GEOGRAPHY ONE LINERS

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
UNIVERSE & SOLAR SYSTEM 13. Neptune is the coldest and windiest
planet.
1. The Big Bang Theory explains the
14. The Asteroid Belt lies between Mars
origin of the universe.
and Jupiter.
2. The Milky Way is our galaxy, containing
15. Comets are icy bodies that develop tails
over 100 billion stars.
when near the Sun (e.g., Halley’s Comet).
3. The Sun is a medium-sized star at the
16. Meteors (shooting stars) are space rocks
center of our solar system.
burning up in Earth’s atmosphere.
4. The solar system formed about 4.6
17. Meteorites are meteors that reach
billion years ago from a giant
Earth’s surface.
molecular cloud.
5. There are 8 planets in our solar system Earth & Moon
(Pluto is a dwarf planet).
18. Earth is not a perfect sphere (slightly
6. Mercury is the smallest and closest
flattened at the poles).
planet to the Sun.
19. Moon is Earth’s only natural satellite.
7. Venus is the hottest planet due to its
20. Neil Armstrong was the first man on
thick CO₂ atmosphere (Greenhouse
the Moon (Apollo 11, 1969).
Effect).
21. A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon
8. Earth is the only planet known to
blocks the Sun (New Moon phase).
support life.
22. A lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth
9. Mars is called the "Red
blocks sunlight from reaching the
Planet" because of iron oxide on its
Moon (Full Moon phase).
surface.
10. Jupiter is the largest planet and has Space Missions
the Great Red Spot (a giant storm).
23. Chandrayaan-1 (2008) was India’s first
11. Saturn has the most prominent ring
Moon mission.
system made of ice and dust.
24. Mangalyaan (2013) made India the first
12. Uranus rotates on its side (axis tilted at
Asian nation to reach Mars.
98°).
25. Aditya-L1 (2023) is India’s first solar
mission.
 STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH (CRUST, Rocks & Minerals
MANTLE, CORE)
13. The three types of rocks are igneous,

Earth's Layers sedimentary, and metamorphic.

14. Igneous rocks form from cooled
1. The Earth is made up of three main
magma (e.g., basalt, granite).
layers: Crust, Mantle, and Core.
15. Sedimentary rocks form from
2. The Crust is the outermost and thinnest
compressed sediments (e.g., sandstone,
layer (5-70 km thick).
limestone).
3. The continental crust is thicker but less
16. Metamorphic rocks form under heat
dense than oceanic crust.
and pressure (e.g., marble, slate).
4. The Mantle extends from the crust to
17. The Mohorovičić discontinuity
about 2,900 km depth.
(Moho) separates the crust from the
5. The upper mantle contains
mantle.
the asthenosphere (partially molten
18. The Gutenberg discontinuity separates
rock).
the mantle from the core.
6. The lower mantle is solid due to high
19. The Lehmann discontinuity separates
pressure.
the outer and inner core.
7. The Core is divided into the outer
core (liquid) and inner core (solid). Earthquakes & Volcanoes
8. The inner core is made of solid iron and
20. Earthquakes occur due to the sudden
nickel, despite extreme heat.
movement of tectonic plates.
9. The outer core generates
21. The focus is the origin point of an
Earth's magnetic field due to
earthquake inside the Earth.
convection currents.
22. The epicenter is the point on the

Lithosphere & Asthenosphere surface directly above the focus.

23. Seismic waves (P-waves, S-waves, L-
10. The Lithosphere includes the crust and
waves) help study Earth's interior.
uppermost solid part of the mantle.
24. P-waves can travel through solids and
11. The Asthenosphere is a semi-fluid layer
liquids, while S-waves only through
below the lithosphere (allows tectonic
solids.
plate movement).
25. Volcanoes form when magma escapes
12. Tectonic plates float on the
through Earth's crust.
asthenosphere.
 LATITUDES & LONGITUDES 10. The International Date Line (180°
longitude) marks calendar change
Basic Concepts
(east/west travel).
1. Latitudes are horizontal circles parallel
Special Features
to the Equator, measuring distance
north/south in degrees (0°-90°). 11. All longitudes are equal in length,
2. The Equator (0° latitude) divides Earth unlike latitudes.
into Northern & Southern Hemispheres. 12. 180°E and 180°W are the same line
3. Longitudes are vertical semicircles (International Date Line).
connecting the poles, measuring 13. Local time varies with longitude,
east/west positions (0°-180°). but standard time is fixed for a region.
4. The Prime Meridian (0°
Exam-Focused Facts
longitude) passes through Greenwich,
England. 14. Total latitudes: 181 (including
Equator); total longitudes: 360.
Important Latitudes
15. Kanyakumari is India’s only location
5. Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N) passes where the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal,
through India (Gujarat to Mizoram). and Indian Ocean meet.
6. Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S) marks the
EARTH’S ROTATION & REVOLUTION
southernmost point where the Sun is
overhead. Rotation (Day & Night)
7. Arctic Circle (66.5°N) and Antarctic
1. Earth completes one rotation in 24
Circle (66.5°S) define polar day/night
hours, causing day and night.
regions.
2. Rotation speed is fastest at the
Time & Longitude Equator (1670 km/h) and zero at poles.
3. The Coriolis Effect (deflection of
8. Earth rotates 360° in 24 hours, so 1°
winds/ocean currents) is caused by
longitude = 4 minutes of time
rotation.
difference.
9. Indian Standard Time (IST) is based Revolution (Seasons & Year)
on 82.5°E longitude (Mirzapur, UP).
4. Earth takes 365.25 days to complete
one revolution around the Sun.
5. Leap year (366 days) occurs every 4 365.25-day revolution.
years to adjust the extra 0.25 days. Which motion causes the apparent
6. Earth’s axial tilt (23.5°) is responsible movement of the Sun? → Earth’s
for seasons. rotation.
When does the Sun shine vertically on
Solstices & Equinoxes
the Equator? → During equinoxes.
7. Summer Solstice (June 21): Longest
ECLIPSES (SOLAR & LUNAR)
day in Northern Hemisphere (Sun
overhead at Tropic of Cancer). Solar Eclipse
8. Winter Solstice (Dec 22): Shortest day
1. Occurs when the Moon blocks
in Northern Hemisphere (Sun overhead
sunlight from reaching Earth (New
at Tropic of Capricorn).
Moon phase).
9. Equinoxes (March 21 & Sept 23):
2. Total Solar Eclipse happens when the
Equal day/night globally (Sun overhead
Moon completely covers the Sun (umbra
at Equator).
shadow).
Effects of Revolution 3. Partial Solar Eclipse occurs when only
part of the Sun is obscured (penumbra
10. Perihelion (Earth closest to Sun: ~Jan 3)
shadow).
and Aphelion (farthest: ~July 4).
4. Annular Solar Eclipse ("Ring of Fire")
11. The midnight Sun phenomenon occurs
happens when the Moon is too far to
near poles during summer solstices.
fully cover the Sun.
Exam-Focused Facts 5. Solar eclipses are visible only from
a small geographic area (path of
12. Earth’s rotation direction: West to
totality).
East (sun rises in the east).
13. Speed of revolution: ~30 km/s Lunar Eclipse
(108,000 km/h).
6. Occurs when Earth blocks
14. Gregorian calendar aligns with Earth’s
sunlight from reaching the Moon (Full
revolution (365 days + leap year).
Moon phase).
15. Chandrayaan-3 confirmed Earth’s
7. Total Lunar Eclipse turns the Moon
rotation by tracking from the Moon.
reddish ("Blood Moon") due to Rayleigh

Why does a leap year have 366 scattering.

days? → To compensate for Earth’s

8. Partial Lunar Eclipse happens when IMPORTANT PARALLELS
only part of the Moon enters Earth’s
1. Equator (0° latitude) - Divides Earth
umbra.
into Northern & Southern Hemispheres.
9. Lunar eclipses are visible
2. Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N) - Passes
from anywhere on Earth’s night side.
through India
Key Differences 3. Tropic of Capricorn (23.5°S) - Marks
the southernmost point where the Sun is
10. Solar eclipses last minutes, while lunar
directly overhead.
eclipses last hours.
4. Arctic Circle (66.5°N) - Boundary of
11. Never look directly at a solar
the 24-hour daylight/darkness in
eclipse (can damage eyes); lunar
Northern summers/winters.
eclipses are safe to view.
5. Antarctic Circle (66.5°S) - Same as
12. Solar eclipses are more rare than lunar
Arctic Circle but in the Southern
eclipses at any given location.
Hemisphere.
NCERT Facts 6. North Pole (90°N) & South Pole
(90°S) - where all longitudes meet.
13. Saros Cycle: Eclipses repeat every ~18
7. Prime Meridian (0° longitude) - GMT,
years due to orbital alignments.
passes through Greenwich, UK.
14. Ancient Indian astronomers (Aryabhata)
8. International Date Line (180°
accurately predicted eclipses.
longitude) - Marks calendar change
Why does the Moon turn red during when crossed.
a total lunar eclipse? → Earth’s
9. Indian Standard Meridian (82.5°E) -
atmosphere scatters blue light,
Determines IST, passes through
allowing red light to reach the
Moon. Mirzapur (UP).
Which eclipse requires special eye 10. Torrid Zone (between Tropics) -
protection? → Solar eclipse. Receives maximum heat due to direct
What phase must the Moon be in
sunlight.
for a solar eclipse? → New Moon.
Which Indian states does Tropic of
"SUN-Moon-Earth" for solar eclipse
Cancer pass through?
order and "SUN-Earth-Moon" for lunar
→8 states: Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP,
eclipse!
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, WB, Tripura,
Mizoram.
 GEOMORPHOLOGY 9. New oceanic crust forms at ridges,
pushing older crust sideways (like a
Plate Tectonics (Continental
conveyor belt).
Drift Theory, Seafloor
10. Evidence: Youngest rocks at
Spreading)
ridges, oldest near continents (dating via

Continental Drift Theory (Alfred radiometry).

Wegener, 1912) 11. Magnetic stripes: Symmetrical patterns
of magnetic reversals recorded in oceanic
1. Proposed Earth had a
crust.
supercontinent Pangaea (meaning "all
12. Ocean trenches: Where old crust sinks
Earth") 250 million years ago.
(subducts) into mantle (e.g., Mariana
2. Pangaea split into Laurasia
Trench).
(North) and Gondwana (South) during
Jurassic period. Plate Tectonics Theory
3. Evidence: Jigsaw fit of continents (e.g.,
13. Earth's lithosphere divided into 7 major
Africa & South America).
plates (e.g., Eurasian, Pacific).
4. Fossil evidence: Similar plant/animal
14. Convergent boundary: Plates collide →
fossils (Glossopteris, Mesosaurus) across
Himalayas (India-Eurasia).
continents.
15. Divergent boundary: Plates separate →
5. Rock match: Same mountain ranges
Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
(Appalachians & Caledonians) on different
16. Transform boundary: Plates slide past →
continents.
San Andreas Fault (USA).
6. Coal deposits in Antarctica prove it was
17. Indian Plate moves 5
once near equator (tropical climate).
cm/year northward, causing earthquakes
7. Rejected initially due to lack of
in Himalayas.
mechanism explaining "how" continents
moved. Key Terms

Seafloor Spreading (Harry Hess, 18. Asthenosphere: Semi-fluid layer below

1960s) lithosphere where plates "float".
19. Subduction zone: Oceanic plate sinks
8. Discovered mid-ocean ridges (e.g., Mid-
under continental plate (e.g., Andes).
Atlantic Ridge) where magma rises.
20. Rift Valley: Forms at divergent
boundaries (e.g., East African Rift).
21. Benioff Zone: Earthquake zone along Earthquakes & Volcanoes
subducting plate.
Earthquakes
Volcanoes & Earthquakes
1. Earthquakes are caused by sudden release
22. Ring of Fire: Pacific Ocean’s of energy along faults in Earth's crust
volcanic/earthquake belt (75% of world’s 2. The point of origin inside Earth is
volcanoes). called focus/hypocenter
23. Shield volcanoes: Gentle slopes 3. The point directly above focus on surface
(Hawaii); Composite cones: Steep (Mt. is epicenter
Fuji). 4. Seismic waves are recorded
24. Focus: Earthquake’s origin by seismograph
point; Epicenter: Surface directly above it. 5. Richter Scale measures earthquake
magnitude (logarithmic scale)
NCERT Specials
6. Mercalli Scale measures earthquake
25. Deccan Traps (India) formed by Reunion intensity (damage observed)
hotspot 66 million yrs ago. 7. P-waves (Primary) are fastest seismic
26. Chile Rise: Rare ridge-trench waves (travel through solids+liquids)
collision (Nazca Plate meets Antarctic 8. S-waves (Secondary) travel only through
Plate). solids
27. Slab Pull: Main force driving plate 9. L-waves (Surface waves) cause most
movement (subducting plate’s weight). destruction
10. India's most earthquake-prone
28. Oldest oceanic crust: ~200 million yrs
zones: Himalayas, Northeast, Rann of
(Mediterranean); continental crust: ~4
Kutch
billion yrs.
11. Zone V is India's highest risk seismic zone
29. San Andreas Fault: Transform boundary
(includes entire Northeast)
(Pacific & North American Plates).
12. Tsunami is caused by undersea
30. Himalayas still rising (~1 cm/year) due to
earthquakes/volcanic eruptions
ongoing collision.
13. 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami originated
near Sumatra, Indonesia
14. Liquefaction occurs when soil loses
strength during quakes
15. Foreshocks are smaller quakes before Volcanoes
main shock
1. Volcanoes are openings in Earth's crust
16. Aftershocks occur after main quake due
emitting lava/gases
to crust adjustment
2. Magma is molten rock below
17. Interplate quakes occur at plate
surface; lava is above surface
boundaries (most destructive)
3. Active volcanoes erupt regularly (e.g.,
18. Intraplate quakes occur within plates
Kilauea, Hawaii)
(rarer but dangerous)
4. Dormant volcanoes are inactive but may
19. Elastic Rebound Theory explains
erupt (e.g., Mt. Fuji)
earthquake mechanism
5. Extinct volcanoes won't erupt again (e.g.,
20. Seismic gaps are locked fault segments
Deccan Traps)
due for future quakes
6. Shield volcanoes have gentle slopes
21. Bhimashankar fault is near Mumbai
(basaltic lava)
(moderate risk zone)
7. Composite volcanoes are steep
22. IS 1893 is India's earthquake resistant
(alternate lava+ash layers)
construction code
8. Caldera forms when volcano collapses
23. Drop, Cover, Hold is recommended
after eruption
during quakes
9. Ring of Fire has 75% of world's volcanoes
24. National Centre for
(Pacific rim)
Seismology monitors Indian earthquakes
10. Hotspots are fixed magma sources (e.g.,
25. Latur 1993 (6.4 magnitude) was deadly
Hawaii, Réunion)
intraplate quake
11. Pyroclastic flow is deadly fast-moving
hot gas+ash
12. Lahar is volcanic mudflow (melting
snow+ash)
13. Volcanic bombs are ejected molten rock
blobs
14. Fissure eruptions occur through cracks
(e.g., Deccan Traps)
15. Barren Island is India's only active
volcano (Andamans)
16. Deccan Traps formed from massive
eruptions 66 mya
17. Mt. Vesuvius destroyed Pompeii (79 AD) Rocks & Minerals (Igneous,
18. Krakatoa eruption (1883) caused global Sedimentary, Metamorphic)
cooling
1. Rocks are aggregates of one or more
19. Volcanic Explosivity Index
minerals
(VEI) measures eruption size
2. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma
20. Geysers are hot springs erupting
(intrusive) or lava (extrusive)
water/steam
3. Granite is intrusive igneous; basalt is
21. Black smokers are undersea volcanic
extrusive
vents
4. Sedimentary rocks form from
22. Pumice is volcanic rock that floats on
compaction/cementation of sediments
water
5. Sandstone forms from
23. Volcanic ash fertilizes soil but damages
sand; limestone from shells/coral
engines
6. Metamorphic rocks form under
24. Sulfur dioxide from eruptions causes acid
heat/pressure (marble from limestone)
rain
7. Rock cycle shows interconversion of rock
25. Early warning signs: earthquakes, gas
types
emissions, ground swelling
8. Pumice is the only rock that floats
✔ Most active volcano in India? → Barren (volcanic origin)
Island 9. Coal is organic sedimentary rock
✔ Instrument to measure earthquakes? (fossilized plants)
→ Seismograph 10. Laterite is residual metamorphic rock
✔ Deadliest volcanic hazard? (high in iron/aluminum)
→ Pyroclastic flow 11. Gneiss shows banding (metamorphosed
granite)
12. Quartzite is metamorphosed sandstone
13. Conglomerate has rounded
pebbles; breccia has angular fragments
14. Chalk is soft limestone (microscopic
marine organisms)
15. Deccan Traps are world's largest volcanic
basalt deposits
16. Minerals are naturally occurring Weathering & Erosion
inorganic solids with definite
Weathering
composition
17. Silicate minerals are most abundant 1. Weathering is the breakdown of rocks at
(90% of crust) Earth's surface
18. Quartz (SiO₂) is hardest common mineral 2. Mechanical weathering physically breaks
(7 on Mohs scale) rocks without chemical change
19. Diamond is hardest mineral (10 on Mohs 3. Frost action (freeze-thaw) widens cracks
scale) in rocks
20. Talc is softest mineral (1 on Mohs scale) 4. Exfoliation occurs when rock layers peel
21. Mica splits into thin sheets (perfect basal off due to expansion/contraction
cleavage) 5. Salt crystallization in rocks causes
22. Bauxite is ore of aluminum (laterite granular disintegration
deposits) 6. Chemical weathering alters rock
23. Hematite and magnetite are iron ores composition (hydrolysis, oxidation)
24. India's major mineral belts: Chota 7. Carbonation dissolves limestone (forms
Nagpur, Odisha, Rajasthan karst landscapes)
25. Kolar mines (Karnataka)- famous for gold 8. Laterite forms in tropics through intense
chemical weathering
Rock Cycle
9. Spheroidal weathering rounds rock
26. Weathering breaks rocks into sediments edges (onion-peel effect)
27. Lithification converts sediments to rock 10. Biological weathering involves
(compaction+cementation) roots/lichens/burrowing animals
28. Metamorphism changes rocks without 11. Temperature extremes (deserts)
melting accelerate mechanical weathering
12. Wetting-drying cycles break clay-rich
✔ Example of metamorphic rock?
rocks
→ Marble/Slate
13. Abrasion by wind-blown sand weathers
✔ Most abundant mineral group?
rock surfaces
→ Silicates
14. Tafoni are honeycomb weathering
✔ Process forming sedimentary rocks?
patterns in sandstones
→ Lithification
15. Weathering produces regolith (layer of
loose rock fragments)
 Erosion & Deposition ✔ Example of chemical weathering?
→ Limestone dissolving in rainwater
16. Erosion is the transport of weathered
✔ Major erosional landform in deserts?
material
→ Yardangs
17. Water erosion forms gullies → ravines →
✔ Best method to prevent soil erosion?
badlands (e.g., Chambal)
→ Afforestation/Contour bunding
18. Wind erosion creates yardangs
(streamlined ridges)
19. Glacial erosion carves U-shaped valleys &
cirques Major Landforms (Mountains,
20. Wave erosion forms sea cliffs, arches & Plateaus, Plains, Deserts)
stacks
Mountains
21. Soil erosion removes fertile topsoil (major
threat in India) 1. Fold Mountains form when tectonic

22. Sheet erosion removes uniform soil layers plates collide (e.g., Himalayas, Alps)

(first stage) 2. Block Mountains created by faulting

23. Rill erosion creates small channels (e.g., Vosges, Black Forest)

(second stage) 3. Volcanic Mountains built from lava (e.g.,

24. Gully erosion forms deep trenches (e.g., Mt. Fuji, Kilimanjaro)

Chambal ravines) 4. Himalayas are youngest fold mountains

25. Deposition occurs when erosional agents (<50 million years old)

lose energy 5. Mt. Everest (8,848m) is world's highest

26. Alluvial fans form at mountain bases peak in Great Himalayas

(e.g., Himalayan foothills) 6. Karakoram Range has K2 (world's 2nd

27. Delta deposition requires slow river flow highest peak)

+ weak tides (e.g., Sundarbans) 7. Western Ghats are block mountains

28. Loess deposits are wind-blown silt (e.g., (older than Himalayas)

North China) 8. Aravalli Range is India's oldest fold

29. Moraines are glacial deposits mountains (Precambrian)

(lateral/medial/terminal) 9. Lhotse and Makalu are other 8,000m+

30. Contour peaks in Himalayas

ploughing and terracing prevent soil 10. Shiwaliks are outermost Himalayan

erosion foothills (prone to landslides)

11. Andes are longest continental mountain 26. Anatolian Plateau in Turkey is seismic
range (7,000km) zone
12. Ural Mountains divide Europe and Asia 27. Columbia Plateau (USA) formed by flood
13. Appalachians are eroded fold mountains basalts
(North America) 28. Karewas are glacial deposits in Kashmir
14. Alps formed by African-Eurasian plate Valley
collision 29. Bundelkhand Plateau spans UP and MP
15. Mountain passes: Zoji La, Nathu La, 30. Ladakh Plateau is cold desert at 3,000-
Shipki La (important in Himalayas) 5,000m altitude

Plateaus Plains

16. Plateaus are flat-topped highlands with 31. Plains are flat/low-lying lands (<200m
steep sides elevation)
17. Deccan Plateau covers 5 Indian states 32. Indo-Gangetic Plain is world's most
(basaltic lava origin) fertile alluvial plain
18. Chota Nagpur Plateau is India's mineral 33. Northern Plains formed by Indus, Ganga,
heartland Brahmaputra
19. Tibetan Plateau is world's highest ("Roof 34. Bhabar - Porous foothill zone (Shiwaliks)
of the World") 35. Terai - Swampy/marshy zone south of
20. Colorado Plateau has Grand Canyon Bhabar
(USA) 36. Bhangar - Older alluvial soil (contains
21. Brazilian Plateau has world's largest iron calcareous nodules)
ore reserves 37. Khadar - Younger alluvial soil (renewed
22. Peninsular Plateaus are India's oldest every flood)
landmass (Gondwana) 38. Mississippi Plain is North America's
23. Malwa Plateau lies between Aravallis and largest
Vindhyas 39. Pampas are fertile South American
24. Meghalaya Plateau has Cherrapunji grasslands
(wettest place) 40. Coastal Plains include Coromandel and
25. African Plateaus have Victoria Falls Malabar coasts
(Zambezi River)
 Deserts 3. Potholes are circular depressions drilled
by swirling pebbles
41. Deserts receive <25cm annual rainfall
4. Meanders are sinuous bends in mature
42. Thar Desert covers Rajasthan and parts of
rivers (e.g., Ganga plains)
Pakistan
5. Oxbow lakes form when meander loops
43. Sahara is world's largest hot desert (9.2
get cut off
million km²)
6. Floodplains are flat lands built by
44. Atacama is driest desert (Chile, <1mm
periodic flooding
rain/year)
7. Natural levees are raised banks
45. Gobi Desert is cold desert
deposited during floods
(Mongolia/China)
8. Delta forms where river deposits exceed
46. Kalahari has red sand and drought-
erosion (e.g., Sundarbans)
resistant plants
9. Estuary forms where tidal erosion
47. Antarctica is world's largest cold desert
dominates (e.g., Narmada)
48. Sand dunes include barchans (crescent-
10. Alluvial fans are cone-shaped deposits at
shaped)
mountain bases
49. Oasis forms where groundwater reaches
11. Canyons are deep gorges (e.g., Grand
surface
Canyon)
50. Luni is only significant river in Thar Desert
12. Rapids occur where river gradient
✔ Youngest mountains in India? suddenly increases
→ Himalayas 13. Braided streams have multiple channels
✔ Plateau known as 'Mineral Storehouse'? (e.g., Brahmaputra)
→ Chota Nagpur 14. Terrace is a former floodplain now
✔ River forming Sundarbans delta? elevated
→ Ganga-Brahmaputra 15. Peneplain is final stage of fluvial erosion
(near-flat surface)

Fluvial (River) Landforms

Aeolian (Wind) Landforms
1. V-shaped valleys form in upper river
courses through vertical erosion 16. Yardangs are streamlined ridges carved
2. Waterfalls occur where hard rock overlies by wind (Egypt)
soft rock (e.g., Jog Falls) 17. Zeugen are mushroom-shaped rocks in
deserts
18. Ventifacts are wind-polished rocks with 34. Barrier islands parallel to coast (e.g.,
flat faces Havelock)
19. Sand dunes migrate downwind (5 types: 35. Atolls are circular coral reefs on
barchan, transverse, etc.) submerged volcanoes
20. Barchans are crescent-shaped dunes
(common in Thar)
21. Loess is wind-deposited silt (e.g., North Glacial Landforms
China Plains)
36. Cirque is bowl-shaped valley head (origin
22. Desert pavement forms when fine
of glacier)
particles blow away
37. Arête is sharp ridge between cirques
23. Playas are temporary desert lakes (Rann
38. Horn is pyramidal peak (e.g., Matterhorn)
of Kutch)
39. U-shaped valley carved by glacial erosion
24. Mesa and butte are flat-topped erosional
40. Fjords are glacial valleys flooded by sea
remnants
(Norway)
25. Blowouts are wind-scoured depressions
41. Moraines are glacial debris
(lateral/medial/terminal)
42. Drumlins are streamlined hills of glacial
Coastal Landforms
till
26. Sea cliffs form by wave undercutting 43. Eskers are sinuous ridges of glacial
27. Wave-cut platforms are flat surfaces at meltwater deposits
cliff base 44. Kame is small mound of stratified drift
28. Sea caves form where weak rock is 45. Roche moutonnée is asymmetrical rock
eroded knob
29. Arches develop when caves break
through headlands
30. Stacks are isolated pillars (e.g., Needles, Karst Landforms
UK)
46. Limestone dissolves to form karst
31. Beaches are wave-deposited sand/pebble
landscapes
accumulations
47. Sinkholes are funnel-shaped collapse
32. Spits are linear deposits attached at one
features
end (e.g., Chilika)
48. Caves form by groundwater dissolution
33. Tombolo connects island to mainland
(e.g., Borra Caves)
(e.g., Adam's Bridge)
49. Stalactites hang from cave 9. The stratosphere has almost no weather
roofs; stalagmites rise from floor disturbances, making it ideal for jet flights.
50. Polje is large flat-floored karst depression 10. Temperature decreases with height in
the troposphere.
✔ Chambal ravines are fluvial badland
11. Temperature increases in
erosion
the stratosphere due to ozone
✔ Thar Desert has barchan dunes
absorption.
✔ Andaman Islands have atolls
12. The mesosphere is the coldest layer, with
temperatures dropping to -90°C.
13. The thermosphere has extremely high
CLIMATOLOGY (ATMOSPHERE temperatures (up to 1500°C) due to solar
& WEATHER) radiation.
14. The ionosphere, a part of the
Layers of the Atmosphere
thermosphere, aids in long-distance
1. The atmosphere is divided into five main communication.
layers: troposphere, stratosphere, 15. The ozone layer is found between 15-35
mesosphere, thermosphere, and km in the stratosphere.
exosphere. 16. The Kármán line (100 km above sea level)
2. The troposphere is the lowest layer, marks the boundary between Earth and
extending up to about 8-18 km. space.
3. Most weather phenomena like rain and 17. Almost 75% of the atmosphere’s mass lies
storms occur in the troposphere. in the troposphere.
4. The stratosphere contains the ozone 18. The exosphere consists mainly of
layer, which absorbs harmful UV rays. hydrogen and helium gases.
5. The mesosphere is where most meteors 19. Air pressure decreases as we move higher
burn up upon entry. in the atmosphere.
6. The thermosphere helps in radio 20. The stratopause is the boundary between
transmission by reflecting radio waves. the stratosphere and mesosphere.
7. The exosphere is the outermost layer,
merging into space.
8. The troposphere is thicker at the equator
than at the poles.
 Wind Systems (Trade Winds, Polar Winds
Westerlies, Jet Streams)
11. Polar easterlies blow from the polar

Trade Winds high-pressure zones towards

the subpolar low-pressure zones.
1. Trade winds blow from the subtropical
12. Polar winds are cold and dry due to their
high-pressure belts (30° N & S) towards
origin in polar regions.
the equatorial low-pressure belt.
2. In the Northern Hemisphere, trade winds Jet Streams
blow as northeast trade winds.
13. Jet streams are fast-flowing, narrow air
3. In the Southern Hemisphere, trade winds
currents in the upper troposphere or
blow as southeast trade winds.
lower stratosphere.
4. Trade winds are named so because they
14. The subtropical jet stream flows near 30°
helped sailing ships in trade
N & S at about 12 km altitude.
routes during ancient times.
15. The polar front jet stream flows near 60°
5. The Intertropical Convergence Zone
N & S and influences temperate
(ITCZ) is where trade winds from both
cyclones.
hemispheres meet.
16. Jet streams have speeds of 120–250

Westerlies km/h (sometimes exceeding 400 km/h).

17. Jet streams help in faster air travel when
6. Westerlies blow from the subtropical
flying eastward.
high-pressure belts (30° N & S) towards
18. The shift of jet streams affects monsoon
the subpolar low-pressure belts (60° N
winds in India.
& S).
7. In the Northern Hemisphere, westerlies Monsoon Winds & Local Winds
blow as southwest winds.
19. Monsoon winds are seasonal winds that
8. In the Southern Hemisphere, westerlies
reverse direction between summer and
blow as northwest winds.
winter.
9. Westerlies are stronger in the Southern
20. Sea breeze occurs during the day when
Hemisphere due to fewer landmasses.
wind blows from sea to land.
10. Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties, and
21. Land breeze occurs at night when wind
Shrieking Sixties are names for strong
blows from land to sea.
westerlies in the Southern Ocean.
22. Mountain winds (Katabatic winds) flow
downhill at night.
23. Valley winds (Anabatic winds) flow 8. Subtropical Highs are regions
uphill during the day. of descending air, causing dry climates
(e.g., deserts).
Pressure Belts & Coriolis Effect
9. The Coriolis force deflects winds, creating
24. The Coriolis force deflects winds to trade winds and westerlies between
the right in the Northern pressure belts.
Hemisphere and left in the Southern 10. Trade Winds blow from Subtropical
Hemisphere. Highs (30°) to Equatorial Lows (0°).
25. Doldrums are calm, low-wind zones near 11. Westerlies flow from Subtropical Highs
the equator where trade winds converge. (30°) to Subpolar Lows (60°).
12. Polar Easterlies move from Polar Highs
(90°) to Subpolar Lows (60°).

PRESSURE BELTS 13. Pressure belts are weaker over

oceans due to uniform surfaces.
1. Earth has four major pressure belts: 14. The thermal factor (heating/cooling)
Equatorial Low, Subtropical High, and dynamic factor (Earth’s rotation)
Subpolar Low, and Polar High. create pressure belts.
2. The Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt (0°-5° 15. Monsoon winds are influenced by
N/S) is also called the Doldrums due to seasonal shifts in pressure belts.
calm winds.
3. The Subtropical High-Pressure
Belts (30° N/S) are called Horse
Cyclones (Tropical & Temperate)
Latitudes due to weak winds.
4. The Subpolar Low-Pressure Belts (60° 1. Tropical cyclones form over warm ocean
N/S) are zones of stormy weather and waters (above 26.5°C) between 5°-30°
cyclones. latitudes.
5. The Polar High-Pressure Belts (90° N/S) 2. Temperate cyclones occur in mid-
are cold and dry due to sinking air. latitudes (30°-60°) due to interaction
6. Pressure belts shift north-south with the of cold and warm air masses.
apparent movement of the Sun. 3. In India, tropical cyclones mostly affect
7. The Intertropical Convergence Zone the eastern coast (Bay of Bengal region).
(ITCZ) is part of the Equatorial Low and
shifts seasonally.
4. The eye of a tropical cyclone is a calm, 17. Tropical cyclones need low wind shear to
low-pressure center surrounded by violent maintain their vertical structure.
winds. 18. NDRF (National Disaster Response Force)
5. Tropical cyclones rotate counter- plays crucial role in cyclone disaster
clockwise in Northern Hemisphere management.
and clockwise in Southern Hemisphere. 19. Cyclone warnings in India are issued
6. Temperate cyclones are also by IMD (India Meteorological
called extratropical cyclones or wave Department).
cyclones. 20. Temperate cyclones can
7. The Coriolis force is essential for the cause blizzards in winter
rotation and formation of cyclones. and thunderstorms in summer.
8. Tropical cyclones are called hurricanes in 21. The fujiwhara effect occurs when two
Atlantic, typhoons in Pacific, cyclones orbit each other.
and cyclones in Indian Ocean. 22. Tropical cyclones release energy
9. Temperate cyclones bring frontal through latent heat of condensation.
rainfall that can last for several days. 23. Cyclogenesis refers to the development
10. The Saffir-Simpson scale (Category 1-5) and strengthening of cyclones.
measures tropical cyclone intensity. 24. The eye wall of tropical cyclone has the
11. Tropical cyclones cause storm surges - most violent winds and heaviest rainfall.
rise in sea level that floods coastal areas. 25. Cyclone shelters and early warning
12. Jet streams influence the movement and systems help reduce cyclone damage in
intensity of temperate cyclones. coastal areas.
13. Tropical cyclones weaken rapidly after
landfall due to loss of moisture source.
14. The ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence
Monsoons in India (SW & NE
Zone) shifts and affects tropical cyclone
Monsoon)
formation.
15. Temperate cyclones have cold and warm 1. India's climate is dominated by
fronts that produce different weather the Southwest (SW) Monsoon (June-
patterns. September) and Northeast (NE)
16. The Bay of Bengal experiences more Monsoon (October-December).
cyclones than Arabian Sea due to higher
sea temperatures.
2. The SW Monsoon brings 75% of India's 14. Tamil Nadu receives 50% of its annual
annual rainfall and is crucial for rainfall from NE Monsoon (Oct-Dec).
agriculture. 15. The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
3. The NE Monsoon affects mainly Tamil (ITCZ) shifts northward in summer,
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and parts of triggering SW Monsoon.
Karnataka. 16. El Niño weakens SW Monsoon, often
4. Monsoon winds reverse direction causing droughts in India.
seasonally due to differential heating of 17. La Niña strengthens SW Monsoon,
land and sea. leading to above-average rainfall.
5. The SW Monsoon originates from 18. Monsoon depressions form in the Bay of
the Mascarene High (near Madagascar) Bengal and move inland, causing
in the Indian Ocean. widespread rain.
6. The monsoon trough is a low-pressure 19. The onset of monsoon is announced by
zone that shifts northward during SW IMD when 60% of stations report
Monsoon. rainfall.
7. Kerala is the first state to receive SW 20. Western Disturbances (winter) and NE
Monsoon rains (around June 1st). Monsoon bring rain to North India in cold
8. The Arabian Sea branch and Bay of weather.
Bengal branch are two arms of SW 21. Cherrapunji (Meghalaya) receives
Monsoon. the highest rainfall in India due to SW
9. The Bay of Bengal branch causes heavy Monsoon.
rainfall in Northeast 22. The Thar Desert remains dry as
India (Cherrapunji/Mawsynram). the Aravalli Range blocks monsoon
10. The Arabian Sea branch brings rain winds.
to Western Ghats and West Coast. 23. The burst of monsoon refers to sudden
11. Mumbai receives heavy rain from the heavy rainfall when monsoon arrives.
Arabian Sea branch, while Kolkata gets 24. Andaman & Nicobar Islands receive
rain from Bay of Bengal branch. monsoon rains 15-20 days before
12. Monsoon breaks are periods of reduced mainland India.
rainfall during the SW Monsoon season. 25. The monsoon withdrawal begins
13. The NE Monsoon is also from Rajasthan in September and
called Retreating Monsoon as winds completes by December.
withdraw from India.
 El Niño & La Niña 14. During El Niño, the thermocline
deepens in eastern Pacific, reducing
1. El Niño refers to the periodic warming of
upwelling.
sea surface temperatures in the
15. La Niña enhances upwelling of nutrient-
central/eastern Pacific Ocean.
rich waters, benefiting fisheries.
2. La Niña is the cooling phase with
16. The Southern Oscillation Index
unusually cold ocean temperatures in the
(SOI) measures pressure differences
same region.
between Tahiti and Darwin.
3. Together, El Niño and La Niña form the El
17. Walker Circulation weakens during El
Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle.
Niño and strengthens during La Niña.
4. El Niño typically occurs every 2-7
18. El Niño can cause coral bleaching due to
years and lasts 9-12 months.
warmer ocean temperatures.
5. During El Niño, trade winds weaken or
19. La Niña winters are typically colder and
reverse direction over the Pacific.
snowier in northern U.S. and Canada.
6. La Niña features stronger-than-normal
20. The 2015-16 El Niño contributed to
trade winds pushing warm water
record global temperatures and droughts.
westward.
21. ENSO events affect tropical cyclone
7. El Niño causes droughts in Australia/SE
formation in Atlantic and Pacific basins.
Asia but heavy rains in South America.
22. El Niño reduces hurricane activity in
8. La Niña brings above-average rainfall to
Atlantic but increases in Pacific.
Australia/Indonesia and drier
23. Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) sometimes
conditions to Americas.
interacts with ENSO to affect Indian
9. In India, El Niño is associated with weaker
monsoon.
monsoon rains and drought conditions.
24. Scientists use buoys, satellites and
10. La Niña years often see stronger Indian
climate models to predict ENSO events.
monsoons with above-average rainfall.
25. The IMD monitors ENSO conditions to
11. The 1997-98 El Niño was one of the
forecast Indian monsoon performance.
strongest recorded events in history.
12. ENSO events impact global weather
patterns, agriculture and economies
worldwide.
13. El Niño was named ("The Christ Child") by
Peruvian fishermen noticing warm waters
around Christmas.
 Global Climate Change 13. Sea levels have risen by ~20 cm since
1900 due to thermal expansion and ice
1. Global warming refers to the long-term
melt.
rise in Earth's average surface
14. Ocean acidification occurs as oceans
temperature.
absorb excess CO₂, harming marine life.
2. The greenhouse effect is natural but
15. Coral bleaching increases due to warmer
enhanced by human activities increasing
and more acidic oceans.
GHG concentrations.
16. Permafrost thawing releases trapped
3. Major greenhouse gases (GHGs)
methane, creating a feedback loop.
include CO₂, methane (CH₄), nitrous
17. Deforestation contributes ~15% of
oxide (N₂O), and CFCs.
global CO₂ emissions annually.
4. CO₂ levels have increased from 280 ppm
18. Renewable energy (solar, wind) helps
(pre-industrial) to over 420 ppm today.
reduce reliance on fossil fuels.
5. Methane is 25 times more potent than
19. Kyoto Protocol (1997) was the first
CO₂ as a greenhouse gas (over 100 years).
international treaty to limit GHG
6. Human activities like burning fossil fuels,
emissions.
deforestation, and industries are primary
20. Carbon footprint measures total GHG
causes.
emissions caused by an individual/activity.
7. Natural factors like volcanic eruptions
21. Mitigation strategies include
and solar variations also influence climate.
afforestation, clean energy, and energy
8. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
efficiency.
Change) assesses climate change science.
22. Adaptation measures include building
9. Global temperature has risen by ~1.1°C
resilient infrastructure and early warning
since pre-industrial times.
systems.
10. Paris Agreement (2015) aims to limit
23. Climate justice emphasizes equitable
global warming to well below 2°C,
solutions for vulnerable nations.
preferably 1.5°C.
24. India's INDC targets 40% non-fossil fuel
11. Climate change impacts include rising
energy capacity by 2030 under Paris
sea levels, melting glaciers, and extreme
Agreement.
weather events.
25. Sustainable development balances
12. Himalayan glaciers are retreating at
economic growth with environmental
alarming rates due to warming.
protection.
 OCEANOGRAPHY 13. Tsunamis are giant waves caused by

HYDROSPHERE underwater earthquakes or volcanic

eruptions.
1. The hydrosphere includes all water
14. El Niño affects ocean temperatures and
bodies on Earth - oceans, seas, rivers,
currents in the Pacific, impacting global
lakes, groundwater, and glaciers.
weather.
2. 97% of Earth's water is saline (oceans)
15. The water cycle shows continuous
while only 3% is freshwater.
movement of water between atmosphere,
3. Of freshwater, 68.7% is locked in
land, and oceans.
glaciers, 30.1% is groundwater, and
16. Groundwater is stored in aquifers -
just 1.2% is surface water.
porous rock layers that hold water.
4. The Pacific Ocean is the largest and
17. Water table is the upper level of
deepest ocean, covering about 1/3 of
groundwater saturation in soil/rock.
Earth's surface.
18. Artesian wells occur when water rises to
5. Ocean currents are driven by winds,
surface under natural pressure.
Earth's rotation (Coriolis effect), and water
19. Cryosphere refers to frozen water parts -
density differences.
glaciers, ice caps, and permafrost.
6. Tides are caused by the gravitational pull
20. Glaciers store about 69% of world's
of the Moon and Sun on Earth's waters.
freshwater and are important freshwater
7. Spring tides (highest tides) occur during
sources.
full moon and new moon phases.
21. The Gangotri Glacier is source of River
8. Neap tides (lowest tides) occur during
Ganga, retreating due to climate change.
quarter moon phases.
22. Ocean pollution from plastic waste, oil
9. Waves are generated by wind transferring
spills, and chemicals threatens marine life.
energy to water surface.
23. Coral reefs (like Great Barrier Reef) are
10. The continental shelf is the shallow,
marine biodiversity hotspots facing
biologically rich extension of continents
bleaching threats.
underwater.
24. Estuaries where rivers meet oceans are
11. Ocean salinity averages 35 parts per
highly productive ecosystems.
thousand (ppt), highest in the Red Sea
25. UN Sustainable Development Goal
(~40ppt).
14 aims to conserve and sustainably use
12. The Mariana Trench in Pacific Ocean is
oceans and marine resources
the deepest known point on Earth (~11km
deep).
 Ocean Currents (Warm & Cold) 11. Cold Oyashio Current flows southward
along Russia's east coast in the Pacific.
1. Ocean currents are continuous,
12. The Agulhas Current is a warm western
directional movements of seawater driven
boundary current in Indian Ocean.
by wind, Earth's rotation, and water
13. California Current is a cold current along
density differences.
USA's west coast that creates foggy
2. Warm currents flow from equatorial
conditions.
regions towards poles (e.g., Gulf Stream),
14. Warm Brazil Current meets cold Falkland
while cold currents move from polar
Current off Argentina, creating rich
regions towards equator (e.g., Labrador
fishing grounds.
Current).
15. The East Australian Current (warm)
3. The Gulf Stream is a powerful warm
influences Great Barrier Reef's tropical
current in the Atlantic Ocean that
ecosystem.
influences Europe's climate.
16. Monsoon currents in Indian Ocean
4. The Kuroshio Current is a warm Pacific
reverse direction seasonally with wind
current similar to the Gulf Stream.
patterns.
5. Cold Benguela Current (Atlantic)
17. The Canary Current (cold) flows south
and Peru Current (Pacific) create coastal
along northwest Africa, contributing to
deserts by reducing rainfall.
Sahara's dryness.
6. The North Atlantic Drift, an extension of
18. Labrador Current (cold) brings icebergs
Gulf Stream, keeps western Europe
into North Atlantic shipping lanes.
warmer than similar latitudes.
19. Currents help distribute heat globally -
7. Upwelling occurs when cold, nutrient-rich
warm currents carry heat poleward, cold
waters rise to surface (e.g., Peru Current),
currents bring cool water equatorward.
supporting rich fisheries.
20. The Sargasso Sea is a calm region in
8. The West Wind Drift (Antarctic
Atlantic surrounded by currents, known
Circumpolar Current) is the only current
for floating seaweed.
that circles Earth uninterrupted.
21. Density currents form when cold, salty
9. El Niño weakens the cold Peru Current,
water sinks (e.g., in Arctic and Antarctic
causing warm water to spread along
regions).
South American coast.
22. The Great Ocean Conveyor Belt is a
10. The Coriolis Effect deflects currents right
global circulation system connecting all
in Northern Hemisphere and left in
ocean basins.
Southern Hemisphere.
23. West Australian Current is a cold current 9. Tides help in navigation - ships enter/exit
that moderates Australia's western ports during high tide.
climate. 10. Tidal energy is harnessed as renewable
24. Currents affect navigation - ships use energy in some coastal regions.
favorable currents to save fuel and time. 11. Perigean spring tides (when Moon is
25. Ocean eddies are circular currents that closest to Earth) cause extra-high tides.
spin off main currents, influencing local 12. Apogean tides (when Moon is farthest)
marine life. produce weaker tidal effects.
13. Tides help in mixing ocean waters,
bringing nutrients to surface.
14. Mangrove ecosystems depend on
Tides (Spring & Neap)
regular tidal flushing for survival.
1. Tides are periodic rise and fall of sea 15. India's Gulf of Khambhat has highest
levels caused by gravitational pull of tidal range (11 meters) in Indian
Moon and Sun. subcontinent.
2. Spring tides occur during full moon and
new moon (Syzygy position) when Sun-
Moon-Earth align.
Coral Reefs & Mangroves
3. Neap tides occur during first and third
quarter moons (Quadrature position) 1. Coral reefs are underwater ecosystems
when Sun and Moon form 90° angle. formed by calcium carbonate secretions
4. Spring tides have highest high tides and from corals (marine invertebrates).
lowest low tides due to combined 2. Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees/shrubs
gravitational pull. that grow in tropical coastal intertidal
5. Neap tides have minimum tidal range as zones.
Sun's pull counteracts Moon's pull. 3. Great Barrier Reef (Australia) is the
6. The time gap between two high tides is world's largest coral reef system, visible
approximately 12 hours 26 minutes. from space.
7. Tidal range (height difference between 4. Fringing reefs grow directly from
high-low tide) varies by location and shorelines, while barrier reefs grow
moon phase. parallel to coasts with lagoons.
8. Bay of Fundy (Canada) has world's
highest tidal range (up to 16 meters).
5. Atolls are ring-shaped coral reefs that Major Seas, Gulfs, and Straits
encircle lagoons, often formed on
1. Arabian Sea - India's western maritime
submerged volcanoes.
boundary, connecting to Persian Gulf via
6. Coral reefs thrive in warm (20-28°C),
Gulf of Oman.
shallow, clear, and sunlit tropical
2. Bay of Bengal - World's largest bay,
waters.
receiving waters from Ganga-Brahmaputra
7. Zooxanthellae (symbiotic algae) give
rivers.
corals color and provide 90% of their food
3. Mediterranean Sea - Almost landlocked
via photosynthesis.
sea connecting Europe, Africa and Asia.
8. Coral bleaching occurs when stressed
4. Red Sea - Separates Arabian Peninsula
corals expel zooxanthellae due to
from Africa, known for high salinity.
warming, pollution, or acidification.
5. Persian Gulf - Shallow marginal sea with
9. Sundarbans (India-Bangladesh) is the
world's largest oil reserves.
world's largest mangrove forest and a
6. Gulf of Mexico - Ninth largest water
UNESCO World Heritage Site.
body, hurricane-prone region.
10. Mangroves have pneumatophores (aerial
7. Strait of Hormuz - Strategic chokepoint
roots) to breathe in oxygen-poor muddy
for 20% of world's oil shipments.
soils.
8. Strait of Malacca - Busiest shipping strait
11. Mangroves protect coasts from erosion,
between Sumatra and Malaysia.
tsunamis, and cyclones by reducing wave
9. Bering Strait - 85 km wide passage
energy.
between Asia and North America.
12. Sundari tree (Heritiera fomes) dominates
10. Black Sea - Anoxic basin connected to
Sundarbans and gives the region its name.
Mediterranean via Turkish Straits.
13. Coral reefs are called "rainforests of the
11. Caspian Sea - World's largest inland
sea" due to their high biodiversity (25%
water body with oil and gas reserves.
marine species).
12. South China Sea - Disputed waters with
14. Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Mannar have
important shipping lanes.
India's major coral reef ecosystems.
13. Gulf of Aden - Connects Red Sea to
15. Both coral reefs and mangroves
Arabian Sea, piracy-affected zone.
are threatened by climate change,
14. English Channel - Narrow sea separating
pollution, and human activities like
UK from continental Europe.
coastal development.
15. Panama Canal - Artificial 82 km waterway
cutting across Central America.
16. Suez Canal - Artificial sea-level waterway BIOGEOGRAPHY
connecting Mediterranean to Red Sea. Ecosystems & Biomes
17. Baltic Sea - Northern Europe's brackish
inland sea with low salinity. 1. Ecosystem - A functional unit where living

18. Caribbean Sea - Tropical sea with world's organisms interact with their physical

second largest barrier reef. environment.

19. Andaman Sea - Marginal sea of Indian 2. Biome - Large-scale community of

Ocean east of Bay of Bengal. plants/animals adapted to specific climate

20. Bosphorus Strait - Divides Istanbul and conditions.

connects Black Sea to Marmara Sea. 3. Tropical Rainforest - Found near equator

21. Dardanelles Strait - Links Sea of with high rainfall (2000mm+) and

Marmara to Aegean Sea. biodiversity.

22. Babu el Mandeb - Connects Red Sea to 4. Deciduous Forest - Moderate climate

Gulf of Aden. biome with trees shedding leaves

23. Davis Strait - Separates Greenland from annually.

Canada's Baffin Island. 5. Grassland - Dominated by grasses, found

24. Torres Strait - Passage between Australia in both tropical (savanna) and temperate

and New Guinea. regions.

25. Palk Strait - Narrow channel between 6. Desert - Receives <250mm annual

India and Sri Lanka. rainfall, with specialized drought-resistant

species.
7. Taiga - World's largest terrestrial biome
with coniferous forests in cold climates.
8. Tundra - Treeless Arctic biome with
permafrost and low-growing vegetation.
9. Marine Ecosystem - Covers 71% of
Earth's surface with high salt
concentration.
10. Freshwater Ecosystem - Includes lakes,
rivers and wetlands with <1% salt content.
11. Estuary - Transition zone where rivers
meet oceans, mixing fresh and saltwater.
12. Food Chain - Linear sequence of energy
transfer from producers to consumers.
13. Food Web - Complex network of Equatorial Biome
interconnected food chains in an
1. The Equatorial Biome is found near
ecosystem.
the equator (0°-10° latitude) with year-
14. Producers - Autotrophs (plants/algae)
round warmth (25°C-30°C).
that convert solar energy into food.
2. It receives heavy rainfall (2000mm+
15. Consumers - Heterotrophs that obtain
annually) with no distinct dry season.
energy by eating other organisms.
3. Tropical Rainforests (Amazon, Congo,
16. Decomposers - Break down dead organic
Indonesia) dominate this biome.
matter (bacteria/fungi) recycling nutrients.
4. High biodiversity – home to 50% of
17. Energy Pyramid - Shows 90% energy loss
Earth’s plant and animal species.
at each trophic level.
5. Dense canopy structure with emergent,
18. Carbon Cycle - Movement of carbon
canopy, understory, and forest
through atmosphere, organisms and
floor layers.
Earth.
6. Evergreen trees dominate due to
19. Nitrogen Cycle - Conversion of nitrogen
constant growing conditions.
between atmospheric and usable forms.
7. Tall hardwood trees (mahogany, teak,
20. Phosphorus Cycle - Slow cycling of
ebony) are common.
phosphorus through rocks, soil and
8. Epiphytes (air plants like orchids) grow on
organisms.
trees to access sunlight.
21. Biodiversity - Variety of life at genetic,
9. Lianas (woody vines) climb trees to reach
species and ecosystem levels.
sunlight.
22. Ecological Succession - Gradual change
10. Buttress roots support tall trees in
in species composition over time.
shallow, nutrient-poor soils.
23. Keystone Species - Organism that
11. Red & yellow laterite soils are common
disproportionately impacts ecosystem
but nutrient-deficient due to leaching.
structure.
12. High decomposition rate due to warm,
24. Endemic Species - Found only in specific
moist conditions, recycling nutrients
geographic location.
quickly.
25. Biosphere Reserves - Protected areas for
13. Major fauna include jaguars, toucans,
conservation and sustainable
tree frogs, and insects like army ants.
development.
14. Deforestation (logging, agriculture) is the
biggest threat to this biome.
15. Important for global oxygen 12. Autumn foliage (color-changing leaves)
production & carbon storage ("Lungs of is a distinctive feature.
the Earth"). 13. Found in India in parts of the Himalayas
and Eastern Ghats.
14. More sunlight reaches the forest
floor compared to dense rainforests.
Deciduous Biome
15. Important for timber, tourism, and
1. Deciduous forests are found carbon sequestration.
in temperate zones (30°-50°
latitude) with four distinct seasons.
2. They experience moderate rainfall (750-
Coniferous Biome
1500mm annually) and warm
summers/cold winters. 1. Coniferous forests are found in cold

3. Trees shed leaves in autumn to conserve climates (50°-70° N latitude) like

water during winter (deciduous = "falling Canada, Siberia & Scandinavia.

off"). 2. Also called Taiga or Boreal Forest –

4. Dominant trees include oak, maple, the world’s largest terrestrial biome.

beech, and hickory. 3. Dominated by cone-bearing evergreen

5. Soil is fertile (brown forest soil) due to trees (pine, spruce, fir, cedar).

leaf litter decomposition. 4. Trees have needle-like leaves to reduce

6. Stratified layers: Canopy, understory, water loss in freezing winters.

shrub layer, and forest floor. 5. Winters are long/harsh (-30°C to -50°C),

7. Animals adapt to seasonal while summers are short/cool.

changes (hibernation, migration). 6. Low precipitation (300-900mm/year),

8. Common fauna: deer, foxes, squirrels, mostly as snow.

black bears, and migratory birds. 7. Thin, acidic podzol soil with slow

9. Eastern USA, Europe, and parts of decomposition due to cold.

China have major deciduous forests. 8. Adaptations: Trees have pyramid

10. Less biodiversity than rainforests but shapes to shed snow easily.

richer than boreal forests. 9. Animals include moose, reindeer,

11. Human impact: Logging, agriculture, and wolves, bears, and migratory birds.

urbanization threaten these forests. 10. Limited undergrowth due to poor

sunlight penetration and acidic soil.
11. Largest carbon sink among forests due 9. Ephemeral plants grow quickly after rare
to vast tree cover. rains, completing life cycles in weeks.
12. Logging for softwood (paper, timber) is 10. Kangaroo rats survive without drinking
a major economic activity. water, extracting moisture from seeds.
13. Found in Himalayas (India) at high 11. Sand dunes are shaped by wind, reaching
altitudes (e.g., Kashmir, Himachal). heights of 100+ meters.
14. Vulnerable to wildfires due to dry 12. Oases are fertile desert areas with
summers and resin-rich trees. groundwater access, supporting
15. Slow nutrient cycling because of cold settlements.
temperatures and low microbial activity. 13. High evaporation rates exceed rainfall,
causing dry conditions.
14. Human threats: Overgrazing,
deforestation, and unsustainable
Desert Biome
irrigation.
1. Deserts are arid regions with less than 15. Solar energy potential is high due to
250 mm annual rainfall and extreme clear skies and abundant sunlight.
temperatures.
2. Hot deserts (Sahara, Thar) have scorching
days (50°C+) and cold nights.
TUNDRA BIOME
3. Cold deserts (Gobi, Ladakh) have freezing
winters and mild summers. 1. Tundra is the coldest biome, found in
4. Soil is sandy/rocky with low organic the Arctic and high mountains (Alaska,
matter due to minimal vegetation. Siberia, Himalayas).
5. Plants like cacti have thick stems, waxy 2. Permafrost (permanently frozen subsoil)
coatings, and deep/spread roots to prevents deep root growth and water
conserve water. drainage.
6. Animals adapt via nocturnal 3. Extremely short summers (2-6°C)
habits (active at night) and water and long, harsh winters (-30°C to -50°C).
storage (camels). 4. Low precipitation (150-250 mm/year),
7. Thar Desert (India-Pakistan) is the most mostly as snow.
densely populated desert globally. 5. Treeless landscape with only low-
8. Ladakh is a cold high-altitude desert with growing plants (mosses, lichens, grasses,
sparse vegetation. dwarf shrubs).
6. Growing season lasts just 50-60 days, BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS
limiting plant diversity.
1. Biodiversity hotspots are regions
7. Animals adapt with thick fur (polar
with high species richness and extreme
bears, Arctic foxes), migration (caribou),
habitat loss (must have ≥1,500 endemic
or hibernation.
plants and ≤30% original vegetation).
8. Birds like snowy owls and insects
2. 34 global hotspots cover just 2.3% of
(mosquitoes) thrive briefly in summer.
Earth’s land but host >50% of world’s
9. Alpine tundra exists on high mountains
plant species and 42% of terrestrial
(e.g., Himalayas) below snowlines.
vertebrates.
10. Fragile ecosystem with slow recovery due
3. Himalayas – India’s major hotspot
to cold and short growing periods.
with endemic species like snow leopard,
11. Midnight sun (24-hour daylight in
red panda, and rhododendrons.
summer) and polar night (24-hour
4. Western Ghats & Sri Lanka – Home
darkness in winter).
to Nilgiri tahr, lion-tailed macaque,
12. Carbon sink: Stores large amounts of CO₂
and 3,000+ endemic plants.
in permafrost, now threatened by melting.
5. Indo-Burma (NE India) – Rich in orchids,
13. Indigenous communities (Inuit, Sami)
river dolphins, and hoolock gibbons.
rely on hunting (seals, reindeer) for
6. Sundaland (Andaman & Nicobar) –
survival.
Features coral reefs, dugongs, and
14. Climate change impact: Fastest-warming
Nicobar megapode.
biome, causing permafrost thaw and
7. Criteria for hotspots: High
habitat loss.
endemism + >70% habitat destruction.
15. No trees due to permafrost,
8. Madagascar – 90% of its wildlife (e.g.,
but biodiversity includes Arctic
lemurs) is found nowhere else.
wildflowers in summer.
9. Atlantic Forest (Brazil) – Only 7%
remains of its original cover.
10. Philippines – One of the most
threatened hotspots (93% forest loss).
11. Mediterranean Basin – High plant
diversity (25,000 species) but degraded
by agriculture.
12. Tropical Andes – Most biodiverse
hotspot with 1/6 of global plant species.
13. Mountains of Central Asia – Habitat 17. Conservation International identifies
for snow leopards and wild Bactrian and monitors these hotspots.
camels. 18. India has 4 hotspots: Himalayas, Western
14. New Caledonia (Pacific) – 80% of its Ghats, Indo-Burma, Sundaland.
plants are endemic, e.g., kauri trees. 19. Importance: Protect ecosystem
15. Eastern Afromontane – Home services, genetic resources, and cultural
to mountain gorillas and Ethiopian values.
wolves.
16. Threats: Deforestation, climate change,
poaching, and invasive species.