ENGR.

PRINCESS RODRIGUEZ
LIGHT SOURCES
In a broader sense the different methods of producing light by electricity may be divided
into the following three groups:
1. By Temperature Incandescence - In this method, an electric current is passed
through a filament of thin wire placed in a vacuum or inert gas. The current
generates enough heat to raise the temperature of the filament to luminosity.
Example: Incandescent tungsten filament lamps; since their output depends on
the temperature of their filaments, they are known as ‘temperature radiators’

Incandescent or filament type lamp consist of a glass globe completely evacuated

and a fine wire known as filament within it. The glass globe is evacuated to prevent
the oxidation and convection currents of the filament and also to prevent the
temperature being lowered by radiation.
LIGHT SOURCES
The ideal material for the filament of incandescent lamps in one which the following
properties:
High melting point
Low Vapor pressure
High resistivity
Low Temperature coefficient
Ductility
Sufficient mechanical strength to withstand vibrations during use

The materials commonly used for making filaments of incandescent lamps are carbon,
tantalum, and tungsten
LIGHT SOURCES
2. By establishing an arc between two carbon electrodes. - In this method, an electric
current is passed through a filament of thin wire placed in a vacuum or inert gas. The
current generates enough heat to raise the temperature of the filament to luminosity.

Arc Lamps. In an arc lamp, electric current is made to flow through two electrodes in
contact with each other which are drawn apart. The result is an arc being struck. The arc
maintains the current and is very efficient source of light.
LIGHT SOURCES
Various forms of arc lamps are:
Carbon arc lamp
Flame arc lamp
Magnetic arc lamp

These lamps are used in search lights,

projection lamps and other special
purpose lamps like those in flash
cameras.
LIGHT SOURCES
2. Discharge Lamp. - In all discharge lamps, an electric current is passed through a gas
or vapor which renders it luminous. In this process of producing light by gaseous
conduction, the most commonly used elements are neon, mercury and sodium vapors.

In these lamps, gas or vapor is made luminous by electric discharge through them. The
color and intensity of light i.e., candle power emitted depends on the nature of the gas
or vapor.
LIGHT SOURCES
These lamps are luminescent lamps and do not depend on the temperature for higher
efficiencies. In this respect, they differ radically from incandescent lamps whose
efficiency is dependent on temperature. The colors of light produced depends on the
nature of gas or vapor.
–Neon discharge fields orange-red light
–Mercury vapor light is always bluish
–Sodium vapor light is yellow-orange

Types of Discharge Lamps:

1. Type 1. Those lamps in which color of light is the same as produced by the discharge
through the gas or vapor
Example. Mercury vapor lamp, sodium vapor lamp, neon gas lamp
LIGHT SOURCES
2. Type 2. Those lamps which use the phenomenon of fluorescence; these are known as
fluorescent lamp. In these lamps, the discharge through the vapor produces ultra-violet
waves which cause fluorescence in certain materials called phosphor. The inside of the
fluorescent lamp is coated with phosphor which absorbs invisible ultra-violet rays and
radiate visible light.
Example. Mercury vapor tube, fluorescent lamp

In general, the discharge lamps are superior to metal filament lamps, However, they
have the following disadvantages:
High initial cost
Poor power factor
Starting is somewhat difficult which requires starters or transformer in some cases
LIGHT SOURCES
Time is needed to attain full brilliancy
Since these lamps have negative resistance characteristics ballast are necessary to
stabilize the arc
The flicker (caused due to the fluctuation of light output at twice the supply
frequency) caused stroboscopic effect
They are suitable only for a particular position.
REQUIREMENTS OF
GOOD LIGHTING
Good lighting is one which provides visual comfort. Visual comfort enhances the
efficiency of the workman.

Usually, good lighting is often confused with high illumination levels. The factor which
are to consider are minimum glare and brightness-contrast.

Light sources should be properly shielded by luminaires and mounted above the normal
line of sight. Reflected glare is to be avoided, by mounting luminaires with respect to
equipment, so that the reflected glare is directed away from the observer.
LIGHTING SCHEMES
Diffusing and Reflecting Surfaces
When light falls on polished metallic surfaces or silvered surfaces, the most of it is
reflected back according to the law of reflection, the angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection. Only a small portion of the incident light is absorbed and there is
always the image of the source. Such reflection is known as a specular reflection
LIGHTING SCHEMES
If the light is incident on course surfaces like paper, frosted glass, painted ceiling, etc.,
then is is scattered in all directions, hence no image of the source is formed. Such
reflection of light is called diffuse reflection. A perfect diffuser is one that scatters light
uniformly in all directions and hence appears equally bright from whatever direction it is
viewed.

The ratio of reflected light energy to the incident light energy is known as reflection
factor.
TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEMES
A good lighting schemes results in an attractive and commanding presence of objects
and enhances the architectural style of the interior of a building. Due to the comfortable
illumination, people would be in a position to do their work properly, accurately and
easily.

Different lighting schemes may be classified as follows:

1. Direct Lighting.
It is most commonly used type of lighting scheme.
In this system more than 90% of total light flux is made
to fall on working plane with the help of deep reflectors.
Direct lighting, though most efficient, is liable to cause
glare and hard shadows.
It is mainly used for industrial and general outdoor
lighting.
TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEMES
2. Semi-direct Lighting
In the system 60%to 90% of the total light flux is made
to fall downwards directly with the help of semi-direct
reflectors, remaining light is to be used to illuminate
the ceiling and walls.
Such a system is best suited to rooms with high
ceilings where a high level of uniformly distributed
illumination is desirable.
Glare in such units is avoided by using diffusing
globes which not only improve the brightness
towards the eye level but improve the efficiency of
the system with reference to the working plane.
TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEMES
3. Semi-indirect Lighting
In the system 60%to 90% of the total light flux is made to fall
downwards directly with the help of semi-direct reflectors.
It is mainly used for indoor light decoration purposes
4. Indirect Lighting
In this system more than 90% of total light flux thrown upwards
to ceiling for diffuses reflection by using inverted or bowl
reflectors. In such a system the system the ceiling acts as the
light source, and glare is reduced to minimum.
The system provides a shadowless illumination which is very
useful for drawing offices, composing rooms and in workshops
especially where large machines and other obstructions would
cast and troublesome shadows if directed lighting were used.
TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEMES
Design of Lighting Scheme
3. General Diffusing Lighting
The good lighting scheme should possess the
In this lighting system, lamps
following characteristics:
made of diffusing glass are used
1. It should provide adequate illumination.
which give nearly equal
2. It should provide light distribution all over the
illumination in all directions.
working plane as uniform as possible.
3. It should avoid glare and hard shadows as far as
possible.
4. It should provide light of suitable color.
TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEMES
Factors to be considered for designing the light scheme:
1. Intensity of illumination. The intensity of illumination required for different types of work
differ. The recommended levels of illumination for various occupancies shown in the table
below.
TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEMES
2. Selection of luminaires. A luminaire (light fitting) is the apparatus which distributes, filters
or transforms the light given by a lamp or lamps. It included all the times necessary for fixing
and protecting these lamps and for connecting them to the supply circuit.

The choice of lamps for different types of occupancies differs.

Tubular fluorescent lamps or tungsten filament lamps can be used when lighting is to be
done in small premises.
In case of large premises, the lighting can be carried out by using high intensity sources
such as mercury or sodium discharge lamps.

The linear output of the lamps can also be modified by using a suitable reflectors and diffusers.
Depending upon the type of illumination required (direct, indirect, diffusers etc.) the type of
reflector is decided.
TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEMES
4. Mounting height and spacing of fittings. 1. The term “general lighting” implies that the
illumination at working level should not vary substantially throughout the room. It is apparent
that the fitting for general lighting should be so placed that the illumination received from
each fitting overlaps and builds up that of its neighbors. The distance of a light source from
the wall should be equal to one half the distance between two adjacent light sources. Also,
distance between lighting fittings should not exceed 1.5 times the mounting height.

5. Conditions of use. Conditions of use of light fittings vary with different types of installations.
Sust and dirt of the surroundings may get deposited in the light fittings and hence deteriorate
the lamp efficiency. If regular periodic cleaning is adopted and assuming good atmospheric
conditions the value of “maintenance factor” may be taken as 0.8. But for dusty and dirty
atmosphere, the factor may be as low as 0.4. Another term “depreciation factor” is also used
which is the reciprocal of the maintenance factor