character of Aurangazeb
1. In his private life, Aurangazeb was industrious and disciplined
2. He was very simple in food and dress
3. He earned money for his personal expenses by copying Quran and selling those copies.
4. He did not consume wine.
5. He was learned and proficient in Arabic and Persian languages.
6. He was devoted to his religion and conducted prayers five times a day.
7. He strictly observed the Ramzan fasting.
8. He misunderstood the true nature of the Maratha movement and antagonized them
9. Also, he failed to solve the Maratha problem and left an open sore
10. His policy towards Shia Deccan Sultanates also proved to be a wrong policy.
11. His religious policy was also not successful. Aurangazeb was an orthodox Sunni Muslim.
12. His antagonistic policies towards non-Muslims did not help him to rally the Muslims to his
side.
13. On the other hand it had strengthened political enemies of the Mughal Empire

Causes for the Downfall of the Mughals

1. The Mughal Empire declined rapidly after the death of Aurangazeb. The Mughal court became
the scene of factions among the nobles.
2. The weakness of the empire was exposed when Nadir Shah imprisoned the Mughal Emperor and
looted Delhi in 1739.
3. The religious and Deccan policies of Aurangazeb contributed to its decline.
4. The weak successors and demoralization of the Mughal army also paved the way for it
5. The financial difficulties due to continuous wars led to the decline.
6. The neglect of the sea power by the Mughals was felt when the Europeans began to settle in
India.
7. Further, the invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali weakened the Mughal state.

INDIA UNDER THE MUGHALS

Economic and Social Life
1. Many European travellers and traders came to India and their accounts contain a mine of
information about the socio-economic conditions of India.
2. In general, they described the wealth and prosperity of India and also the luxurious life of the
aristocratic classes.
3. They also mentioned the poverty and sufferings of the ordinary people such as peasants and
artisans.

Mughal Nobility
1. The nobles of the Mughal period formed a privileged class. Most of them were foreigners such
as Turks and Afghans
2. The Mughal nobles were paid high salaries but their expenses were also very high
3. Each noble maintained a large number of servants, horses, elephants, etc.
4. While the wealthy people wore silk and cotton clothes, the poor people wore the minimum
cloths.
5. Nikitin observed that the people of Deccan were bare-footed. It might be due to high cost of
leather.
6. Rice, millets and pulses were the staple food of the common people
7. Fish was popular on the coastal region
8. While ghee and oil were cheaper, salt and sugar were more expensive, milk and milk products
were available in plenty

30
Agriculture
1. An estimate claims that the population of India at the beginning of the seventeenth century was
about 125 million.
2. A large variety of crops such as wheat, rice, gram, barley, pulses were cultivated.
3. Commercial crops such as cotton, indigo, sugarcane and oil-seeds were also cultivated.
4. During the seventeenth century two new crops, namely, tobacco and maize were added
5. But, no new agricultural technique was introduced during this period
6. India was able to export food items like rice and sugar to the neighbouring countries
Growth of Trade
1. The Indian trading classes were large in numbers and spread throughout the country.
2. Seth, bohra traders specialized in long distance trade while local traders were called banik
3. Another class of traders was known as banjaras, who specialized in carrying bulk goods.
4. The banjaras used to move to long distances with their goods on the back of oxen
5. Bulk goods were also taken through rivers on boats.
6. The Guajarati merchants included the Hindus, Jains and Muslims. In Rajasthan, Oswals,
Maheshwaris and Agarwals came to be called the Marwaris
7. In south India, the Chettis on the Coramandal coast and the Muslim merchants of Malabar were
the most important trading communities.
8. Bengal exported sugar, rice as well as delicate muslin and silk.
9. Gujarat was an entry point of foreign goods. From there, fine textiles and silk were taken to
north India.
10. The major imports into India were certain metals such as tin and copper, war horses and luxury
items such as ivory.
11. The balance of trade was maintained by the import of gold and silver.
12. The growth of foreign trade had resulted in the increased import of gold and silver in the
seventeenth century.

Cultural Development under the Mughals

1. The Mughal period witnessed a significant and widespread development in cultural activity.
2. It was manifest in the sphere of art and architecture, painting, music and literature.
3. Indian traditions were blended with Turko-Iranian culture which was brought into India by the
Mughals.

Art and Architecture

1. The Mughals were fond of laying gardens with running water.
2. Some of the Mughal gardens such as the Nishat Bagh in Kashmir, the Shalimar Bagh at Lahore
and the Pinjore garden in the Punjab have survived even today.
3. During the reign of Sher Shah, the mausoleum at Sasaram in Bihar and the Purana Qila near
Delhi were built.
4. Large scale construction of buildings started with the advent of Akbar
5. He built many forts and the most famous one was the Agra Fort.
6. It was built in red sandstone
7. His other forts are at Lahore and Allahabad
8. The climax of fort-building reached its climax during the reign of Shah Jahan.
9. The famous Red Fort at Delhi with its Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khaswas his
creation
10. Akbar also built a palacecum-fort complex at Fatepur Sikri (City of Victory), 36 kilometres
from Agra.
11. Many buildings in Guajarati and Bengali styles are found in this complex.
12. Guajarati style buildings were probably built for his Rajput wives.
13. The most magnificent building in it is the Jama Masjid and the gateway to it called Buland
Darwaza or the Lofty Gate.
14. The height of the gateway is 176 feet. It was built to commemorate Akbar‟s victory over
Gujarat.
31
15. Other important buildings at Fatepur Sikri are Jodh Bai’s palace and Panch Mahal with five
storeys. Dur
16. During Akbar‟s reign, the Humayun’s tomb was built at Delhi and it had a massive dome of
marble.
17. It may be considered the precursor of the Taj Mahal.
18. Akbar’s tomb at Sikandara near Agra was completed by Jahangir.
19. Nur Jahan built the tomb of Itimaddaulah at Agra.
20. It was constructed wholly of white marble with floral designs made of semi-precious stones on
the walls. (Pietra dura)
21. This method became more popular during the reign of Shah Jahan.
22. The pietra dura method was used on a large scale in the Taj Mahal
23. Taj Mahal is considered as jewel of the builder’s art.
24. It contains all the architectural forms developed by the Mughals.
25. The chief glory of the Taj is the massive dome and the four slender minarets
26. The decorations are kept to the minimum.
27. The Moti Masjid at Agra was built entirely in white marble. The Jama Masjid at Delhi was
built in red stone.
28. Many features of Mughal tradition can be seen in the Golden Temple at Amritsar.

Paintings and Music

1. The foundation for the Mughal painting was laid by Humayun when he was staying in Persia
2. He brought with him two painters – Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad to India.
3. Akbar commissioned the illustrations of several literary and religious texts
4. He invited a large number of painters from different parts of the country to his court.
5. Both Hindus and Muslims joined in this work.
6. Baswan, Miskina and Daswant attained great positions as Akabar‟s court artists
7. Illustrations of Persian versions of Mahabharata and Ramayana were produced in miniature
form.
8. Art Studio established by Akbar. Historical works such as Akbar Nama also remained the main
themes of Mughal paintings
9. Mughal paintings reached its climax during the reign of Jahangir.
10. He employed a number of painters like Abul Hasan, Bishan Das, Madhu, Anant, Manohar,
Govardhan and Ustad Mansur
11. Music had also developed under the Mughals.
12. Akbar patronized Tansen of Gwalior.
13. Tansen composed many ragas. Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also fond of music

Language and Literature

1. Persian language became widespread in the Mughal Empire by the time of Akbar‟s reign.
2. Many historical works were written during this period.
3. They include Ain-i-Akbari and Akabar Nama authored by Abul Fazl.
4. The leading poet of that period was his brother Abul Faizi.
5. The translation of Mahabharata into the Persian language was done under his supervision.
6. Utbi and Naziri were the two other leading Persian poets
7. Jahangir‟s autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiriwas famous for its style
8. He also patronized many scholars like Ghiyas Beg, Naqib Khan and Niamatullah
9. Shah Jahan also patronized many writers and historians like Abdul Hamid Lahori, author of
Padshah Nama and Inayat Khan who wrote Shah Jahan Nama.
10. His son Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavat Gita and Upanishads into the Persian language
11. Regional languages such as Bengali, Oriya, Rajasthani and Guajarati had also developed
during this period.
12. Many devotional works including the Ramayana and Mahabharata were translated into
regional languages.
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13. The most influential Hindi poet was Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of the Ramayana,
the Ramcharitmanas.

THE MARATHAS
The Rise of the Marathas
1. Various factors contributed to the rise of Marathas in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
2. The physical environment of the Maratha country shaped certain peculiar qualities among the
Marathas.
3. The mountainous region and dense forests made them brave soldiers and adopt guerilla tactics.
4. They built a number of forts on the mountains
5. The spread of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra inculcated a spirit of religious unity among
them
6. The spiritual leaders like Tukkaram, Ramdas, Vaman Pandit and Eknath fostered social unity
7. The political unity was conferred by Shivaji. The Marathas held important positions in the
administrative and military systems of Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar
8. There were a number of influential Maratha families such as the Mores and Nimbalkers.
9. Credit of establishing a powerful Maratha state goes to Shahji Bhonsle and his son Shivaji

Shivaji (1627-1680)
His Life and Conquest
1. Shivaji was born at Shivner in 1627. His father was Shahji Bhonsle and mother Jija Bai.
2. He inherited the jagir of Poona from his father in 1637.
3. After the death of his guardian, Dadaji Kondadev in 1647, Shivaji assumed full charge of his
jagir.
4. He captured Javli from a Maratha chief, Chanda Rao More. This made him the master of Mavala
region.
5. In 1657, he attacked the Bijapur kingdom and captured a number of hill forts in the Konkan
region
6. The Sultan of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan against Shivaji. But Afzal Khan was murdered by Shivaji
in 1659 in a daring manner. Shivaji suffered a defeat at the hands of the Mughal forces and lost
Poona
7. But Shivaji once again made a bold attack on Shaista Khan‟s (Mughal governor of Deccan)
military camp at Poona in 1663, killed his son and wounded Khan.
8. This time Aurangazeb sent Raja Jai Singh of Amber to fight against Shivaji.
9. He made elaborate preparations and succeeded in besieging the Purander fort where Shivaji
lodged his family and treasure
10. Shivaji opened negotiations with Jai Singh and the Treaty of Purander was signed in 1665.
11. According to the treaty, Shivaji had to surrender 23 forts to the Mughals out of 35 forts held by
him.
12. The remaining 12 forts were to be left to Shivaji on condition of service and loyalty to Mughal
Empire.
13. As Shivaji asked to exempt him from personal service to the Mughals, his minor son Shambaji
was granted a mansab of 5000
14. Shivaji visited Agra in 1666 but he was imprisoned there. But, he managed to escape from
prison and made military preparations for another four years.
15. Surat was plundered by him for the second time in 1670
16. He also captured all his lost territories by his conquests
17. In 1674 Shivaji crowned himself at Raigarh and assumed the title Chatrapathi.
18. Then he led an expedition into the Carnatic region and captured Ginjee and Vellore.
19. After his return from this expedition, Shivaji died in 1680.

Shivaji’s Administration
1. He was assisted by a council of ministers called Ashtapradhan
2. Peshwa – Finance and general administration. Later he became the prime minister.
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3. Sar-i-Naubator Senapati – Military commander, an honorary post
4. Amatya – Accountant General.
5. Waqenavis – Intelligence, posts and household affairs
6. Sachiv – Correspondence.
7. Sumanta – Master of ceremonies.
8. Nyayadish – Justice
9. Panditarao – Charities and religious administration
10. Most of the administrative reforms of Shivaji were based on the practices of the Deccan
sultanates.
11. The revenue system of Shivaji was based on that of Malik Amber of Ahmadnagar.
12. Lands were measured by using the measuring rod called kathi.
13. He reduced the powers of the existing deshmuks and kulkarni
14. He appointed his own revenue officials called karkuns.
15. Chauth and sardeshmukhi were the taxes collected not in the Maratha kingdom but in the
neighbouring territories of the Mughal Empire or Deccan sultanates
16. Chauth was one fourth of the land revenue paid to the Marathas in order to avoid the Maratha
raids
17. Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of ten percent on those lands which the Marathas claimed
hereditary rights
18. Shivaji was a man of military genius and his army was well organized
19. The regular army consisted of about 30000 to 40000 cavalry supervised by havaildars.
20. Shivaji also maintained a navy
21. The forts played an important role in the military operations of the Marathas
22. By the end of his reign, Shivaji had about 240 forts
23. Shivaji was really a constructive genius and nation-builder
24. His rise from jagirdar to Chatrapathi was spectacular.

Successors of Shivaji
1. There ensued a war of succession after the death of Shivaji between his sons, Shambaji and
Rajaram.
2. Shambaji emerged victorious but later he was captured and executed by the Mughals
3. Shambaji emerged victorious but later he was captured and executed by the Mughals
4. . He died at Satara.
5. He was succeeded by his minor son Shivaji II with his mother Tara Bai as regent
6. The next ruler was Shahu in whose reign the Peshwas rose to power

The Peshwas (1713-1818)

1. Balaji Viswanath (1713-1720)
2. Balaji Viswanath began his career as a small revenue official and became Peshwa in 1713
3. As Peshwa, he made his position the most important and powerful as well as hereditary.
4. He played a crucial role in the civil war and finally made Shahu as the Maratha ruler.

Baji Rao I (1720-1740)

1. Baji Rao was the eldest son of Balaji Viswanath
2. He succeeded his father as Peshwa at the age young age of twenty.
3. The Maratha power reached its zenith under him.
4. He initiated the system of confederacy among the Maratha chiefs
5. Under this system, each Maratha chief was assigned a territory which could be administered
autonomously.
6. As a result, many Maratha families became prominent and established their authority in different
parts of India.
7. As a result, many Maratha families became prominent and established their authority in different
parts of India.

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8. They were the Gaekwad at Baroda, the Bhonsle at Nagpur, the Holkars at Indore, the Scindias at
Gwalior, and the Peshwas at Poona

Balaji Baji Rao (1740-1761)

1. Balaji Baji Rao succeeded his father as Peshwa at the young age of nineteen.
2. The Maratha king Shahu died in 1749 without issue
3. His nominated successor Ramraja was imprisoned by the Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao at Satara.
4. Peshwa gave assurance to the Mughal Emperor that he would protect the Mughal Empire from
internal and external enemies
5. For which the Chauth of the northwest provinces and the total revenue of the Agra and Ajmer
provinces would be collected by the Marathas.
6. Thus when Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India, it became the responsibility of the Marathas to
protect India.
7. The Marathas fought very bravely against Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat in
1761.
8. The Marathas fought very bravely against Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat in
1761.
9. Balaji Baji Rao also died on hearing the sad end of this battle.
10. This battle gave a death blow to the Maratha power
11. The Marathas emerged a great power in India but they could not succeed in preventing the
establishment of British power in India.
12. The important causes for the downfall were that there was lack of unity among the Maratha
chiefs like Holkar, Scindia and Bhonsle.

THE COMING OF EUROPEANS

The commercial contacts between India and Europe were very old via the land route either through
the Oxus valley or Syria or Egypt.
But, the new sea route via the Cape of Good Hope was discovered by Vasco da Gama in 1498.
Ultimately, the British succeeded in establishing their rule India
The Portuguese
1. The Portuguese traveller Vasco da Gama reached the port of Calicut on 17 May 1498 and he
was warmly received by Zamorin the ruler of Calicut.
2. The first governor of the Portuguese in India was Francis de Almeida.
3. Later in 1509 Albuquerque was made the governor of the Portuguese territories in India
4. In 1510, he captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur.
5. Thereafter, Goa became the capital of the Portuguese settlements in India.
6. Albuquerque captured Malacca and Ceylon.
7. He encouraged his countrymen to marry Indian women
8. Albuquerque died in 1515 leaving the Portuguese as the strongest naval power in India.
9. The successors of Albuquerque established Portuguese settlements at Daman, Salsette and
Bombay on the west coast and at San Thome near Madras and Hugli in Bengal on the east coast.
10. However, the Portuguese power declined in India by the end of the sixteenth century.
11. They lost all their possessions in India except Goa, Diu and Daman in the next century

The Dutch
1. The Dutch East India Company was established in 1602.
2. The merchants of this company came to India and established their settlements at
Masulipattinam, Pulicat, Surat, Karaikal, Nagapattinam, Chinsura and Kasimbazar
3. In the seventeenth century they won over the Portuguese and emerged the most dominant power
in European trade in the East
4. Pulicat was their main centre in India and later it was replaced by Nagapattinam.
5. In the middle of the seventeenth century the English began to emerge as a big colonial power.
6. The Anglo-Dutch rivalry lasted for about seven decades during which period the Dutch lost their
settlements to the British one by one
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The English
1. The English East India Company was established in 1600 and the Charter was issued by Queen
Elizabeth of England.
2. Captain Hawkins arrived at the royal court of Jahangir in 1609 to seek permission to establish
English trading centre at Surat
3. . But it was refused by the Mughal Emperor due to Portuguese pressure.
4. Later in 1612, Jahangir issued a Farman (permission letter) to the English and they established a
trading factory at Surat in 1613.
5. Sir Thomas Roe came to India as ambassador of James I, the king of England to the Mughal
court in 1615.
6. He obtained permission from Jahangir to establish English trading factories in different parts of
India.
7. The English established their factories at Agra, Ahmadabad, Baroda and Broach by 1619.
8. The English East India Company acquired Bombay from Charles II, the then king of England
9. In 1639, Francis Day founded the city of Madras where the Fort St. George was built
10. In 1690, an English factory was established at a place called Sutanuti by Job Charnock
11. Later it developed into the city of Calcutta where Fort William was built
12. Later, Calcutta became the capital of British India.
13. Thus Bombay, Madras, Calcutta became three presidency towns of the English settlements in
India

The French
1. The French East India Company was formed in 1664 by Colbert, a Minister under Louis XIV.
2. The first French factory in India was established at Surat by Francis Caron
3. Later, Maracara set up a factory at Masulipattinam.
4. Francois Martin founded Pondicherry in 1673.

The Danes
1. Another important Danish settlement in India was Serampore in Bengal.
2. Serampore was their headquarters in India
3. They failed to strengthen themselves in India and they sold all their settlement in India to the
British in 1845. Anglo-French Rivalry
4. Both of them used the political turmoil prevalent in India as a result of the decline of the Mughal
Empire in their favour and indulged in internal politics.
5. The Anglo-French rivalry in India was manifest in the Carnatic region and in Bengal

The Carnatic Wars

1. The downfall of the Mughal Empire led to the independence of Deccan under Nizam-ul-Mulk
2. The Carnatic region also formed part of the Nizam‟s dominion. The ruler of the Carnatic
accepted the suzerainty of the Nizam
3. In 1740, the Austrian War of Succession broke out in Europe
4. In that war England and France were in the opposite camps
5. They came into conflict in India also
6. The French governor of Pondicherry, Dupleix opened attack on the English in 1746 and thus
began the First Carnatic War (1746-1748)
7. The English sought help from the Nawab of Carnatic, Anwar Uddin
8. But the French concluded a treaty with his rival Chanda Sahib
9. The English army crushed a defeat on the French in the Battle of Adyar, near Madras.
10. In the meantime, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle was concluded in 1748 to end the Austrian
Succession War. Thus the First Carnatic War came to an end.
11. But the English and French continued to take opposite sides in the internal politics of India.
12. This had resulted in the Second Carnatic War (1749-1754).
13. This had resulted in the Second Carnatic War (1749-1754).
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14. The troops of these three defeated Anwar Uddin, who was with the British in the First Carnatic
War, and killed him in the Battle of Ambur in 1749.
15. After this victory, Muzafar Jung became the Nizam and Chanda Sahib the Nawab of Arcot.
16. Muhammad Ali, son of Anwar Uddin escaped to Tiruchirappalli. The English sent troops in
support of him.
17. In the meantime, the British commander Robert Clive captured Arcot
18. He also inflicted a severe defeat on the French at Kaveripakkam.
19. He also inflicted a severe defeat on the French at Kaveripakkam.
20. Meanwhile Dupleix was replaced by Godeheu as the French governor. The war came to an end
by the Treaty of Pondicherry in 1754.
21. The outbreak of the Seven Years War (1756-1763) in Europe led to the Third Carnatic War
(1758-1763)
22. Count de Lally was the commander of the French troops
23. The British General Sir Eyre Coote defeated him at Wandiwash in 1760
24. In the next year, Pondicherry was captured and destroyed by the British troops
25. The Seven Years War came to an end by the Treaty of Paris in1763
26. The French agreed to confine its activities in Pondicherry, Karaikkal, Mahe and Yenam.
27. Thus the Anglo-French rivalry came to a close with British success and French failure. T

The causes for the French failure can be summed up as follows

1. Commercial and naval superiority of the English
2. French had support only in the Deccan but the English had a strong base in Bengal.
3. English had three important ports – Calcutta, Bombay and Madras but French had only
Pondicherry
4. Difference of opinion between the French Generals
5. England‟s victory in the European wars decided the destiny of the French in India
6. Establishment of British Power in Bengal
7. The English ascendancy in Bengal proved to be the basis for the expansion of English rule in
India
8. The conflict between the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daula and the English led to the Battle of
Plassey held on 23 June 1757
9. Robert Clive, the Commander of the British troops emerged victorious by defeating the Nawab‟s
army.
10. The easy English victory was due to the treachery of Mir Jabar, the Commander of Nawab‟s
army
11. However, the victory of the British in the Battle of Plassey marked the foundation of the
British rule in India
12. In 1764, the English once again defeated the combined forces of the Nawab of Oudh
13. The Mughal Emperor and the Nawab of Bengal in the Battle of Buxar
14. The English military superiority was decisively established
15. In 1765, Robert Clive was appointed as the Governor of Bengal
16. The same year, the Treaty of Allahabad was concluded by which the Mughal Emperor granted
the Diwani rights to the English East India Company.

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