A) SOME TERMS RELATED TO MOTION

SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

Physical quantities are those which can be measured. These are broadly classified into two
categories: scalar quantities (scalars) and vector quantities (vectors).

Scalar quantities or scalars

Scalar quantities are physical quantities that are completely expressed by their magnitude
alone. For example, saying a mass is 5.0 kg is a complete description. To fully express a scalar
quantity, we need the unit and the numerical value. Pure numbers like π or e² are not
associated with any unit. Examples of scalar quantities include mass, length, time, distance,
density, volume, speed, temperature, potential energies, work, energy, power, pressure,
heat quantity, specific heat, charge, electric power, resistance, mechanical advantage,
frequency, angle, etc. Scalars follow simple arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. They are generally symbolized using English letters like m for
mass, t for time, and v for speed.

Vector quantities or vectors

Vector quantities require both magnitude and direction to be fully defined. For instance,
saying "displace a particle by 5 m" is incomplete unless a direction is mentioned, such as "5
meters towards east." A complete vector quantity includes the unit, numerical value, and
direction. The magnitude of a vector is its numerical value with the unit and is always
positive. A negative sign before a vector denotes opposite direction. Vector quantities follow
different algebra for operations and include examples like displacement, velocity,
acceleration, momentum, force, torque, impulse, weight, temperature gradient, electric
field, magnetic field, dipole moment, etc. Vectors are symbolized using bold letters or letters
with an arrow overhead, like v or v⃗\vec{v}v.

REST AND MOTION

In daily life, we observe motion in birds, cars, people, celestial bodies, and galaxies. Whether
a body is at rest or in motion is relative. A body is said to be at rest if it does not change its
position with respect to its immediate surroundings—for example, a stone on the ground. A
body is in motion if it changes its position relative to its surroundings, like a train leaving a
station. When the distance travelled by a body is much greater than its size, it can be
assumed to be a point particle. Motion along a straight path is called one-dimensional or
rectilinear motion, such as a train moving on a straight track or a stone falling vertically. This
motion is typically represented by a straight line parallel to the X-axis, with the body’s
position at any time denoted by its x-coordinate.
DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT
When a body moves from point A to point B, the distance is the total path length, whereas
the displacement is the straight line distance between A and B in a specific direction.

Distance is defined as the total length of the path through which a body moves. It depends
on the actual path taken and is a scalar quantity, represented by the letter S. Its SI unit is
metre (m), and CGS unit is centimetre (cm).

Displacement is the shortest straight line distance between the initial and final position of a
body, with direction. It is a vector quantity, represented symbolically by S⃗\vec{S}S. A
displacement is shown as a straight line with an arrow, where the arrow tip indicates
direction, and the length indicates magnitude. Units used are the same as distance: metre
(SI) and centimetre (CGS).

Distinction between distance and displacement

Displacement is always equal to or less than distance, never greater. If motion is in a straight
line, displacement equals distance; if in a curved path, it is less. Distance depends on the
path, displacement does not. Distance is a scalar, always positive; displacement is a vector
and can be positive, negative, or zero. Displacement can be zero while distance is non-zero—
for example, when a body returns to the starting point. In such a case, displacement is zero,
but the distance equals the total path travelled. E.g., throwing a body up and it returning to
the ground: displacement = 0, distance = 2h. In one round of circular motion: displacement =
0, distance = 2πr.

2.4 SPEED AND VELOCITY

Speed indicates how fast a body is moving, while velocity also indicates the direction of the
motion.

Speed is the rate of change of distance with time. It is a scalar quantity, denoted by u or v,
and is calculated using the formula v=Stv = \frac{S}{t}v=tS. Its SI unit is m/s and CGS unit is
cm/s.

Uniform speed
A body has uniform speed if it covers equal distances in equal intervals of time. For such
motion, distance travelled S = v × t. An example is a ball moving on a frictionless surface.

Non-uniform or variable speed

If a body covers unequal distances in equal time intervals, its speed is non-uniform or
variable. Examples include a ball on a rough surface or a car in traffic. In such cases, we use
terms like instantaneous speed and average speed.

Instantaneous speed
It is the speed of a body at a specific instant when the speed is changing continuously.
Measured as distance travelled in a very short interval divided by the time interval. A
vehicle’s speedometer shows instantaneous speed.
Average speed
Average speed is the total distance travelled divided by the total time taken. In uniform
motion, average and instantaneous speeds are the same.

Velocity
Velocity is the displacement per unit time in a given direction. It is a vector quantity and
symbolized as u⃗\vec{u}u or v⃗\vec{v}v. Velocity includes both magnitude and direction. Two
bodies have the same velocity if they have equal speed and same direction. SI unit is m/s
and CGS unit is cm/s.

Uniform velocity
When a body travels equal distances in a fixed direction in equal intervals of time, it has
uniform velocity. An example is raindrops falling with terminal velocity. Displacement =
velocity × time.

Non-uniform or variable velocity

Velocity varies when its magnitude, direction, or both change. For example, a freely falling
body changes speed, and a body in circular motion changes direction. For such cases, we
define instantaneous and average velocity.

Instantaneous velocity
It is the velocity of a body at a specific instant when the velocity is changing. It is calculated
by the displacement in a very short time divided by that time.

Average velocity
Average velocity is defined as the total displacement divided by the total time taken during
the journey.

Distinction between speed and velocity

Speed is a scalar quantity indicating how fast something moves; velocity is a vector that also
tells the direction. Speed is always positive, while velocity can be positive, negative, or zero.
In straight-line motion, magnitude of velocity equals speed. In circular motion, average
speed after one round is non-zero (2πr/T), but average velocity is zero because the
displacement is zero.

ACCELERATION AND RETARDATION

Most bodies do not move with constant velocity. A change in velocity over time leads to
accelerated or decelerated motion. If velocity increases, motion is accelerated; if it
decreases, it is retarded (negative acceleration).

Acceleration
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity with time. Numerically, it is the
change in velocity per second, given by the formula a=v−uta = \frac{v - u}{t}a=tv−u, or
v=u+atv = u + atv=u+at. It is a vector quantity with SI unit m/s² and CGS unit cm/s². If final
velocity > initial, acceleration is positive; if less, it's negative. The sign of acceleration shows
whether the body is speeding up or slowing down. However, it doesn’t indicate the direction
of motion—velocity does.

Uniform acceleration
Acceleration is uniform when equal changes in velocity occur in equal time intervals. A
common example is a body falling under gravity.

Variable acceleration
When velocity changes unevenly in equal time intervals, the acceleration is variable, such as
a vehicle on a hilly road.

Acceleration due to gravity

A freely falling body accelerates due to Earth's gravitational pull. This is called acceleration
due to gravity, denoted by g. When a body falls down, it gains velocity, so acceleration is +g.
When it moves upward, velocity decreases, so acceleration is −g (retardation). The average
value of g is 9.8 m/s² (or approximately 10 m/s²). However, it varies slightly from place to
place—maximum at poles, minimum at the equator, and decreases with height or depth.
Importantly, the value of g does not depend on the body’s mass—different masses fall at the
same rate in a vacuum.

B) GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF LINEAR MOTION

INTRODUCTION
When the motion of an object is represented on a graph, it helps in understanding the
motion easily. Graphs provide a clear visual understanding of the relationship between
distance, speed, velocity, and acceleration with respect to time. The X-axis generally
represents time, while the Y-axis represents other quantities like distance or velocity. By
studying the shape of the graph, we can interpret various aspects of motion.

Distance-time graph
A distance-time graph shows how the distance travelled by a body changes with time. Time
is plotted along the X-axis and distance along the Y-axis. The slope of the graph (i.e., tangent
of the angle made with the X-axis) gives the speed of the body.

(a) Uniform motion

In uniform motion, the body covers equal distances in equal intervals of time. The distance-
time graph for such motion is a straight line inclined to the time axis. This indicates constant
speed. The steeper the line, the higher the speed. If the graph is a straight line parallel to the
time axis, it shows that the body is at rest.

(b) Non-uniform motion

In non-uniform motion, the distance travelled is not the same in equal time intervals. The
graph is a curved line, indicating varying speed. The curvature shows acceleration or
deceleration. A curve bending upwards means increasing speed (acceleration), while one
bending downwards indicates decreasing speed (retardation).

Velocity-time graph
A velocity-time graph shows how velocity changes with time. Time is plotted along the X-
axis, and velocity along the Y-axis. The slope of the graph gives acceleration, while the area
under the graph gives the distance (or displacement) travelled.

(a) Uniform acceleration

In case of uniform acceleration, the velocity-time graph is a straight line inclined to the time
axis. The slope of the line represents acceleration. A positive slope indicates acceleration,
while a negative slope indicates retardation.

(b) Non-uniform acceleration

When the acceleration is not constant, the velocity-time graph is a curved line. The
curvature tells us whether the body is speeding up or slowing down, and whether
acceleration is increasing or decreasing.

(c) Uniform velocity (zero acceleration)

If a body moves with uniform velocity, the velocity-time graph is a straight line parallel to the
time axis. This means velocity remains constant and acceleration is zero. The area under the
line gives the total displacement or distance covered.

C) EQUATIONS OF MOTION

EQUATIONS OF MOTION
Equations of motion describe the relationship between displacement, velocity, acceleration,
and time for a body moving with uniform acceleration. These equations are very useful in
solving problems related to motion. The three main equations of motion are:

First Equation of Motion

The first equation of motion is:
v = u + at
where:

 v = final velocity

 u = initial velocity

 a = acceleration

 t = time taken

This equation states that the final velocity of a body is equal to the initial velocity plus the
product of acceleration and time. It is derived using the concept of acceleration as the rate
of change of velocity.
Second Equation of Motion
The second equation of motion is:
s = ut + ½at²
where:

 s = displacement

 u = initial velocity

 a = acceleration

 t = time taken

This equation helps to find the displacement of a body under uniform acceleration. It states
that the total displacement is the sum of the displacement due to uniform motion (ut) and
the displacement due to acceleration (½at²).

Third Equation of Motion

The third equation of motion is:
v² = u² + 2as
where:

 v = final velocity

 u = initial velocity

 a = acceleration

 s = displacement

This equation relates the square of the final velocity with the square of the initial velocity,
acceleration, and displacement. It is useful when time is not given and needs to be
eliminated from the calculation.