Here is the retyped information from the image starting at the heading "6.

2 STONE AGGREGATES":

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6.2 STONE AGGREGATES

6.2.1 Introduction

Aggregates form the major portion of pavement structure and they form the prime materials used in
pavement construction. Aggregates have to bear stresses occurring due to the wheel loads on the
pavement and on the surface course they also have to resist wear due to abrasive action of traffic.
These are used in pavement construction in cement concrete, bituminous concrete and other
bituminous constructions and also in granular base course underlying the superior pavement layers.
Therefore the properties of the aggregates are of considerable significance to the highway
engineers.

Most of the road aggregates are prepared from natural rock. Gravel aggregates are small rounded
stones of different sizes which are generally obtained as such from some river beds. Sand is fine
aggregate from weathering of rock. The properties of the rock, from which the aggregates are
formed, depend on the properties of constituent materials and the nature of bond between them.
Based on the origin, natural rocks are classified as igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Texture
is an important factor, affecting the property of the rock and the fragments.

The aggregates are specified based on their grain size, shape, texture and its gradation. Aggregate
size is ascertained by sieving through square sieves of standard sizes. The required aggregate sizes
are chosen to fulfil the desired gradation. The gradings for different road making purposes have
been specified by various agencies like the A.S.T.M., B.S.I., I.S.I. and the I.R.C.

Based on the strength property, the coarse aggregates may be divided as hard aggregates and soft
aggregates. Generally for the bearing course of superior pavement types, hard aggregates are
preferred to resist the abrading and crushing effect of heavy traffic loads and to resist adverse to
weather conditions. In the case of low-cost road construction for use in lower layers of pavement
structures, soft aggregates can be used. The soft aggregate include moorum, kankar, laterite, brick
aggregates etc. Different set of test specifications are adopted for soft aggregates.
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Strength

The aggregates to be used in road construction should be sufficiently strong to withstand the
stresses due to traffic wheel load. The aggregates which are to be used in top layers of the
pavements, particularly in the wearing course have to be capable of withstanding high stresses in
addition to wear and tear; hence they should possess sufficient strength resistance to crushing.

Hardness

The aggregates used in the surface course are subjected to constant rubbing or abrasion due to
moving traffic. They should be hard enough to resist the wear due to abrasive action of traffic.
Abrasive action may be increased due to the presence of abrasive material like sand between the
tyres of moving vehicles and the aggregates exposed at the top surface. This section may be severe
in the case of steel tyred vehicles. Heavy wheel loads can also cause deformations on some types of
pavement resulting in relative movement of aggregates and rubbing of aggregates with each other
within the pavement layer. The mutual rubbing of stones is called attrition, which also may cause a
little wear in the aggregates; however attrition will be negligible or absent in most of the pavement
layers.

Toughness

Aggregates in the pavements are also subjected to impact due to moving wheel loads. Sever impact
like hammering is quite common when heavily loaded steel tyred vehicles move on water bound
macadam roads where stones protrude out especially after the monsoons. Jumping of the steel
tyred wheels due to uneven surface and at different levels causes severe impact on the stones. The
magnitude of impact would increase with the roughness of the load surface, the speed of the vehicle
and other vehicular characteristics. The resistance to impact or toughness is hence another desirable
property of aggregates.

Durability

The stone used in pavement construction should be durable and should resist disintegration due to
the action of weather. The property of the stones to withstand the adverse action of weather may
be called soundness. The aggregates are subjected to physical and chemical action of rain and
ground water, the impurities there-in and that of atmosphere. Hence it is desirable that the road
stones used in the construction should be sound enough to withstand the weathering action.
Shape of Aggregates

The size of the aggregates is first qualified by the size of square sieve opening through which an
aggregate may pass, and not by the shape. Aggregates which happen to fall in a particular size range
may have rounded, cubical, angular flaky or elongated shape of particles. It is evident that the flaky
and elongated particles will have less strength and durability when compared with cubical, angular
or rounded particles of same size. Hence too flaky and too much elongated aggregates should be
avoided as far as possible. Rounded aggregates give better workability in cement concrete
construction. Hence in cement concrete and bituminous construction a proper proportion of cement
paste and same water area and better workability for the same proportion of cement paste, WBM
construction using rounded particles are not preferred in granular base course, WBM construction
and bituminous constructions as the stability due to interlocking of rounded particles is less. In such
constructions angular particles are preferred. The voids present in a compacted mix of coarse,
aggregates depends on the shape factors. Highly angular, flaky and elongated aggregates have more
voids in comparison with rounded aggregates.

The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity with them compared with
bituminous materials; otherwise the bituminous coating or aggregate will be stripped off in presence
of water.

**6.2.3 Tests for Road Aggregate**

In order to decide the suitability of the road stones for use in construction following tests are carried
out :

(a) Crushing test

(b) Abrasion test

(c) Impact test

(d) Soundness

(e) Shape test

(f) Specific gravity and water absorption test

(g) Bitumen adhesion test

The essential features of these tests are discussed below. Separate tests are available for testing
cylindrical stone specimens and coarse aggregates for crushing, abrasion and impact tests. But due
to the difficulties of preparing cylindrical stone specimen with need costly core drilling, cutting and
polishing equipment, the use of such tests are not limited. Testing of aggregates is easy and simulate
the field condition better, as such these are generally preferred.

**Aggregate crushing test**

The strength of coarse aggregate may be assessed by aggregate crushing test. The aggregate
crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under gradually applied
compressive load. To achieve a high quality of pavement, aggregate possessing high resistance to
crushing or low aggregate crushing value are preferred.

The apparatus for the standard test consists of a steel cylinder 15.2 cm diameter with base plate and
a plunger, compression testing machines, cylindrical measure of diameter 11.5 cm and height 18 cm,
tamping rod and sieves. The sketch of the test cylinder all accessories is shown in Fig. 6.15.

**STONE AGGREGATES**

Dry aggregate passing 12.5 mm IS sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in the cylindrical
measure in three equal layers, each layer being ramped 25 times by the tamper. The test sample is
weighed (equal to W1 g) and placed in the test cylinder in three equal layers, tamping each layer 25
times. The plunger is placed on the top of specimen and a load of 40 tonnes is applied at a rate of 4
tonnes per minute by the compression machine. The crushed aggregate is removed and served on
2.36 mm IS sieve. The crushed material which passes this sieve is weighed equal to W2 g. The
aggregate crushing value is the percentage of the crushed material passing 2.36 mm sieve in terms
of original weight of the specimen.

\[

\text{Aggregate crushing value} = \frac{100 \, \text{W}_2}{\text{W}_1} \quad \text{percent}

\]

Strong aggregates give low aggregate crushing value. The aggregate crushing value for good quality
aggregate to be used in base course shall not exceed 45 percent and the value for surface course
shall be less than 30 percent.
**Abrasion tests**

Due to the movements of traffic the road stones used in the surface course are subjected to wearing
action at the top. Hence road stones should be hard enough to resist the abrasion due to the traffic.
Abrasion tests are carried out to test the hardness property of stones and to decide whether they
are suitable for the different road construction works. The abrasion test can aggregate may be
carried out using any one of the following three tests :

(i) Los Angeles abrasion test

(ii) Deval abrasion test

(iii) Dorry abrasion test

However Los Angeles abrasion test is preferred as the test results have been correlated with
pavement performance.

**Los Angeles Abrasion Test**

The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to the relative rubbing
action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charge. Pounding action of these balls
also exists during the test and hence the resistance to wear and impact is evaluated by this test. The
Los Angeles machine consists of a hollow cylinder closed at both ends, having inside diameter 70 cm
and length 50 cm and mounted so as to rotate about its horizontal axis. The machine is shown in Fig.
6.16. The abrasive charge consists of cast iron spheres of approximately diameter 4.8 cm and each of
weight 300 to 445 g. The number of spheres to be used as abrasive charge and their total weight
have been specified based on grading of the aggregate sample. The test has been standardized by
the ISI.

The specified weight of aggregate specimen, (5 to 10 kg, depending on graduator) is placed in the
machine along with the abrasive charge. The machine is rotated at a speed of 30 to 33 rpm for the
specified number of revolutions (500 to 1000 depending on the grading of the specimen). The
abrased aggregate is then sieved on 1.7 mm IS sieve, and the weight of powdered aggregate passing
this sieve is found. The result of the abrasion test expressed as the percentage wear of the
percentage passing 1.7 mm sieve expressed
[24/04, 3:10 pm] Diego: Fig. 6.16 Los Angeles Abrasion Testing Machine

in terms of the original weight of the sample. The Los Angeles abrasion value of goal aggregates
acceptable for cement concrete, bituminous concrete and other high quality pavement materials
should be less than 30 percent. Values up to 50 percent are allowed in base courses like water
bound and bituminous macadam. This test is more dependent than other abrasion tests as rubbing
and pounding action in the test simulate the field conditions better. Also correlation of Los Angeles
abrasion value with field performance and specifications of the test values have been established.

**Deval Abrasion Test**

The principle of the test is by allowing the sample of aggregate specimen to tumble over in a rather
in the presence of abrasive charge. The Devel machine consists of two hollow cylinder of diameter
20 cm and length 34 cm mounted in such a way that the cylinder rotate about a horizontal axis, but
the axis of the cylinders make \( 30^\circ \) angle at the horizontal. The schematic sketch of the
machine is shown in Fig. 6.17. Specified quantity of dry aggregate specimen (4 to 5.5 kg), of any one
of the specified grading is placed in a cylinder. The abrasive charge consisting of 6 cast iron or steel
sphere of about 4.8 cm diameter and total weight 2500 g is placed. Two tests may be carried out
simultaneously using both the cylinders. The machine is rotated as a speed of 30 to 35 mm. After
10,000 revolutions the material is stored on 1.7 mm is sieve. The material passing this sieve is
expressed as the percentage of the original weight of the sample and is reported as the abrasion
value.

When the test is carried out by Deval machine without using abrasive charges, the test is known as
Deval attribution test. However this test is not commonly carried out.

**Dory Abrasion Test**

The abrasion value of aggregate is also determined using Dory abrasion testing machine. This is a
British method. The machine consists of a flat circular iron disc of 60 cm diameter which is rotated in
a horizontal plane at 28 to 30 mm. Two rectangular trays are kept 26 cm from the centre of the disc
to hold the aggregate sample in a specified manner. Abrasive sand is fed through the funnel and the
disc is subjected to 500 revolutions. The abrasion value is expressed as the percent loss in weight
due to abrasion.
**Impact test**

A test designed to evaluate the toughness of stone or the resistance of the aggregates to fracture
under repeated impacts is called impact test. The aggregate impact test is commonly carried out to
evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregate and has been standardized by ISI.

The aggregate impact value indicates a relative measure of resistance of aggregate to impact, which
has a different effect than the resistance to gradually increasing compressive stress. The aggregate
impact testing machine consists of a metal box and a cylindrical steel cup of internal diameter 10.2
cm and depth 9 cm in which the aggregate specimen is placed. A metal hammer of weight of 13.5-
14.0 kg having a free fall from a height 38 cm is arranged to drop through vertical guides. The
aggregate impact machine is shown in Fig. 6.18.

Aggregate specimen passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained to 10 mm sieve is filled in the cylindrical
measure in 3 layers by tamping each layer by 25 blows. The sample is transferred from the measure
to the top of the aggregate impact testing machine and compacted by tamping 25 times. The
hammer is raised on a height of 38 cm above the upper surface of the aggregate in the top and is
allowed to fall freely on the specimen. After subjecting the test specimen to 15 blows, the crushed
aggregate is sieved on 2, 36 mm sieve. The aggregate impact value is expressed as the percentage of
the fine formed in terms of the total weight of the sample.

The aggregate impact value should not normally exceed 30 percent for aggregate to be used in
wearing course of pavements. The maximum permissible value is 35% for bituminous macadam and
40% for water bound macadam base courses.

298 HIGHWAY MATERIALS

[24/04, 3:14 pm] Diego: **SOMEGRATES**

The test is applicable to sizes larger than 6.3 mm. Standard shortest gauge is used to gauge the
thickness of the samples. The sample of aggregates to be tested is stored through a set of sieves and
separated into specified size ranges. Now to separate the fully material, the aggregates which pass
through the appropriate elongated slot of the thickness gauge are found. The width of the
appropriate slot would be 0.6 of the average of the size range: if the size range of aggregate is a
group by 16-20 mm, the width of the slot to be selected as thickness gauge should be \(18 \times 0.6
= 10.8\) mm. The flaky material passing the appropriate slot from each size range of test aggregates
are added up and in this weight be \(w\). If the total weight of sample taken from the different size
ranges is 0.9, the flatness index is given by \(100 \times w\) percent, or in other words it is the
percentage of high material, the width of which has been 0.6 of the mean dimensions. It is desirable
that the flatness index of aggregates used in road construction is less than the 15 percent and
normally does not exceed 25 percent.

**Elongation Index**

The elongation index of an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles whose greatest
dimension or length is greater than one and four (fifth or 1.8 mm) their mean dimension. The
elongation test is not applicable for sizes smaller than 6.3 mm.

The sample of aggregates to be tested is sieved through a set of sieve and separated into specified
size ranges. The aggregates from each of the size ranges is then individually passed through the
appropriate gauges of the length gauge with the longest side in order to separate the elongated
particles. The gauge length would be 1.8 times the mean size of the aggregates. The portion of the
elongated aggregate having length greater than the specified gauge from each range is weighted as
the total weight of the elongated source is expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the
sample, to get the elongation index.

Elongated and flaky aggregates are less workable; they are also likely to break under smaller loads
than the aggregate which are spherical or cubical. Thickness index of elongation index values in
excess of 15 percent are generally considered undesirable; however no recognized limit has been
laid down for elongation index.

**Angularity Number**

Based on the shape of the aggregate particles, they may be classified as rounded, irregular or partly
rounded, angular and flaky. Angular particles possess well defined edges formed at the intersection
of roughly plane faces and are commonly found in aggregates prepared by crushing of rocks. Since
weaker aggregates may be crushed during compaction, the angularity number does not apply to any
aggregate which breaks down during this test. Angularity or absence of rounding of the particles of
an aggregate is a property which is of importance because it affects the ease of handling a mixture of
aggregates and blinder. The determination of angularity number of an aggregate is essentially a
laboratory method intended for comparing the properties of different aggregates for mix design
purposes.
The degree of packing of particles of single sized aggregates depends on the shape and angularity of
the aggregate. Hence the angularity of the aggregate can be estimated from the properties of voids
in a sample of aggregates computed in a particular manner. Angularity number is defined as 67
percent solid volume. The solid volume of the aggregate is found by filling it in a vessel in a specified
manner. In the expression for angularity number, the value 67 represents the volume of solids in the
area of most rounded gravel in a well compacted state which would then have 33 percent voids.
Thus the angularity number measures the voids in excess of 33 percent. The higher the number,
more singular is the aggregate. The range of angularity number for aggregates used in construction
is 0 to 11.

**Fig. 6.18 Aggregate Impact Testing Machine**

**Soundness test**

Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering stock conducting
accelerated weathering test cycle. In order, to quicken the effects of weather due to alternate wet-
dry and/or freeze-thaw cycles in the laboratory, the resistant disintegration of aggregate is
determined by using saturated solution of sodium sulphate magnesium sulphate. Clean, dry
aggregate specimen of specified size range is weighed counted. It is immersed in the saturated
solution of sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16 to 18 hours. Then the specimen is dried in
an oven at 105-110°C to a cement with thus making one cycle of immersion and drying. The number
of such cycles is double prior agreement and then the specimens are tested. After completing the
final cycle, the sample is dried and each fraction of the aggregate is examined visually to see if there
is a evidence of excessive splitting, crumbling or disintegrating of the grains. Seven samples carried
out to note the variation in gradation from the original. The coarse aggregate ratio of each size range
is sieved on specified sieve sizes. The average loss in weight of the sample to be used in pavement
construction after 10 cycles should not exceed 12 percent when we will sodium sulphate and 18
percent when tested with magnesium sulphate.

**Shape tests**

The particle shape of aggregate mass is determine by the percentage of low and elongated particles
contained in it and by its angularity. The evaluation of shape statistics made in terms of flakiness
index, elongation index and angularity number.
**Flakiness Index**

The flakiness index of aggregate is the percentage by weight of aggregate whose least
dimension/thickness is less than three fifths or 0.6 of their mean dimensions.

The apparatus for testing the angularity number consists of a metal cylinder capacity 3 litre, tamping
rod and a metal scoop. The test sample is sieved and special size ranges of the aggregate, such as \
(16 - 20 \, \text{mm}\), \(12.5 - 16 \, \text{mm}\), etc., are used for tests. A scoop full of this single
size aggregate is placed in the cylinder and tamped 100 times by the rod. Second and third layers are
placed and tamped similarly and the surface aggregate is struck off level to the top surface of the
cylinder. The weight of aggregate in the cylinder is found to be \( W \, \text{g} \). Then the weight of
the cylinder is found \( = C \, \text{g} \). The specific gravity of the aggregate is also determined. The
angularity number is found from the formula:

\[

\text{Angularity number} = 67 - \frac{100 \, W}{C \, G_a}

\]

This value is expressed as the nearest whole number.

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**Specific gravity and water absorption tests**

The specific gravity of an aggregate is considered to be a measure of the quality or strength of the
material. Stones having low specific gravity values are generally weaker than those having higher
values. The specific gravity test also helps in identifying the stone specimen. Stones having higher
water absorption value are porous and thus weak. They are generally unsuitable unless found
acceptable based on crushing and hardness tests.
About 2 kg of dry aggregate sample is placed in a wire basket and immersed in water for 24 hours.
The sample is weighed in water and the buoyant weight is found. The aggregates are then taken out
and weighed after drying the surface. Then the aggregates are dried in an oven for 24 hours at a
temperature \(100 - 110 \, \text{°C}\), and then the dry weight is determined. The specific gravity is
calculated by dividing the dry weight of aggregate by the weight of an equal volume of water. The
water absorption is expressed as the percent water absorbed in terms of the oven-dried weight of
the aggregates.

The specific gravity of rocks varies from 2.6 to 2.9. Rock specimens having more than 0.6 percent
water absorption are considered unsatisfactory unless found acceptable based on strength tests.
However, slightly higher values of porosity may be acceptable for aggregates used in bituminous
pavement construction, if the aggregates are found otherwise suitable.

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**Bitumen adhesion test**

Bitumen and tar adhere well to all normal types of road aggregates provided they are dry and free
from dust. The process of initial binding is controlled largely by the viscosity of the binder. In the
absence of water, there is practically no adhesion problem in bituminous construction. The problems
are observed due to the presence of water. First, if aggregate is wet and cold, it is normally not
possible to coat it with a bitumen binder. This problem can be dealt with by removing the water film
on the aggregate by drying and by increasing the mixing temperature. The second problem is
stripping of the binder from the coated aggregate due to the presence of water. This problem of
stripping is generally experienced only with bituminous mixtures that are permeable to water. The
stripping is due to the fact that some aggregates have greater affinity towards water than with
bituminous binders, and this displacement depends on the physico-chemical forces acting on the
system.

Most road stones have surfaces that are electrically charged. For example, silicates, a common
constituent of igneous rocks, possess a weak negative charge and hence little polar activity. These
aggregates, which are electronegative, are water-loving and are called *hydrophilic*. Basic
aggregates like limestone have a dislike for water and greater attraction to bitumen, as they have a
positive surface charge. These aggregates are called *hydrophobic*.

It is important to know the type of charge of aggregates used in bituminous construction. Now,
bitumen is also available as cationic (positive) or anionic (negative), and hence a suitable selection
may be made depending on the aggregates available. Cationic (+) bitumen may be selected for
electronegative aggregates, and anionic (-) bitumen for electropositive aggregates.

Several laboratory tests have been developed to arbitrarily determine the adhesion of bituminous
binder to an aggregate in the presence of water. These tests may be classified into six types:

1. **Static immersion test**

2. **Dynamic immersion test**

3. **Chemical immersion test**

4. **Immersion mechanical test**

5. **Immersion trafficking test**

6. **Coating test**

The static immersion test is very commonly used as it is quite easy and simple. The principle of this
type of test is by immersing aggregate fully coated with the binder in water maintained at a specified
temperature and by estimating the degree of stripping. The result is reported as the percentage of
the stone surface that is stripped off after the specified time periods. IRC has specified that the
stripping value of aggregates should not exceed 25 percent for use in bituminous surface dressing,
penetration macadam, bituminous macadam, and carpet constructions, when aggregate coated with
bitumen is immersed in a water bath at \(40 \, \text{°C}\) for 24 hours.