MATHEMATICS (2)

DR. Heba Nagaty

1
Matrix
A set of 𝑚 × 𝑛 numbers (real or complex), arranged in a
rectangular formation (array or table) having 𝑚 rows and 𝑛
columns and enclosed by a square bracket [ ] is called 𝑚 × 𝑛
matrix.
A 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix is expressed as
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎2𝑛
𝐴 = [ 21 22 ⋱ ]
⋯ ⋯ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛
 Note that

𝑎𝑖𝑗 is the element in the 𝑖𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗𝑡ℎ column of the matrix
.Thus the matrix A is sometimes denoted by simplified form as
[𝑎𝑖𝑗 ].

Matrices are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C etc.

and its elements by small letters a, b, c etc.

Order of a Matrix
The order or dimension of a matrix is the ordered pair having
as first component the number of rows and as second component
the number of columns in the matrix.
In general if 𝑚 are rows and 𝑛 are columns of a matrix, then
its order is (𝑚 × 𝑛).
Examples
1 2 3
[ ] is matrix of order (2 × 3).
4 5 6

2
 1
[2] is matrix of order (3 × 1).
3
2 0 3 6
[2 1 7 5] is matrix of order (4 × 4).
4 2 4 2
0 3 1 0
Some types of matrices
1. Row Matrix and Column Matrix:
A matrix consisting of a single row is called a row matrix
whereas a matrix having single column is called a column
matrix.
𝑎
[𝑏 ], [𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑒]
𝑐
2. Null or Zero Matrix
A matrix in which each element is 0 is called a Null or Zero
matrix. Zero matrices are generally denoted by the symbol O.
0 0
O=[ ]
0 0
3. Square matrix
A matrix 𝐴 having same numbers of rows and columns is called
a square matrix. i.e. 𝑚 = 𝑛
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑎11 𝑎12
[𝑎 𝑎22 ] , [𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ]
21
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33

3
Particular cases of a square matrix
(a) Diagonal matrix:
A square matrix in which all elements are zero except those in
the main or principal diagonal is called a diagonal matrix.
𝑎11 0 0
𝑎 0
[ 11 ], [ 0 𝑎22 0 ]
0 𝑎22
0 0 𝑎33
(b) Scalar Matrix
A diagonal matrix, in which all the diagonal elements are same,
is called a scalar matrix.
𝑘 0 0
𝑥 0
[ ], [0 𝑘 0]
0 𝑥
0 0 𝑘
(c) Identity Matrix or Unit matrix
A scalar matrix in which each diagonal element is 1(unity) is
called a unit matrix. An identity matrix of order 𝑛 is denoted by
𝐼𝑛 .
1 0 0
1 0
𝐼2 = [ ] and 𝐼3 = [0 1 0]
0 1
0 0 1
4. Equal Matrices
Two matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be equal if and only if they
have the same order and each element of matrix 𝐴 is equal to the
corresponding element of matrix 𝐵.
4
2 1 2−1
𝐴=[ ] and 𝐵 = [ 2 ] →𝐴=𝐵
3 0 √9 0

4
 Example 1
Find the values of 𝑥 , 𝑦 , 𝑧 and 𝑎 which satisfy the matrix
equation
𝑥+3 2𝑦 + 𝑥 0 −7
[ ]=[ ]
𝑧−1 4𝑎 − 6 3 2𝑎
Solution
By the definition of equality of matrices, we have
𝑥 + 3 = 0 → 𝑥 = −3
2𝑦 + 𝑥 = −7 → 𝑦 = −2
𝑧−1=3→𝑧=4
4𝑎 − 6 = 2𝑎 → 𝑎 = 3

Operations on Matrices
1. Multiplication by a scalar
𝑎 𝑏 𝑘𝑎 𝑘𝑏
If 𝐴 = [ ] → 𝑘𝐴 = [ ]
𝑐 𝑑 𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑑
Example 2
4 8 4𝑘 8𝑘
If 𝐴 = [ ] → 𝑘𝐴 = [ ]
−3 2 −3𝑘 2𝑘
2. Addition and Subtraction of Matrices
𝑎 𝑏1 𝑎 𝑏2
If 𝐴 = [ 1 ] and 𝐵 = [ 2 ], then
𝑐1 𝑑1 𝑐2 𝑑2
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑏1 + 𝑏2
 𝐴+𝐵 =[ ]
𝑐1 + 𝑐2 𝑑1 + 𝑑2
𝑎1 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 − 𝑏2
 𝐴−𝐵 =[ ]
𝑐1 − 𝑐2 𝑑1 − 𝑑2

5
 Example 3
3 1 1 0
If 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ ], then
2 1 −1 3
3+1 1+0 4 1
 𝐴+𝐵 =[ ]=[ ]
2 + (−1) 1 + 3 1 4
3−1 1−0 2 1
 𝐴−𝐵 =[ ]=[ ]
2 − (−1) 1 − 3 3 −2

3. Product of Matrix
The product of matrices is exists if the number of the column of
the first matrix equal the number of the rows of the second
matrix.
𝑎 𝑑
𝑥 𝑦
If 𝐴 = [𝑏 𝑒] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [ ] , then
𝑟 𝑡 𝑛×𝑘
𝑐 𝑓 𝑚×𝑛

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑑𝑟 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑑𝑡
𝐴. 𝐵 = [ 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑒𝑡 ]
𝑐𝑥 + 𝑓𝑟 𝑐𝑦 + 𝑓𝑡 𝑚×𝑘

Example 4
2 −1
1 0
If 𝐴 = [3 0] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = [ ] , then
−4 2 2×2
4 5 3×2
(2)(1) + (−1)(−4) (2)(0) + (−1)(2)
𝐴. 𝐵 = [ (3)(1) + (0)(−4) (3)(0) + (0)(2) ]
(4)(1) + (5)(−4) (4)(0) + (5)(2) 3×2

6 −2
∴ 𝐴. 𝐵 = [ 3 0]
−16 10 3×2

6
 Note that
1- 𝐵. 𝐴 does not exist because the number of the column of 𝐵
not equal the number of the rows of 𝐴.
2- 𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝐴 if 𝐴 and 𝐵 are commute to each other.
 Properties of basic matrix operations

Each of the following statements is valid for any matrices A,

B and C which the indicated operations are defined and for
any scalar 𝛼 :

i. 𝐴+𝐵 =𝐵+𝐴 additive commutativity

ii. 𝐴 + (𝐵 + 𝐶 ) = (𝐴 + 𝐵) + 𝐶 additive associativity
iii. 𝐴. (𝐵. 𝐶 ) = (𝐴. 𝐵). 𝐶 multiplicative associativity
iv. 𝐴. (𝐵 + 𝐶 ) = 𝐴. 𝐵 + 𝐴. 𝐶
v. 𝛼 (𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝛼𝐴 + 𝛼𝐵 distributivity

7
Exercises I

1- Write the following matrices in tabular form:

a) 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ], where 𝑖 = 1,2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗 = 1,2,3
b) 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ], where 𝑖 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗 = 1,2,3,4
2- Solve each of the following matrix equations:
3
−1 5 1
a) 𝑋 + [ ]=[ ]
22 −3 1
3 −1
b) 𝑋 + 2𝐼 = [ ]
1 2
3- Find the product of the following matrices
1 −1
3 −11
a) [ ] . [0 2]
0 −1
2
1 0
1
b) [3 −2 2]. [ 2 ]
−2
2 −2 −1 1 2 1
c) [1 1 −2] . [5 0 2]
1 0 −1 3 1 7

8
 Determinant
The determinant of a matrix is a scalar (number), obtained from
the elements of a matrix by specified operations, which is
characteristic of the matrix.
The determinants are defined only for square matrices. It is
denoted by 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝐴 or |𝐴| for a square matrix 𝐴.
The determinant of 𝟐 × 𝟐 matrix
𝑎11 𝑎12
𝐴 = [𝑎 𝑎22 ]
21
𝑎11 𝑎12
is given by 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = |𝐴| =|𝑎 𝑎22 | = 𝑎11 𝑎22 − 𝑎12 𝑎21
21

Example 5
3 4
| | = (3)(6) − (−5)(4) = 18 + 20 = 38
−5 6
The determinant of 𝟑 × 𝟑 matrix
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝐴 = [𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ]
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
is given by det 𝐴 = |𝐴| = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22
= 𝑎11 |𝑎 𝑎33 | − 𝑎 |
12 𝑎 𝑎33 | + 𝑎 |
13 𝑎 𝑎32 |
32 31 31

Example 6
2 1 −2
2 2 3 2 3 2
|3 2 2 | = 2| | − 1| | + (−2) | |
4 3 5 3 5 4
5 4 3
= 2[6 − 8] − [9 − 10] − 2[12 − 10] = −7

9
 Example 7
3 2 1
If 𝐴 = [0 1 −2]
1 3 4
Find 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝐴 by expansion about (a) the first row (b) the first
column.
Solution
3 2 1
1 −2 0 −2 0 1
|𝐴| = |0 1 −2| = 3 | | − 2| | + (1) | |
3 4 1 4 1 3
1 3 4
= 3[4 − (3)(−2)] − 2[0 − (1)(−2)] + 1[0 − 1]
= 30 − 4 − 1 = 25
(b)
3 2 1
1 −2 2 1 2 1
|𝐴| = |0 1 −2| = 3 | | − 0| | + (1) | |
3 4 3 4 1 −2
1 3 4
= 3[4 − (3)(−2)] − 0[8 − 3] + 1[(2)(−2) − 1]
= 30 − 0 − 5 = 25
Example 8
2 0 0
If 𝐴 = [0 −5 0]
0 0 3
Find 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝐴
Solution
−5 0 0 0 0 −5
𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = 2 | | − 0| | + 0| |
0 3 0 3 0 0
= 2(−5)(3) − 0 + 0 = −30, which is the product of diagonal
elements.
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Special Matrices

1. Transpose of a Matrix

If A = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix, then the matrix of order 𝑛 × 𝑚

obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of A is called
the transpose of A. It is denoted 𝐴 𝑡 .

Example 9

1 2 3 1 0 −1
𝑡
If 𝐴 = [ 0 5 4], then 𝐴 = [2 5 2]
−1 2 1 3 4 1

2. Symmetric Matrix:

A square matrix 𝐴 is called symmetric if 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑡 .

3. Skew Symmetric Matrix:

A square matrix 𝐴 is called symmetric if 𝐴 = −𝐴𝑡 .

4. Singular and Non-singular Matrices:

A square matrix 𝐴 is called singular if |𝐴| = 0 and is non-

singular if |𝐴| ≠ 0.

Example 10
𝑘−2 1
Find the value of 𝑘 if 𝐴 = [ ] is singular
5 𝑘+2
Solution
𝑘−2 1
Since 𝐴 is singular so | |=0
5 𝑘+2

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 (𝑘 − 2)(𝑘 + 2) − 5 = 0

𝑘2 − 4 − 5 = 0
𝑘2 − 9 = 0
𝑘 = ±3
5. Adjoint of a Matrix

Adjoint of square matrix A = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is obtained by replacing each

𝑡
element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 by its corresponding cofactor 𝑐𝑖𝑗 , then (𝑐𝑖𝑗 ) is
called the adjoint of 𝐴. It is written as adj. 𝐴 .
i) Adjoint of a 𝟐 × 𝟐 Matrix

For example Remember

+ −
𝑎 𝑏 [ ]
If = [ ] , then − +
𝑐 𝑑
𝒂 𝑏
𝑐11 = [ ]=𝑑
𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝒃
𝑐12 = [ ] = −𝑐
𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏
𝑐21 = [ ] = −𝑏
𝒄 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏
𝑐22 = [ ]=𝑎
𝑐 𝒅
𝑑 −𝑐
∴𝐶=[ ]
−𝑏 𝑎
𝑑 −𝑐 𝑡 𝑑 −𝑏
adj. 𝐴 = ([ ]) = [ ]
−𝑏 𝑎 −𝑐 𝑎

12
ii) Adjoint of a 𝟑 × 𝟑 Matrix
Remember
1 0 −1
If 𝐴 = [1 3 1 ], + − +
0 1 2 [− + −]
𝟏 0 −1 + − +
3 1
𝑐11 = [1 3 1 ] = +| | = (6 − 1) = 5
1 2
0 1 2
1 𝟎 −1
1 1
𝑐12 = [1 3 1 ] = −| | = (2 − 0) = −2
0 2
0 1 2
1 0 −𝟏
1 3
𝑐13 = [1 3 1 ] = +| | = (1 − 0) = 1
0 1
0 1 2
1 0 −1
0 −1
𝑐21 = [𝟏 3 1 ] = −| | = −(0 − (−1)) = −1
1 2
0 1 2
1 0 −1
1 −1
𝑐22 = [1 𝟑 1 ] = +| | = (2 − 0) = 2
0 2
0 1 2
1 0 −1
1 0
𝑐23 = [1 3 𝟏 ] = −| | = −(1 − 0) = −1
0 1
0 1 2
1 0 −1
0 −1
𝑐31 = [1 3 1 ] = +| | = (0 − (−3)) = 3
3 1
𝟎 1 2
1 0 −1
1 −1
𝑐32 = [1 3 1 ] = −| | = −(1 − (−1)) = −2
1 1
0 𝟏 2
1 0 −1
1 0
𝑐33 = [1 3 1 ] = +| | = (3 − 0) = 3
1 3
0 1 𝟐

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 5 −2 1
∴ 𝐶 = [−1 2 −1]
3 −2 3
5 −2 1 𝑡 5 −1 3
adj. 𝐴 = ([−1 2 −1]) = [−2 2 −2]
3 −2 3 1 −1 3
6. Inverse of a Matrix:

1
If 𝐴 is a non-singular square matrix, then 𝐴−1 = |𝐴| adj. 𝐴

Example 11
3 4
Find the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = [ ]
1 2
Solution

|𝐴| = |3 4
|=6−4=2≠0
1 2
Hence solution exists.
2 −1 2 −4
𝐶=[ ] → 𝑎𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = [ ]
−4 3 −1 3
1 2 −4
∴ 𝐴−1 = [ ]
2 −1 3

Note

𝐴−1 . 𝐴 = 𝐴. 𝐴−1 = 𝐼

14
 Example 12
0 −2 −3
Find the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = [ 1 3 3]
−1 −2 −2
Solution
0 −2 −3
|𝐴| = | 1 3 3|
−1 −2 −2
= 0 − (−2)(−2 + 3) + (−3)(−2 + 3) = 2 − 3 = −1 ≠ 0
Hence solution exists.
0 −1 1
𝐶 = [2 −3 2]
3 −3 2
0 2 3
𝑎𝑑𝑗. 𝐴 = [−1 −3 −3]
1 2 2
0 2 3 0 −2 −3
−1
∴𝐴 = − [−1 −3 −3] = [ 1 3 3]
1 2 2 −1 −2 −2

15
Exercises II
1. Find the value of the following determinants
2 −3
a) | |
1 −4

sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
b) | |
cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥

2 0 0
c) |−1 3 0|
−2 5 3

𝑎 𝑑 𝑥 𝑏 𝑒 𝑦
2. If |𝑏 𝑒 𝑦| = 20, then |𝑎 𝑑 𝑥 | = ⋯.
𝑐 𝑓 𝑧 𝑐 𝑓 𝑧

3. Find the solution of the equation;

𝑥 1 2
|0 𝑥 3| − 8 = 0
0 0 𝑥

4. Find the value of 𝑥 if

0 −1 𝑥
|𝑥 4 3| = 10
2 1 2
5. Find the inverse if it exists, of the following matrices
1 3
a) [ ]
2 −1
1 2 3
b) [−1 0 4]
0 2 2

16
Overview
Up to this point in calculus, we have focused on the derivative
and integral of a function. Now we introduce a third key topic
of interest in the analysis and computation of functions, called
infinite series. Such series give us precise ways to express
many numbers and functions, both familiar and new, as
arithmetic sums with infinitely many terms.
Often scientists and engineers simplify a problem by replacing
a function with an approximation using the first few terms of a
series that expresses it. One method represents a known
differentiable function ƒ(x) as an infinite series in powers of x,
so it looks like a “polynomial with infinitely many terms,”
Sequences

A sequence is a list of numbers in a given order.

𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … … , 𝑎𝑛 , ….

Each of 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 and so on represents a number. These are the

terms of the sequence.
The integer 𝑛 is called the index of 𝑎𝑛 .
For example, the sequence
2,4,6,8,10, … ,2𝑛, …
The first term 𝑎1 = 2
The second term 𝑎2 = 4

17
 Example
Write down the first five terms of this sequence.
𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛 + 5, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …
Solution
8,11,14,17,20
Try to solve
Write down the first five terms of the sequence given by
(−1)𝑛+1
𝑎𝑛 =
𝑛

The sequence can be described by

1. writing rules that specify their terms
𝑎𝑛 = √𝑛
2. listing terms

{ 𝑎𝑛 } = {√1, √2, √3, … , √𝑛, … }

3. using its rule

∞
{ 𝑎𝑛 } = {√𝑛}
𝑛=1

The nth term in Addition 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑑(𝑛 − 1)

The nth term in Multiplication 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 × 𝑚𝑛−1
m multiplication number, d difference number

18
 Examples Find the nth term of the following sequences

Sequences Solution
1- (𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟔, 𝟖, … . ) 𝑎𝑛 = 2 + 2(𝑛 − 1) = 2𝑛
2- (𝟓, 𝟏𝟎, 𝟏𝟓, … . ) 𝑎𝑛 = 5 + 5(𝑛 − 1) = 5𝑛
3- (𝟓, 𝟏𝟓, 𝟐𝟓, … . ) 𝑎𝑛 = 5 + 10(𝑛 − 1) = 10𝑛 − 5
4-
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
( , , ,….) 1 1
𝟑 𝟓 𝟕 𝑎𝑛 = =
3 + 2(𝑛 − 1) 1 + 2𝑛
5-
𝟑 𝟕 𝟏𝟏
( , , ,….) 3 + 4(𝑛 − 1) 4𝑛 − 1
𝟓 𝟒 𝟑 𝑎𝑛 = =
5 − 1(𝑛 − 1) 6−𝑛
6- (𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟗, … . ) 𝑎𝑛 = 1 × 3𝑛−1 = 3𝑛−1
7- (𝟖, 𝟏𝟔, 𝟑𝟐, … . ) 𝑎𝑛 = 8 × 2𝑛−1 = 2𝑛+2
8- (𝟑𝟐, 𝟏𝟔, 𝟖, … . ) 1
𝑎𝑛 = 32 × ( )𝑛−1 = 25−𝑛+1 = 2−𝑛+6
2
𝑛
9- (−𝟑, 𝟓, −𝟕, … . ) 𝑎𝑛 = (−1) (1 + 2𝑛)
10- (𝟑, −𝟓, 𝟕, −𝟗, … . ) 𝑎𝑛 = (−1)𝑛+1 (1 + 2𝑛)
Convergence and Divergence
Sometimes the numbers in a sequence approach a single value
as the index 𝑛 increases. Then the sequence is convergence.
On the other hand, sequences like{1, −1,1, … , (−1)𝑛 , … } never
converging to a single value. Then the sequence is divergence.

Calculating Limits of Sequences

Theorem
Let { 𝑎𝑛 } and { 𝑏𝑛 } be sequences of real numbers, and let 𝐴 and
𝐵 be real numbers. The following rules hold if lim 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐴 and
𝑛→∞
lim 𝑏𝑛 = 𝐵.
𝑛→∞

1. Sum Rule: lim ( 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 ) = 𝐴 + 𝐵

𝑛→∞
2. Difference Rule: lim ( 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑏𝑛 ) = 𝐴 − 𝐵
𝑛→∞
lim (𝑘. 𝑏𝑛 ) = 𝑘. 𝐵
3. Constant Multiple Rule: 𝑛→∞

19
 4. Product Rule: lim ( 𝑎𝑛 . 𝑏𝑛 ) = 𝐴. 𝐵
𝑛→∞
5. Quotient Rule 𝑎𝑛 𝐴
lim ( ) = , 𝐵 ≠ 0
𝑛→∞ 𝑏𝑛 𝐵
Example
−1 1
 lim ( ) = (−1). lim = (−1)(0) = 0
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛
𝑛−1 1 1
 lim ( ) = lim (1 − ) = lim 1 − lim =1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛
4−7𝑛2 ∞
 lim ( )=
𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 +3 ∞

Divide the numerator and denominator by 𝑛2 ‫البسط و المقام‬

4
−7 7
𝑛2
lim ( 3 ) = − = −7
𝑛→∞ 1+ 2 1
𝑛
ln 𝑛 ∞
 lim =
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 ∞

Using l’Hôpital’s Rule

ln 𝑛 1/𝑛 1
lim = lim = lim = 0
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 1 𝑛→∞ 𝑛

Commonly Occurring Limits

Theorem
The following six sequences converge to the limits listed below
ln 𝑛 𝑛
1- lim =0 2- lim √𝑛 = 1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞

3- lim 𝑥 1/𝑛 = 1 , 𝑥 > 0 4- lim 𝑥 𝑛 = 0 |𝑥 | < 1

𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
𝑥𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
5- lim = 0 any 𝑥 6- lim (1 + ) = 𝑒 𝑥 any 𝑥
𝑛→∞ 𝑛! 𝑛→∞ 𝑛

Example
ln 𝑛2 2 ln 𝑛
 lim = lim = 2(0) = 0
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛

20
 𝑛 2
 lim √𝑛2 = 𝑛2/𝑛 = (𝑛1/𝑛 ) = (1)2 = 1
𝑛→∞
𝑛
 lim √3𝑛 = lim 31/𝑛 √𝑛 = 1.1 = 1
𝑛
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
−1 𝑛
 lim ( ) = 0
𝑛→∞ 2

𝑛−2 𝑛 −2 𝑛
 lim ( ) = lim (1 + ) = 𝑒 −2
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛
10𝑛
 lim =0
𝑛→∞ 𝑛!

Try to solve
7 𝑛
1. lim (1 + )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛
1 𝑛
2. lim (1 − )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛
𝑛
3. lim √10𝑛
𝑛→∞
3 1/𝑛
4. lim ( )
𝑛→∞ 𝑛

Sigma notation
Sigma notation enables us to write a sum with many terms in the
compact form.

21
 Example
5

𝑎) ∑ 𝑘 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15
𝑘=1
2
𝑏) ∑ (−1)𝑘 𝑘 = (−1)1 (1) + (−1)2 (2) = −1 + 2 = 1
𝑘=1
2
𝑖 1 2 7
𝑐) ∑ = + =
𝑖+1 2 3 6
𝑖=1

Example
Suppose that ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑎𝑘 = 0. Find

a- ∑𝑛𝑘=1 8𝑎𝑘 b- ∑𝑛𝑘=1(𝑎𝑘 + 1)

Algebra Rules for Finite Sums

1. Sum Rule
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

∑ (𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 + ∑ 𝑏𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑘=1 𝑘=1
2. Difference Rule
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

∑ (𝑎𝑛 − 𝑏𝑛 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 − ∑ 𝑏𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑘=1 𝑘=1

3. Constant Multiple Rule

𝑛 𝑛

∑ 𝑐𝑎𝑛 = 𝑐. ∑ 𝑎𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑘=1
4. Constant Value Rule
𝑛

∑ 𝑐 = 𝑛. 𝑐
𝑘=1

22
 Example
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

𝑎) ∑ (3𝑘 − 2) = 3 ∑ 𝑘 − ∑ 2 = 3 ∑ 𝑘 − 2𝑛
𝑘=1 𝑘=1 𝑘=1 𝑘=1
1 1
𝑏) ∑𝑛𝑖=1 = 𝑛. = 1
𝑛 𝑛

try to solve
Evaluate 6𝑘 𝑘−1
a) ∑2𝑘=1 b) ∑3𝑘=1
𝑘+1 𝑘

c) ∑2𝑘=1 cos 𝑘𝜋 d) ∑3𝑘=0 2𝑘

Series
A series is the sum of all the terms in a sequence.
1. If 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … … , 𝑎𝑛 is a finite sequence, then the sum
𝑛

𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 = ∑ 𝑎𝑖
𝑖=1
is a finite series corresponding to these sequence.
2. If 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … … , 𝑎𝑛 , … is infinite sequence, then the sum
∞

𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 + ⋯ = ∑ 𝑎𝑖
𝑖=1
is an infinite series corresponding to these sequence.
Example
∞
1 1 1
∑ =1+ + +⋯
𝑛 2 3
𝑛=1
∞
(−1)𝑛−1 1 1
∑ = 1 − + −⋯
2𝑛−1 2 4
𝑛=1

23
 If the sequence of partial sums converges to a limit 𝐿, we say
that the series converges and that its sum is 𝐿. In this case,
we also write
∞

𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 + ⋯ = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐿
𝑛=1
If the sequence of partial sums of the series does not
converge, we say that the series diverges.

Difference between Sequences and Series

Sequences Series

Set of elements that follow a pattern Sum of elements of the sequence

Order of elements is not so

Order of elements is important
important

Finite sequence: {𝑎𝑖 }𝑛𝑖=1 Finite series: ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖

Infinite sequence: {𝑎𝑖 }∞

𝑖=1 Infinite Series: ∑∞
𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖

24
 ‫للفهم فقط‬

Euler's constant

Bernoulli 𝟐<𝒆<𝟑

25
26
27
28
 𝑝(𝑥)
A rational function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = can be expressed as a sum of
𝑞(𝑥)
simpler fractions, called Partial Fractions.
1. Improper rational function
degree of 𝑝(𝑥) ≥ degree of 𝑝(𝑥)
In the case, we must first perform long division to rewrite the
𝑝(𝑥) 𝑅(𝑥)
quotient in the form 𝐴(𝑥 ) + .
𝑞(𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥)

Example
Transform the following fraction into partial fraction

𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 3
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2
𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 1
Solution 𝑥+𝟐
by using long division ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1)𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 3

𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥
2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3
2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 2
−5𝑥 + 1
−5x+1
∴ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = x + 2 +
𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1

2. Proper rational function

degree of 𝑝(𝑥 ) < degree of 𝑞(𝑥)
There are different cases for proper rational function.

29
Case I 𝑞(𝑥) is a product of distinct linear factors
𝑝(𝑥)
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = (𝑎
1 𝑥+𝑏1 )(𝑎2 𝑥+𝑏2 )…..(𝑎𝑚 𝑥+𝑏𝑚 )

Then, to this factor, assign the sum of the 𝑚 partial fractions:

𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑚
𝑓(𝑥 ) = (𝑎 )
+ (𝑎 )
+. . +
1 𝑥+𝑏1 2 𝑥+𝑏2 (𝑎𝑚 𝑥+𝑏𝑚 )

Example 2
Transform the following fraction into partial fraction
3x−1
𝑓(𝑥) = , and then find ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3

Solution
Method 1 Solve by substitution
3x−1 3x−1 𝐴 𝐵 A(x+1)+B(x−3)
= = + =
𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3 (𝑥−3)(𝑥+1) (𝑥−3) (𝑥+1) (𝑥−3)(𝑥+1)

∴ 3x − 1 = A(x + 1) + B(x − 3)
Put x = −1 ⇒ −4 = −4𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵 = 1
Put x = 3 ⇒ 8 = 4𝐴 ⇒ 𝐴 = 2
2 1
∴ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = +
(𝑥−3) (𝑥+1)

Method 2 Solve by equating corresponding coefficients

Coefficients of 𝑥 ⇒ 3 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 (1)
Coefficients of 𝑥 0 ⇒ −1 = 𝐴 − 3𝐵 (2)
solving two equations, we get 𝐴 = 2, 𝐵 = 1
2 1
∫ ((𝑥−3) + (𝑥+1)) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ln|𝑥 − 3| + ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝑐

30
Case II 𝑞(𝑥) is a product of linear factors, some of which are
repeated
𝑝(𝑥)
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = (𝑎 2 𝑚
1 𝑥+𝑏1 )(𝑎1 𝑥+𝑏1 ) ..(𝑎1 𝑥+𝑏1 )

Then, to this factor, assign the sum of the 𝑚 partial fractions:

𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑚
𝑓(𝑥 ) = (𝑎 )
+ (𝑎 )2
+. . + (𝑎 𝑚
1 𝑥+𝑏1 1 𝑥+𝑏1 1 𝑥+𝑏1 )

Example 3
Transform the following fraction into partial fraction
3𝑥 2
𝑓(𝑥) = ,and then find ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥−1)3

Solution
3𝑥 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 A(𝑥−1)2 +B(x−1)+C
= + + =
(𝑥−1)3 (𝑥−1) (𝑥−1)2 (𝑥−1)3 (𝑥−1)3

∴ 3𝑥 2 = A(𝑥 − 1)2 + B(x − 1) + C

Put x = 1 ⇒ 3 = 𝐶 ⇒ 𝐶 = 3
Put x = 0 ⇒ 0 = 𝐴 − 𝐵 + 𝐶 ⇒ 𝐴 − 𝐵 = −3 (1)
Put x = −1 ⇒ 3 = 4𝐴 − 2𝐵 + 𝐶 ⇒ 4𝐴 − 2𝐵 = 0
2𝐴 = 𝐵 (2)
Substitute from equation (2) in equation (1)
𝐴 − 2𝐴 = −3 ⇒ −𝐴 = −3 ⇒ 𝐴 = 3 and 𝐵 = 6
3 6 3
∴ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + 2 +
(𝑥−1) (𝑥−1) (𝑥−1)3

3 6 3
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ((𝑥−1) + (𝑥−1)2 + (𝑥−1)3 ) 𝑑𝑥

6 3
= 3ln|𝑥 − 1| − (𝑥−1) − +𝑐
2(𝑥−1)2

31
Case III 𝑞(𝑥) is irreducible quadratic factors and non-repeated
𝑝(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥 ) = (𝑎𝑥 2
+𝑏𝑥+𝑐)

Then, to this factor, the partial fraction is:

𝐴𝑥+𝐵
𝑓(𝑥 ) = (𝑎𝑥 2
+𝑏𝑥+𝑐)

Example 4
Transform the following fraction into partial fraction
x−1
𝑓(𝑥) =
(𝑥+1)(𝑥 2 +2𝑥+2)

Solution
x−1 𝐴𝑥+𝐵 𝐶
= +
(𝑥+1)(𝑥 2 +2𝑥+2) (𝑥 2 +2𝑥+2) (𝑥+1)

∴ x − 1 = (Ax + B)(𝑥 + 1) + C(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2)

Put 𝐱 = −𝟏 ⇒ −2 = 𝐶 ⇒ 𝐶 = −2
Put 𝐱 = 𝟎 ⇒ −1 = 𝐵 + 2𝐶 ⇒ 𝐵 = 3
Put 𝐱 = 𝟏 ⇒ 0 = 2𝐴 + 2𝐵 + 5𝐶 ⇒ 𝐴 = 2
x−1 2𝑥+3 −2
= +
(𝑥+1)(𝑥 2 +2𝑥+2) (𝑥 2 +2𝑥+2) (𝑥+1)

Remember

32
 Example 5
Transform the following fraction into partial fraction
1
𝑓(𝑥) =
(𝑥 3 +1)

Solution
1 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶
= +
(𝑥 3 +1) (𝑥+1) (𝑥 2 −𝑥+1)

∴ 1 = A(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1)+ (Bx + C)(𝑥 + 1)

1
Put 𝐱 = −𝟏 ⇒ 1 = 3𝐴 ⇒ 𝐴 =
3
2
Put 𝐱 = 𝟎 ⇒ 1 = 𝐴 + 𝐶 ⇒ 𝐶 =
3
−1
Coefficients of 𝑥 2 ⇒ 0 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵 =
3

1 1 1 1 (−𝑥+2)
= +
(𝑥 3 +1) 3 (𝑥+1) 3 (𝑥 2 −𝑥+2)

Try to solve
Transform the following fraction into partial fraction
2+x x3 +4x2 +3
1- 2-
1−x2 x2 +2𝑥+1
2x+5 x4 −3x3 −3
3- 4-
x2 +5𝑥+6 x2 −4
8x3 +13𝑥 3x+11
5- 6-
(x2 +2)2 x+6−x2

x2 +4 x2
7- 8-
x2 −1
3x3 +4x2 −4𝑥
x2 +𝑥+1 x2 −29𝑥+5
9- 10-
x2 (x3 −1) (x−4)2 (x2 +3)

33
Geometry

34
Overview
Vectors provide simple ways to define equations for lines,
planes, curves, and surfaces in space.

Scalars and Vectors

Scalars
Some of the things we measure are determined simply by their
magnitudes. To record mass, length, or time, for example, we
need only write down a number and name an appropriate unit of
measure.
Vectors
We need more information to describe a force, displacement, or
velocity.

 To describe a force, we need to record the direction in

which it acts as well as how large it is.
 To describe a body’s displacement, we have to say in
what direction it moved as well as how far.
 To describe a body’s velocity, we have to know where the
body is headed as well as how fast it is going.
In this section we show how to represent things that have both
magnitude and direction in the plane or in space.

Definition
Vector is a quantity that has magnitude and direction.

35
Types of Space Coordinates
1. Cartesian coordinates (𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛).
2. Spherical coordinates (𝒓, 𝜽, 𝝋).
3. Cylindrical coordinates (𝝆, 𝝋, 𝒛).

Component form
A quantity such as force, displacement, or velocity is called a
vector and is represented by a directed line segment.

Definition
The vector represented by the
directed line segment ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝐴𝐵 has initial
point A and terminal point B and its
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ |.
length is denoted by |𝐴𝐵

Definition
If 𝑣 is a three-dimensional vector equal to the vector with initial
point at the origin and terminal point 〈v1 , v2 , v3 〉,then the
component form of 𝑣 is
𝑣 = 〈v1 , v2 , v3 〉

The length (magnitude) of vector

Let 𝑣 ≠ 0 ,
𝑣 = ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑄 = 〈v1 , v2 , v3 〉
where
P = 〈x1 , y1 , z1 〉 is the initial point
and 𝑄 = 〈𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 〉 is the
terminal point, then the length
(magnitude) of 𝑣 is

36
 |𝑣| = √v1 2 + v2 2 + v3 2

= √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2

The Direction of vector

𝑣 v 𝑖 + v2 𝑗 + v3 𝑘
𝑣̂ = = 1
|𝑣| √v1 2 + v2 2 + v3 2

Note
1. Two vectors are equal if they have the same length and
direction.
2. The only vector with length 0 is the zero vector 0 =
〈0,0,0〉.
3. Zero vector is also the only vector with no specific
direction.
Example 1
If the initial point is P = 〈−3,4,1〉 and the terminal point is
Q = 〈−5,2,2〉, Find a) The component form. b) The length of
the vector.
Solution
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ = 〈v1 , v2 , v3 〉, v1 = −5 − (3) = −2
𝑣 = 𝑃𝑄

v2 = 2 − 4 = −2
v3 = 2 − 1 = 1

a) The component form of ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑

𝑃𝑄 is
𝑣 = 〈−2, −2,1〉
b) The length of the vector 𝑣 is
|𝑣| = √(−2)2 + (−2)2 + (1)2 = √9 = 3

37
Vector Algebra Operations
Two principal operations involving vectors are vector addition
and scalar multiplication. A scalar is simply a real number, and
is called such when we want to draw attention to its differences
from vectors. Scalars can be positive, negative, or zero and are
used to “scale” a vector by multiplication.

Definition
Let 𝑢 = 〈u1 , u2 , u3 〉 and 𝑣 = 〈v1 , v2 , v3 〉 be vectors with 𝑘 a
scalar.
Addition: 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 〈u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 , u3 + v3 〉
Vector Addition
Triangle law Parallelogram law

Vector subtraction

Scalar multiplication: 𝑘𝑢 = 〈𝑘u1 , 𝑘u2 , ku3 〉

38
  The length of 𝑘𝑢 is the absolute value of the scalar 𝑘 times
the length of 𝑢.
 The vector (−1)𝑢 = −𝑢 has the same length as u but
points in the opposite direction.
 The difference 𝑢 − 𝑣 of two vectors is defined by
𝑢 − 𝑣 = 𝑢 + (−𝑣)
Example 2
Let 𝑢 = 〈−1,3,1〉 and 𝑣 = 〈4,7,0〉. Find the components of
1
a) 2𝑢 + 3𝑣 b) 𝑢 − 𝑣 c) | 𝑢|
2

Solution
a) 2𝑢 + 3𝑣 = 2〈−1,3,1〉 +3〈4,7,0〉 = 〈−2,6,2〉 + 〈12,21,0〉
= 〈−2 + 12,6 + 21,2 + 0〉 = 〈10,27,2〉
b) 𝑢 − 𝑣 = 〈−1,3,1〉 − 〈4,7,0〉 = 〈−1 − 4,3 − 7,1 − 0〉 =
〈−5, −4,1〉
1 1 −1 3 1
c) | 𝑢| = | 〈−1,3,1〉| = | , , |=
2 2 2 2 2

2 2 2
√(−1) + (3) + (1) = 1 √11
2 2 2 2

When three or more space vectors lie in the same plane,

we say they are coplanar vectors.
For example, the vectors 𝑢 , 𝑣 and 𝑢 + 𝑣 are always coplanar

39
Unit Vectors
A vector 𝑣 of length 1 is called a unit vector. The standard unit
vectors are

𝒊 = 〈1,0,0〉 𝒋 = 〈0,1,0〉 𝒌 = 〈0,0,1〉

Any vector 𝑣 =〈v1 , v2 , v3 〉
can be written as a linear
combination of the standard
unit vectors as follows:

𝑣 = 〈v1 , v2 , v3 〉
= 〈v1 , 0,0〉 + 〈0, v2 , 0〉
+ 〈0,0, v3 〉
= v1 〈1,0,0〉 + v2 〈0,1,0〉
+ v3 〈0,0,1〉
= v1 𝐢 + v2 𝐣 + v3 𝒌

40
In component form, the vector from 𝑃1 = 〈x1 , y1 , z1 〉 to 𝑃2 =
〈𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 〉 is

⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃1 𝑃2 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝒊 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝒋 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝒌
Example 3
Find a unit vector 𝑢 in the direction of the vector from 𝑃1 (1,0,1)
to 𝑃2 (3,2,0).
Solution
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃1 𝑃2 = (3 − 1)𝒊 + (2 − 0)𝒋 + (0 − 1)𝒌 = 2𝒊 + 2𝒋 − 𝒌

⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
|𝑃 2 2 2
1 𝑃2 | = √(2) + (2) + (−1) = √𝟗 = 𝟑

The unit vector 𝑢 in the direction of ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑

𝑃1 𝑃2 .
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃1 𝑃2 2𝒊+2𝒋−𝒌 2 2 1
𝑢= ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
= = 𝒊+ 𝒋− 𝒌
|𝑃 1 𝑃2 | 3 3 3 3

Midpoint of a Line Segment

The midpoint M of the line segment joining points 𝑃1 =
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and 𝑃2 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) is the point
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
( , , )
2 2 2
Example 4
The midpoint of the segment joining 𝑃1 = (3, −2,0) and 𝑃2 =
(7,4,4) is……
Solution
3 + 7 −2 + 4 0 + 4
( , , ) = (5,1,2)
2 2 2

41
Definition
The dot product 𝑢. 𝑣 (u dot v) of vectors 𝑢 = 〈u1 , u2 , u3 〉 and
𝑣 = 〈v1 , v2 , v3 〉 is the scalar

𝑢. 𝑣 = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3
Dot products are also called inner or scalar products because
the product results in a scalar, not a vector.

Theorem 1(Angle between two vectors)

The angle 𝜃 between two nonzero vectors 𝑢 = 〈u1 , u2 , u3 〉
and
𝑣 = 〈v1 , v2 , v3 〉 is given by

𝑢. 𝑣
𝜃 = cos−1 ( )
|𝑢||𝑣|

Example 5
Find the angle between 𝑢 = 𝐢 − 2𝐣 − 2𝒌 and v = 6𝐢 + 3𝐣 +
2𝒌.
Solution
𝑢. 𝑣 = (1)(6) + (−2)(3) + (−2)(2) = −4

|𝑢| = √(1)2 + (−2)2 + (−2)2 = 3

|𝑣| = √(6)2 + (3)2 + (2)2 = 7

𝑢. 𝑣 −4
𝜃 = cos−1 ( ) = 𝜃 = cos −1 ( ) ≅ 100.98°
|𝑢||𝑣| |3||7|

42
Definition
Vectors 𝑢 and 𝑣 are orthogonal if 𝑢. 𝑣 = 0.
𝑖. 𝑗 = 𝑖. 𝑘 = 𝑗. 𝑘 = 0 i.e. 𝑖, 𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 are orthogonal.

Example 6
Find the measures of the angles of the triangle whose vertices
are 𝐴 = (0,0) , 𝐵 = (3,5) and 𝐶 = (5,2)
Solution
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝐶𝐴 = 〈−5, −2〉 and ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝐶𝐵 = 〈−2,3〉
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝐶𝐴. 𝐶𝐵 ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ = (−5)(−2)
+ (−2)(3) = 4
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ | = √(−5)2 + (−2)2
|𝐶𝐴
= √29
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ | = √(−2)2 + (3)2
|𝐶𝐵
= √13
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ .𝐶𝐵
𝐶𝐴 ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝜃 = ∠𝐶 = cos −1 ( ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ |
)
|𝐶𝐴||𝐶𝐵
4
=cos−1 ( ) ≅ 78°6′
√29√13
Similarly,

∠𝐴 = 37°14′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐵 = 64°40′

43
Definition
The cross product 𝑢 × 𝑣 (𝑢 cross 𝑣) is
the vector
𝑢 × 𝑣 = (|𝑢||𝑣| sin 𝜃 ) 𝑛
Unlike the dot product, the cross
product is a vector. For this reason it’s
also called the vector product of 𝑢
and 𝑣, and applies only to vectors in space.
Definition
Nonzero vectors 𝑢 and 𝑣 are parallel if 𝑢 × 𝑣 = 0.

The Area of a Parallelogram

Because n is a unit vector, the magnitude of 𝑢 × 𝑣 is
|𝑢 × 𝑣| = |𝑢||𝑣||sin 𝜃 ||𝑛| = |𝑢||𝑣| sin 𝜃

44
Calculating the Cross Product as a Determinant
If 𝑢 = u1 𝐢 + u2 𝐣 + u3 𝒌 and 𝑣 = v1 𝐢 + v2 𝐣 + v3 𝒌, then

𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
𝑢 × 𝑣 = |u1 u2 u3 |
v1 v2 v3
Example 7
Find 𝑢 × 𝑣 and 𝑣 × 𝑢 if u = 2𝐢 + 𝐣 + 𝒌 and 𝑣 = −4𝐢 + 3𝐣 + 𝒌
Solution
𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
1 1 2 1 2 1
𝑢×𝑣 =| 2 1 1| = | |𝐢 − | |𝐣 + | |𝒌
3 1 −4 1 −4 3
−4 3 1
= −2𝐢 − 6𝐣 + 10𝒌
𝑣 × 𝑢 = −(𝑢 × 𝑣) = 2𝐢 + 6𝐣 − 10𝒌
Example 8
If 𝑃(1, −1,0), 𝑄 (2,1, −1) and 𝑅(−1,1,2), find
a) The vector perpendicular to the plane.
b) The area of the triangle.
c) The unit vector perpendicular to the plane.
Solution
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ = (2 − 1)𝐢 + (1 + 1)𝐣 + (−1 − 0)𝒌 = 𝐢 + 2𝐣 − 𝒌
𝑃𝑄
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑅 = (−1 − 1)𝐢 + (1 + 1)𝐣 + (2 − 0)𝒌 = −𝟐𝐢 + 2𝐣 + 2𝒌
45
 𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ × ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ 2 −1 1 −1
a) 𝑃𝑄 𝑃𝑅 = | 1 2 −1| = | |𝐢 − | |𝐣 +
2 2 −2 2
−2 2 2
1 2
| | 𝒌 = 𝟔𝐢 + 6𝐤
−2 2
b) The area of the parallelogram is

⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ × 𝑃𝑅
|𝑃𝑄 ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ | = |𝟔𝐢 + 6𝐤| = √(6)2 + (6)2 = 6√2

Such that the area of the triangle is half of the area of the
parallelogram

∴The area of the triangle is equal 3√2

c) Since ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑄 × ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑅 is perpendicular to the plane, its direction
𝑛 is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane.
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑄 × ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑅 𝟔𝐢 + 6𝐤 1 1
𝑛= = = 𝒊+ 𝒌
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ × 𝑃𝑅
|𝑃𝑄 ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ | 6√2 √2 √2

Calculating the Triple Scalar Product as a

Determinant
u1 u2 u3
(𝑢 × 𝑣). 𝑤 = | v1 v2 v3 |
w1 w2 w3

Exercises
Vectors in the Plane
1. Let 𝑢 = 〈3, −2〉 and 𝑣 = 〈−2,5〉. Find the (a) component
form and (b) magnitude (length) of the vector.
i) 3𝑢
ii) 𝑢 + 𝑣
iii) −2𝑣
iv) 2𝑢 − 3𝑣

46
2. Find the component form of the vector ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑄 , where 𝑃 =
(1,3) and 𝑄 = (2, −1).
Vectors in space

3. Express vector ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑

𝑃1 𝑃2 in the form v1 𝐢 + v2 𝐣 + v3 𝒌 if
𝑃1 (5,7, −1) to 𝑃2 (2,9, −2).
4. Find the length and direction of the vector
i) 2𝐢 + 𝐣 − 2𝒌
ii) 5𝒌
5. Find the midpoint of the line segment 𝑃1 = (−1,1,5) and
𝑃2 = (2,5,0)
6. Find the angle between the vectors 𝑢 = 𝟐𝐢 + 𝐣 and v =
𝐢 + 2𝐣 − 𝒌.
7. Find the measures of the angles of the triangle whose
vertices are 𝐴 = (−1,0) , 𝐵 = (2,1) and 𝐶 = (1, −2)
8. If 𝑃(1, −1,0), 𝑄 (2,1, −1) and 𝑅(−1,1,2), find
a) The vector perpendicular to the plane.
b) The area of the triangle.
c) The unit vector perpendicular to the plane.

47
Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems

Definition
The three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system consists of
three perpendicular axes: the 𝑥-axis, the 𝑦 -axis, and the 𝑧-axis.
Because each axis is a number line representing all real numbers
in ℝ, the three-dimensional system is often denoted by ℝ3 .

A point in space is identified by all three coordinates. To plot

the point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), go 𝑥 units along the 𝑥 − axis, then 𝑦 units in
the direction of the 𝑦 −axis, then 𝑧 units in the direction of the
𝑧 −axis.

48
 Example 1
Sketch the following point in three-dimensional space.

(1, −2,3) (−2,3, −1)

In two dimensions, the coordinate axes partition the plane into

four quadrants.
Similarly, the coordinate planes divide space between them into
eight regions about the origin, called octants.

49
Distance in Space

Example 2
Find the distance between points 𝑃1 (3, −1,5) and 𝑃2 (2,1, −1)
Solution

𝑑 = √(2 − 3)2 + (1 − (−1))2 + (−1 − 5)2 = √41

50
Equations for a Line in Space
As in two dimensions, we can describe a line in space using a
point on the line and the direction of the line, or a parallel
vector, which we call the direction vector. Let 𝐿 be a line in
space passing through point 𝑃(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ). Let 𝑣 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 be a
vector parallel to𝐿.

Then, for any point on line 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), we know that ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑄 is
parallel to 𝑣. Thus, as we just discussed, there is a scalar 𝑡 ,
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ = 𝑡𝑣
such that 𝑃𝑄 ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ = 𝑡𝑣
⃑⃑⃑ , which give 𝑃𝑄 ⃑⃑⃑

〈𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 , 𝑧 − 𝑧0 〉 = 𝑡〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉
〈𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 , 𝑧 − 𝑧0 〉 = 〈𝑡𝑎, 𝑡𝑏, 𝑡𝑐〉
〈𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧〉 − 〈𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 〉 = 𝑡〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉
〈𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧〉 = 〈𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 〉 + 𝑡〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉
Then the vector equation of a line
𝑟 = ⃑⃑⃑
𝑟0 + 𝑡 𝑣

51
 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑡𝑎
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑡𝑏
𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑡𝑐
This set of three equations forms a set of parametric equations
of a line.
If we solve each of the equations for 𝑡 assuming𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are
nonzero, we get a different description of the same line:
𝑥 − 𝑥0
=𝑡
𝑎
𝑦 − 𝑦0
=𝑡
𝑏
𝑧 − 𝑧0
=𝑡
𝑐
Because each expression equals 𝑡, they all have the same value.
We can set them equal to each other to create symmetric
equations of a line:
𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑦 − 𝑦0 𝑧 − 𝑧0
= =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
Example 3
Find parametric and symmetric equations of the line passing
through points (1,4, −2) and (−3,5,0).
Solution
𝑣 = 〈−3 − 1,5 − 4,0 − (−2)〉 = 〈−4,1,2〉
Use either of the given points on the line to complete the
parametric equations
𝑥 = 1 − 4𝑡 , 𝑦 = 4 + 𝑡 , 𝑧 = −2 + 2𝑡

52
Solve each equation for 𝑡 to create the symmetric equation of
the line
𝑥−1 𝑦−4 𝑧+2
= =
−4 1 2
Distance between a Point and a Line
Let 𝐿 be a line in the plane and let 𝑀 be any point not on the
line. Then, we define distance 𝑑 from 𝑀 to 𝐿 as the length of
line segment ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑀𝑃 , where 𝑃 is a point on 𝐿 such that ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑀𝑃 is
perpendicular to 𝐿.
In space, however, there is no clear way
to know which point on the line creates
such a perpendicular line segment, so we
select an arbitrary point on the line and
use properties of vectors to calculate the
distance.
Therefore, let 𝑃 be an arbitrary point on
line 𝐿 and let 𝑣 be a direction vector for

Vectors ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑀 and 𝑣 form two sides of a parallelogram with base
|𝑣 | and height 𝑑 , which is the distance between a line and a
point in space.

 Vectors ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑀 and 𝑣 form two sides of a parallelogram with
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ × 𝑣 |
area |𝑃𝑀
 Using a formula from geometry, the area of this
parallelogram can also be calculated as the product of its
base and height.
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ × 𝑣 | = |𝑣| 𝑑
|𝑃𝑀
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ × 𝑣 |
|𝑃𝑀
∴𝑑=
|𝑣 |
53
 Example 4
Find the distance between point 𝑀 = (1,1,3) and line
𝑥−3 𝑦+1
= = 𝑧 − 3.
4 2

Solution
From the symmetric equations of the line , we have
𝑣 = 〈4,2,1〉 and 𝑃 = (3, −1,3) lies on the line.
∴ ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑀 = (1 − 3,1 − (−1), 3 − 3) = (−2,2,0)
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑀 × 𝑣 = |−2 2 0| = 2𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 12𝑘
4 2 1

⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑ × 𝑣| √22 + 22 + 122 2√798

|𝑃𝑀
𝑑= = =
|𝑣| 2 2
√4 + 2 + 1 2 21

Relationships between Lines

Given two lines in the two-dimensional plane, the lines are
equal, they are parallel but not equal, or they intersect in a
single point.
In three dimensions, a fourth case is possible. If two lines in
space are not parallel, but do not intersect, then the lines are
said to be skew lines.

54
 Example 5
For each pair of lines, determine whether the lines are equal,
parallel but not equal, skew, or intersecting.
1- Two lines are parallel

𝐿1 : 𝑥 = 6𝑠 − 1, 𝑦 = −2𝑠, 𝑧 = 3𝑠 + 1
𝑥−4 𝑦+3 𝑧−1
𝐿2 : = =
6 −2 3
𝑣 𝑣2 = 〈6, −2,3〉
⃑⃑⃑⃑1 = ⃑⃑⃑⃑

2- Two lines are intersecting

𝐿1 : 𝑥 = −𝑦 = 𝑧
𝑥−3
𝐿2 : =𝑦 =𝑧−2
2
⃑⃑⃑⃑1 = 〈1, −1,1〉
𝑣
𝑣2 = 〈2,1,1〉
⃑⃑⃑⃑
Two lines are not parallel; the
lines are either intersecting or
skew.
𝑥−3
= 𝑦 = 𝑧 − 2 = 𝑠 and 𝑥 = −𝑦 = 𝑧 = 𝑡
2
𝑥 = 2𝑠 + 3 , 𝑥 = 𝑡
𝑦=𝑠 , 𝑦 = −𝑡
𝑧 = 𝑠 + 2 ,𝑧 = 𝑡
Solve the system of equations → 𝑠 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 1
If we need to find the point of intersection we can substitute
these parameters into the original equations to get (1, −1,1).

55
 3- Two lines are skew

𝐿1 : 𝑥 = 2𝑠 − 1, 𝑦 = 𝑠 − 1, 𝑧 = 𝑠 − 4
𝐿2 : 𝑥 = 𝑡 − 3, 𝑦 = 3𝑡 + 8, 𝑧 = 5 − 2𝑡
⃑⃑⃑⃑1 = 〈2,1,1〉
𝑣
𝑣2 = 〈1,3, −2〉
⃑⃑⃑⃑
Because the direction vectors are not
parallel vectors, the lines are either
intersecting or skew.

To determine whether the lines intersect, we see if there is a

point that lies on both lines.
2𝑠 − 1 = 𝑡 − 3
𝑠 − 1 = 3𝑡 + 8
𝑠 − 4 = 5 − 2𝑡
Solve the system of equations → 𝑠 = −3 𝑜𝑟 𝑠 = 1
There is no single point that satisfies the parametric equations

These lines do not intersect, so they are skew

Skew lines
two lines that are not parallel but do not intersect

56
 Exercises
1- Find the Vector, parametric and symmetric equations of
line L passing through points
a. 𝑃(4,0,5), 𝑄(2,3,1)
b. 𝑃(4,0,5), 𝑄(2,3,1)
c. 𝑃(1, −2,3), 𝑣⃗ = ⟨1,2,3⟩
d. 𝑃(3,1,5), 𝑣⃗ = 𝑄𝑅 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑄 (2,2,3) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅(3,2,3)
2- Find the distance from the origin to line L
𝑥 = 1 + 𝑡, 𝑦 = 3 + 𝑡, 𝑧 = 5 + 4𝑡, 𝑡 ∈ 𝑅
3- Find the distance between point A(−3,1,1) and the line of
symmetric equations 𝑥 = −𝑦 = −𝑧
4- Find the vector form of the equation of the straight line
passing through the point 𝐴(2,5,5) and parallel to the straight
line passing through the two
points 𝐵(−3, −2, −6) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 (5,0, −9).
𝑥 𝑦−2 𝑧
5- For what value of 𝑎 do the lines = = 𝑎𝑛𝑑
−5 −1 −2
𝑥−1 𝑦+2 𝑧+1
= = intersect?
𝑎 4 4
6- Determine whether the lines are equal, parallel but not
equal, skew, or intersecting.
a- 𝐿1: 𝑥 = 𝑦 − 1 = −𝑧
𝑧
𝐿2: 𝑥 − 2 = −𝑦 =
2

b- 𝐿1: 𝑥 = 2𝑡, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 3

𝐿2: 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 8 + 𝑠, 𝑧 = 7 + 𝑠

c- 𝐿1: 𝑥 = −1 + 2𝑡, 𝑦 = 1 + 3𝑡, 𝑧 = 7𝑡

2 2
𝐿2: 𝑥 − 1 = (𝑦 − 4) = 𝑍 − 2
3 7

57
Equations for a Plane
We know that a line is determined by two points.
In other words, for any two distinct points, there is exactly one
line that passes through those points, whether in two dimensions
or three.
Similarly, given any three points that do not all lie on the
same line, there is a unique plane that passes through these
points. Just as a line is determined by two points, a plane is
determined by three.
Let 𝑛⃑ = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 〉 be a vector and 𝑃(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) be a point. Then
the set of all points 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) such that ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑄 is orthogonal to
forms a plane. We say that 𝑛⃑ is a normal vector, or
perpendicular to the plane.
Remember, the dot product of orthogonal vectors is zero.

The vector equation of a plane:

𝑛⃑. ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑄 = 0
The scalar equation of a plane
〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉. 〈𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 , 𝑧 − 𝑧0 〉 = 0
𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑏(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝑐 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0
The general form of equation of a plane
𝑎𝑥 + by + cz + d = 0
Where d = −𝑎𝑥0 − 𝑏𝑦0 − 𝑐𝑧0
58
 Example 6
Write an equation for the plane containing points 𝑃 = (1,1, −2),
𝑄 = (0,2,1) and 𝑅(−1, −1,0) in both scalar and general forms.
Solution
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑄 = (−1,1,3) and ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑅 = (−2, −2,2)
𝑛⃑ = ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑃𝑄 × ⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑄𝑅

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝑛⃑ = |−1 1 3| = 8𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 4𝑘
−2 −2 2
8(𝑥 − 1) − 4(𝑦 − 1) + 4(𝑧 + 2) = 0
8𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 4𝑧 + 4 = 0

Example 7
Write an equation for the plane that passes through point (1,4,3)
𝑦−1
and contains the line given by 𝑥 = =𝑧+1
2
Solution
Symmetric equations describe the line that passes through point
(0,1, −1) parallel to vector 𝑣 ⃑⃑⃑⃑1 = 〈1,2,1〉
Use this point and the given point (1,4,3), to identify a second
𝑣2 = 〈1,3,4〉
vector parallel to the plane ⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑛⃑ = 𝑣 ⃑⃑⃑⃑1 × ⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑣2
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝑛⃑ = |1 2 1| = 5𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 𝑘
1 3 4
The scalar equations for the plane are
5(𝑥 − 0) − 3(𝑦 − 1) + (𝑧 + 1) = 0
5𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 + 4 = 0

59
Parallel and Intersecting Planes
When we describe the relationship between two planes in
space, we have only two possibilities: the two distinct planes are
parallel or they intersect.
When two planes are parallel, their normal vectors are parallel.
When two planes intersect, the intersection is a line.

Example 8
Find parametric and symmetric equations for the line formed
by the intersection of the planes given by 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧=0 and 2𝑥 −
𝑦+𝑧 =0
Solution

60
The parametric equations for the line of intersection, choose
parameter , put y = t → z = −3t → x = 2t
The symmetric equations for the line
𝑥 𝑧
=𝑦=
2 −3
The Angle between Two Planes

|⃑⃑⃑⃑ ⃑⃑⃑⃑2 |
𝑛1 . 𝑛
cos 𝜃 =
|⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑛1 ||𝑛 ⃑⃑⃑⃑2 |

We can then use the angle to determine whether two planes are
parallel or orthogonal or if they intersect at some other angle.
Example 9
Determine whether each pair of planes is parallel, orthogonal,
or neither. If the planes are intersecting, but not orthogonal, find
the measure of the angle between them.
a) 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = 8 and 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 10
b) 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 3 and 6𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 1
c) 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 4 and 𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 1
Solution
a. 𝑛1 = 〈1,2, −1〉
⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑛2 = 〈2,4, −2〉 = 2〈1,2, −1〉
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
These two vectors are scalar multiples of each other.
The normal vectors are parallel, so the planes are parallel.

b. ⃑⃑⃑⃑1 = 〈2, −3,2〉

𝑛
𝑛2 = 〈6,2, −3〉
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑

61
 ⃑⃑⃑⃑1 . 𝑛
𝑛 ⃑⃑⃑⃑2 = 0
The normal vectors are orthogonal, so the corresponding planes
are orthogonal.

c. 𝑛1 = 〈1,1,1〉
⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑛2 = 〈1, −3,5〉
⃑⃑⃑⃑⃑
⃑⃑⃑⃑1 . 𝑛
𝑛 ⃑⃑⃑⃑2 = 3
|⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑛1 . 𝑛 ⃑⃑⃑⃑2 | 3
cos 𝜃 = =
|⃑⃑⃑⃑
𝑛1 ||𝑛 ⃑⃑⃑⃑2 | √3√35
3
𝜃 = cos−1 ~73°
√3√35

Exercises

1- Find the general form of the equation of the plane that passes
through 𝑃(0,0,0) and has normal vector 𝑛⃑⃗=3𝑖̂−2𝑗̂+4𝑘̂
2- Find the general form of the equation of the plane that passes
through 𝑃(−3,2, −1) and has normal vector 𝑛⃑⃗=𝑖̂−2𝑗̂+𝑘̂
3- Find parametric equations of the line passing through
point 𝑃(−2,1,3) that is perpendicular to the plane of
equation 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 7.
4- Suppose the equations of two planes are given,
i) 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0, 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 − 7 = 0

ii) 5𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 4, 𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 7𝑧 = 15

iii) 𝑥 − 5𝑦 − 𝑧 = 1,5𝑥 − 25𝑦 − 5𝑧 = −3

a. Determine whether the planes are parallel, orthogonal,

or neither.
b. If the planes are neither parallel nor orthogonal, then
find the measure of the angle between the planes. Express
the answer in degrees rounded to the nearest integer.
c. If the planes intersect, find the line of intersection of the
planes, providing the parametric equations of this line.

62
A sphere is the set of all points in space equidistant from a fixed
point, the center of the sphere.
In a sphere, the distance from the center to a point on the
sphere is called the radius.

Standard Equation of a Sphere

The sphere with center (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) and radius 𝑟 can be represented
by the equation
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 + (𝑧 − 𝑐)2 = 𝑟 2
Example 10
Find the standard equation of the sphere with center (10,7,4)
and radius 5
Solution
(𝑥 − 10)2 + (𝑦 − 7)2 + (𝑧 − 4)2 = 25

Example 11
Find the standard equation of the sphere with center (1,3,4) and
point (−1,3, −2)
Solution
𝑟 = √(−1 − 1)2 + (3 − 3)2 + (−2 − 4)2 = √36 = 6
(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 + (𝑧 − 4)2 = 36

63
Spherical coordinates

Convert from Spherical to Cartesian

𝑥 = 𝜌 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜑
𝑦 = 𝜌 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜑
z = 𝜌 cos 𝜑
Convert from Cartesian to Spherical
𝜌2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
𝑦 𝑦
tan 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃 = tan−1
𝑥 𝑥
𝑧 −1 𝑧
cos 𝜑 = ⇒ 𝜑 = cos
𝜌 √𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2

𝝆 is the distance between point P and the origin 𝝆 ≠ 𝟎.

𝜽 is the same angle to describe cylindrical coordinates
0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
𝝋 is the angle formed by the positive 𝑧 -axis and line segment
𝑂𝑃 , where 𝑂 is the origin and 0 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 𝜋
Example
𝜋 𝜋
Change the Spherical into Cartesian 𝑃 (8, , )
3 6
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 = 𝜌 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜑 = 8 cos sin = 2
3 6
𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 = 𝜌 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜑 = 8 sin sin = 2√3
3 6
𝜋
z = 𝜌 cos 𝜑 = 8 cos = 4√3
6
Example
Change the equation to Spherical Coordinates 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 4
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
(𝜌 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜑)2 + (𝜌 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜑)2 + (𝜌 cos 𝜑)2 = 4
𝜌2 = 4

64
Polar coordinates

Convert from Polar to Cartesian

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
Convert from Cartesian to Polar
𝑟2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦2
𝑦
tan 𝜃 =
𝑥

Example
Change the Polar into Cartesian
5𝜋
1- 𝑃 (√2, )
4

5𝜋
𝑥 = √2 cos( ) = −1
4

5𝜋
𝑦 = √2 sin ( ) = −1
4

2- 𝑃(−2, −2)

𝑟 2 = (−2)2 + (−2)2 = 8 → 𝑟 = 2√2

−2 5𝜋
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = = 1 → 𝜃 = tan−1 1 =
−2 4
Cylindrical coordinates

Convert from Cylindrical to Cartesian

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑧=𝑧
Convert from Cartesian to Cylindrical
𝑟2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦2
𝑦 𝑦
tan 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃 = tan−1
𝑥 𝑥
𝑧=𝑧

65
 Example
2𝜋
Change the Cylindrical into Cartesian 𝑃 (4, , −2)
3

𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
2𝜋
𝑥 = 4 cos( ) = −2
3
2𝜋
𝑦 = 4 sin ( ) = 2√3
3
𝑧 = −2
Example
Change the equation to Cylindrical
Coordinates
𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = 4
𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑟2 + 𝑧2 = 4

66
Cylindrical and spherical coordinates give us the flexibility to
select a coordinate system appropriate to the problem at hand. A
thoughtful choice of coordinate system can make a problem
much easier to solve, whereas a poor choice can lead to
unnecessarily complex calculations. In the following example,
we examine several different problems and discuss how to select
the best coordinate system for each one.
Example
In each of the following situations, we determine which
coordinate system is most appropriate
a) Find the center of gravity of a bowling ball. spherical
b) Determine the velocity of a submarine subjected to an ocean
current. rectangular
c) Calculate the pressure in a conical water tank. cylindrical
d) Find the volume of oil flowing through a pipeline. cylindrical
e) Determine the amount of leather required to make a football.
cylindrical

67
Exercises

68
69
70
Conic Sections

71
Applications

72
 Circle
A Circle is the set of points in a plane that lie a fixed distance,
called the radius, from a given point, called the center.

The equation of a circle in a general form

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑒 = 0
Here 𝑐, 𝑑, and 𝑒 are real numbers.
The equation of a circle in a standard form
The circle with center (ℎ, 𝑘) and radius 𝑟 can be represented by
the equation
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2
Example 1
Graph the circle with center (−1,0) and radius 𝑟 = 3. Give its
equation in standard form.
Solution

standard form
(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2

73
 (𝑥 − (−1))2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 = 32
(𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝑦 2 = 9

Example 2
Determine the center and radius: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 6𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 13 = 0
Solution

Begin by rewriting the equation in standard form

(𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + ⋯ )+(𝑦 2 − 8𝑦 + ⋯ ) = −13
Complete the square for each grouping. For the terms involving
6 −8
𝑥 use ( )2 = 9 and for the terms involving 𝑦 use ( )2 = 16.
2 2
2 2
(𝑥 + 6𝑥 + 9)+(𝑦 − 8𝑦 + 16) = −13 + 9 + 16
(𝑥 + 3)2 + (𝑦 − 4)2 = 12
The center is (-3,4)
The radius is 𝑟 = √12 = 2√3

Example 3
Determine the center and radius: 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 − 8𝑥 + 12𝑦 − 3 =
0
Solution

first dividing both sides by 4

3
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − =0
4
3
(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + ⋯ )+(𝑦 2 + 3𝑦 + ⋯ ) =
4
Complete the square for each grouping. For the terms involving
−2 3 9
𝑥 use ( )2 = 1 and for the terms involving 𝑦 use ( )2 = .
2 2 4
9 3 9
(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1)+(𝑦 2 + 3𝑦 + ) = + 1 +
4 4 4
74
 3 2
(𝑥 − 1 )2 + (𝑦 + ) = 4
2
3
The center is (1, − )
2
The radius is 𝑟 = √4 = 2

Try to Solve

Determine the center and radius:

1- 9 𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 + 18𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 1 = 0
2- (𝑥 − 5)2 + (𝑦 + 4)2 = 64
Graph
1- Circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9
2- Circle with center (1, −2) passing through (3, −4)

75
 Parabolas
A parabola is the set of points in a plane equidistant from a
given line, called the directrix, and a point not on the line,
called the focus.

The equation of the parabola in standard form

y-axis parabola

(𝒙 − 𝒉)𝟐 = 𝟒𝒑(𝒚 − 𝒌) (𝒙 − 𝒉)𝟐 = −𝟒𝒑(𝒚 − 𝒌)

 Vertex (ℎ, 𝑘)  Vertex (ℎ, 𝑘)

 Focus: (ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑝)  Focus: (ℎ, 𝑘 − 𝑝)
 Directrix 𝒚 = 𝒌 − 𝒑  Directrix 𝒚 = 𝒌 + 𝒑

x-axis parabola

76
 (𝒚 − 𝒌)𝟐 = 𝟒𝒑(𝒙 − 𝒉) (𝒚 − 𝒌)𝟐 = −𝟒𝒑(𝒙 − 𝒉)

 Vertex (ℎ, 𝑘)  Vertex (ℎ, 𝑘)

 Focus: (ℎ + 𝑝, 𝑘)  Focus: (ℎ − 𝑝, 𝑘)
 Directrix 𝒙 = 𝒉 − 𝒑  Directrix 𝒙 = 𝒉 + 𝒑

Example 1

Find the focus and directrix of the parabola 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝒙.

Solution
since it's 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 parabola 4𝑝 = 12 → 𝑝 = 3,
focus (𝑝, 0) = (3,0)
directrix 𝑥 = −3
Example 2
Find the vertex, focus and directrix of the parabola

𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟐𝒚 = 𝟎
Solution

∴ 𝒙𝟐 = − 𝟏𝟐𝒚
since it's 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 parabola 4𝑝 = 12 → 𝑝 = 3,
focus (0, −𝑝) = (0, −3)

77
directrix 𝑦 = 3
Try to Solve
Find each parabola's vertex, focus and directrix

1. 𝒚𝟐 = − 𝟏𝟐𝒙 2. 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟔𝒚
3. 𝒚𝟐 = −𝟐𝒙 4. 𝟒𝒙𝟐 = 𝒚
5. 𝒙 = −𝟑 𝒚𝟐 6. 𝒙𝟐 = −𝟖𝒚

78
 Ellipses
An ellipse is the set of points in a plane whose distances from
two fixed points, called foci, have a sum that is equal to a
positive constant.

𝑑1 + 𝑑2 = 𝑑

 The point on the axis halfway between the foci is the center.
 the endpoints of the major axis are the vertices.
 the endpoints of the minor axis are the co-vertices
 The major axis of the ellipse is the line segment through the
center of an ellipse defined by two points on the ellipse where
the distance between them is at a maximum.
 The minor axis of the ellipse is the line segment through the
center of an ellipse defined by two points on the ellipse where
the distance between them is at a minimum.
 If the major axis of an ellipse is parallel to the 𝑥-axis, we say
that the ellipse is horizontal.
 If the major axis of an ellipse is parallel to the y-axis, we say
that the ellipse is vertical.

79
The equation of the ellipse in a general form
𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑦 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑒 = 0
Here 𝑐, 𝑑, and 𝑒 are real numbers, 𝑝, 𝑞 > 0
The equation of the ellipse in standard form
𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒑𝒔𝒆 (𝑯𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍)
( 𝒙 − 𝒉)𝟐 (𝒚 − 𝒌)𝟐
+ = 𝟏, a > b
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐

 The major axis of the ellipse is the line segment of length 2𝑎

 The minor axis of the ellipse is the line segment of length2𝑏
 The number 𝑎 itself is the semi major axis
 The number 𝑏 the semi minor axis
 Center (ℎ, 𝑘)
 Vertices: (ℎ ± 𝑎, 𝑘) and (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑏)
 Foci: (ℎ ± 𝑒, 𝑘)
where 𝑒 = √ 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐

Example 1
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
Find the foci and vertices of the ellipse + =𝟏
𝟏𝟔 𝟗

80
Solution
 Semi major axis: 𝑎 = √16 = 4
 Semi minor axis: 𝑏 = √9 = 3
since 𝒂 > 𝒃 → 𝒙 − 𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒑𝒔𝒆
 𝑒 = √ 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐 = √7
 center (0,0)
 Vertices (±𝑎, 0) = (4,0), (−4,0)
(0, ±𝑏) = (0,3), (0, −3)
 Foci (±𝑒, 0) = (±√7, 0)
Example 2
Graph the ellipse
𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎𝒙 − 𝟏𝟔𝒚 + 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎
Solution
𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 4 𝑦 2 − 16𝑦 + 25 = 0
(𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 52 ) + 4( 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + (−2)2 ) = −25 + 52 + (−2)2 ∗ 4
(𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 25) + 4( 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4) = −25 + 25 + 4 ∗ 4
(𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 25) + 4( 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4) = 16
(𝑥 + 5)2 +4 ( 𝑦 − 2)2 = 16
(𝒙+𝟓)𝟐 ( 𝒚−𝟐)𝟐
+ =𝟏
𝟏𝟔 𝟒
 Center is (−5,2)
 Semi major axis: 𝑎 = √16 = 4
 Semi minor axis: 𝑏 = √4 = 2
 Vertices (ℎ ± 𝑎, 𝑘) = (−5 ± 4,2) = (−1,2), (−9,2)
and (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑏) = (−5,2 ± 2) = (−5,4) = (−5,0)

Example 3
(𝒙−𝟑)𝟐 (𝒚+𝟐)𝟐
Find the foci and vertices of the ellipse + =𝟏
𝟗 𝟒
Solution
81
  𝒂𝟐 = 9 → 𝑎 = 3, 𝒃𝟐 = 𝟒 → 𝒃 = 𝟐
 𝑒 = √ 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐 = √9 − 4 = √5
 Center (ℎ, 𝑘) = (3, −2)
 Vertices: (ℎ ± 𝑎, 𝑘) = (3 ± 3, −2) = (6, −2), (0, −2)
and (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑏) = (3, −2 ± 2) = (3,0), (3, −4)
Foci: (ℎ ± 𝑒, 𝑘) = (3 ± √5, −2)

𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒑𝒔𝒆 (𝑽𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍)

(𝒚 − 𝒌)𝟐 (𝒙 − 𝒉)𝟐
+ = 𝟏, a > b
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
 The number 𝑎 itself is the semi major axis
 The number 𝑏 the semi minor axis.
 Center (ℎ, 𝑘)
 Vertices: (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑎) and (ℎ ± 𝑏, 𝑘)
 Foci: (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑒)
 𝑒 = √ 𝒂 𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐

Example 4

Find the foci and vertices of the ellipse 𝟒 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒

Solution
𝒚𝟐
𝒙𝟐 + =𝟏
𝟒

 Semi major axis: 𝑎 = √4 = 2

 Semi minor axis: 𝑏 = √1 = 1
since 𝑎 > 𝑏 → 𝑦 − 𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑒
 center (0,0)
 Vertices (0, ±𝑎) = (0,2), (0, −2)
and (±𝑏, 0) = (1,0), (−1,0)
 𝑒 = √ 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐 = √4 − 1 = √3
 Foci (0, ±𝑒) = (0, ±√3)
82
 Example 5
Determine the center of the ellipse as well as the lengths of the
major and minor axes:

𝟓𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟑𝟎𝒙 + 𝟒𝟎 = 𝟎
Solution
( 5𝑥 2 − 30𝑥) + 𝑦 2 = −40
5( 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥) + 𝑦 2 = −40
6 2 6 2
5 ( 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + (− ) ) + 𝑦 2 = −40 + (− ) ∗ 5
2 2
2 2
5( 𝑥 − 6𝑥 + 9) + 𝑦 = −40 + 45
5(𝑥 − 3)2 + 𝑦 2 = 5
𝑦2
(𝑥 − 3)2 + =1
5
 𝑎2 = 5 → 𝑎 = √5, 𝑏 2 = 1 → 𝑏 = 1
 Major axis 𝟐𝒂 = 2√5
 Minor axis 2b=2
 Center (ℎ, 𝑘) = (3,0)
 Vertices (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑎) = (3, √5), (3, −√5)
and (ℎ ± 𝑏, 𝑘) = (4,0), (2,0)
 𝑒 = √ 𝒂𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐 = √5 − 1 = 2
 Foci (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑒) = (3, ±2)
Try to Solve
Find each ellipse's foci and vertices
1-
𝒙𝟐
+ 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏
𝟐

83
 Hyperbola
A hyperbola is the set of points in a plane whose distances from
two fixed points called foci, has an absolute difference that is
equal to a positive constant.

|𝑑1 − 𝑑2 | = 𝑑

 A hyperbola consists of two separate curves, called

branches.
 Points on the separate branches of the graph where the
distance is at a minimum are called vertices.
 The midpoint between a hyperbola’s vertices is its center.
 a hyperbola is asymptotic to certain lines drawn through the
center
The equation of the hyperbola in a general form

84
 𝑝𝑥 2 − 𝑞𝑦 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑒 = 0 or 𝑞𝑦 2 − 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 +
𝑒=0
Here 𝑐, 𝑑, and 𝑒 are real numbers, 𝑝, 𝑞 > 0
The equation of the hyperbola in standard form
𝒙 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒉𝒚𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒂 (𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕)

( 𝒙 − 𝒉)𝟐 (𝒚 − 𝒌)𝟐
− =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
 Center (ℎ, 𝑘)
 Vertices: (ℎ ± 𝑎, 𝑘)
 Foci: (ℎ ± 𝑒, 𝑘)
 𝑒 = √ 𝒂 𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐
𝑏
 asymptotes )‫ 𝑦( (خطوط التقارب‬− 𝑘) = ± (𝑥 − ℎ)
𝑎
 The fastest way to find the equations of the asymptotes is to
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
replace the 1 in Equation − = 𝟏 by 0
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝑏
i.e.
𝒂 𝟐 − 𝒃𝟐
=0→
𝒃𝟐
=
𝒂𝟐
→𝑦=± 𝑥
𝑎

Example 1
Graph the hyperbola
( 𝑥 − 5)2 (𝑦 − 4)2
− =1
9 4
Solution

85
Since x has a positive leading coefficient; therefore, the
hyperbola opens left and right.
𝑎 = √9 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = √4 = 2
The center is (5,4), mark points 3 units left and right as well
as 2 units up and down. Connect these points with a rectangle
as follows

Use these dashed lines as a guide to graph the hyperbola

opening left and right passing through the vertices

86
 Example 2
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
Find the foci and vertices of the hyperbola − =𝟏
𝟒 𝟓

Solution

𝑎 = √4 = 2 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑏 = √5
since 𝑥 − hyperbola

 𝑒 = √ 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 = √4 + 5 = 3
 Foci (±𝑒, 0) = (±3,0)
 Vertices (±𝑎, 0) = (±2,0)
√5
 asymptotes 𝑦 = ± 𝑥
2
Example 3

Find the vertices of the hyperbola 𝟑 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟎

Solution
𝑥2 𝑦2
divide both sides by 12 − =1
4 6

𝑎 = √4 = 2 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑏 = √6
Center (0,0)
Vertices (±𝑎, 0) = (±2,0)
𝒚 − 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 𝒉𝒚𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒍𝒂 (𝑼𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅)
87
 ( 𝒚 − 𝒌)𝟐 (𝒙 − 𝒉)𝟐
− =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
 Center (ℎ, 𝑘)
 Vertices: (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑎)
 Foci: (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑒)
 𝑒 = √ 𝒂 𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐
𝑎
 asymptotes )‫ 𝑦( (خطوط التقارب‬− 𝑘) = ± (𝑥 − ℎ)
𝑏

Example 4
𝒚𝟐 (𝒙−𝟓)𝟐
Find the foci and vertices of the hyperbola − =𝟏
𝟐𝟓 𝟗

Solution

 𝑎 = √25 = 5
 𝑏 = √9 = 3
since 𝑦 − hyperbola
 Center ((ℎ, 𝑘) =(5,0)
 𝑒 = √ 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 = √9 + 25 = √34
 Vertices (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑎) = (5, ±5)
 Foci (ℎ, 𝑘 ± 𝑒) = (5, ±√34)
 asymptotes
5
 (𝑦 − 0) = ± (𝑥 − 5)
3

88
Try to Solve
Find each ellipse's foci and vertices
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐 𝒚𝟐
2- − =𝟏 3- − 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟏
𝟒 𝟗 𝟒

89
90
 Differential Equations
In this chapter, we will study some basic concepts related to
differential equation, general and particular solutions of a
differential equation, formation of differential equations, some
methods to solve a first order - first degree differential equation
and some applications of differential equations in different
areas.
An equation involving derivative (derivatives) of the
dependent variable (variables) with respect to independent
variable (variables) is called a differential equation.
A differential equation involving derivatives of the dependent
variable with respect to only one independent variable is called
an ordinary differential equation (ODE).
𝑑𝑦
𝑥 +𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑥

Order and degree of a differential equation

Order of a differential equation is defined as the order of the
highest order derivative of the dependent variable with respect
to the independent variable involved in the given differential
equation.
Degree is the power of the highest order derivative
involved in the given differential equation.
Consider the following differential equations:
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑒𝑥 first order & first degree
𝑑𝑥

𝑑2 𝑦
+ 𝑦 = 0 second order & first degree
𝑑𝑥 2
3
𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
+ 𝑥 2 ( 2) = 0 third order &first degree
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥

91
𝑦 ′′′ + 𝑦 2 + 𝑒 𝑦′ = 0 third order & its degree is not defined.
Denote
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑3 𝑦
= 𝑦′ & = 𝑦′′& = 𝑦′′′ and so on……
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 3

Try to solve

General and Particular Solutions of a Differential Equation

Example 1
Verify 𝑦 = 𝑒 −3𝑥 is a solution of the differential equation
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+ − 6𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

Solution
since 𝑦 = 𝑒 −3𝑥 ⟹ 𝑦 ′ = −3𝑒 −3𝑥 ⟹ 𝑦′′ = 9𝑒 −3𝑥
Substituting in DE

92
 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
L.H.S= + − 6𝑦 = 9𝑒 −3𝑥 − 3𝑒 −3𝑥 − 6(𝑒 −3𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
= 0=R.H.S
Therefore, the given function is a general solution of the given
differential equation.
Example 2
Verify 𝑦 = 𝑎 cos 𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 𝑥 is a solution of the differential
equation
𝑑2 𝑦
+𝑦=0
𝑑𝑥 2

Solution
since 𝑦 = 𝑎 cos 𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 𝑥 ⟹
𝑦 ′ = − asin 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑦 ′′ = −𝑎 cos 𝑥 − 𝑏 sin 𝑥
Substituting in DE
𝑑2 𝑦
L.H.S= + 𝑦 = −𝑎 cos 𝑥 − 𝑏 sin 𝑥 + (𝑎 cos 𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 𝑥 ) =
𝑑𝑥 2
0=R.H.S
Formation of a Differential Equation whose General
Solution is given
Suppose 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 4 = 0 , represents a circle
having center at (–1, 2) and radius 1 unit.
Differentiating equation of circle with respect to x, we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑥+1
= , which is a differential equation (DE).
𝑑𝑥 2−𝑦

93
 Example 3
Form the differential equation representing the family of
curves 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥, where, m is arbitrary constant.
Solution
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 , differentiating both sides of equation with respect to
x, we get
𝑑𝑦
=𝑚
𝑑𝑥
Substituting the value of m in equation, we get
𝑑𝑦
𝑦 = .𝑥
𝑑𝑥
which is free from the parameter m and hence this is the
required DE.
Example 4
Form the differential equation representing the family of
curves 𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝑥 + 𝑏 cos 𝑥, where, a, b are arbitrary
constants.
Solution
𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝑥 + 𝑏 cos 𝑥,
Differentiating both sides of equation with respect to x, we get

𝑦 ′ = acos 𝑥 − 𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑦 ′′ = −𝑎 sin 𝑥 − 𝑏 cos 𝑥
𝑦 ′′ = −(𝑎 sin 𝑥 + 𝑏 cos 𝑥 )
Eliminating a and b from equations 𝑦 ′′ = −𝑦

94
Which is free from the arbitrary constants a and b and hence this
required differential equation.
Try to solve
Form the differential equation representing the family of
curves

1- 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 2
2- 𝑦 =A 𝑒 2𝑥

Methods of Solving First Order, First Degree Differential

Equations
1. Separation of Variables

A first order-first degree differential equation is of the form

𝑑𝑦
= 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦) (1)
𝑑𝑥

If 𝐹 (𝑥, 𝑦) can be expressed as a product 𝑔(𝑥) ℎ(𝑦), where,

𝑔 (𝑥) is a function of 𝑥 and ℎ(𝑦) is a function of 𝑦, then the
differential equation (1) is said to be of variable separable type.
The differential equation (1) then has the form
𝑑𝑦
= ℎ(𝑦). 𝑔(𝑥 ) (2)
𝑑𝑥

If ℎ(𝑦) ≠ 0, separating the variables, (2) can be rewritten as

1
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 (3)
ℎ(𝑦)

Integrating both sides of (3), we get

1
∫ ℎ(𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 (4)

Thus, (4) provides the solutions of given differential equation in

the form

95
 𝐻 (𝑦) = 𝐺 (𝑥 ) + 𝑐
Example 1
𝑑𝑦 𝑥+1
Find the general solution of the differential equation =
𝑑𝑥 2−𝑦

Solution
Separating the variables (2 − 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = (1 + 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑦2 𝑥2
Integrating both sides 2𝑦 − = + 𝑥 + 𝑐1
2 2

or 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0, 𝑐 = 2𝑐1
which is the general solution of equation.
Example 2
𝑑𝑦 1+𝑦 2
Find the general solution of the differential equation =
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑥 2

Solution
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
Separating the variables =
1+𝑦 2 1+𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
Integrating both sides ∫ =∫
1+𝑦 2 1+𝑥 2

tan−1 𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 + 𝑐
which is the general solution of equation.
Example 3
Find the general solution of the differential equation
𝑑𝑦
= −4𝑥𝑦 2 given that y = 1, when x = 0.
𝑑𝑥

Solution
𝑑𝑦
Separating the variables = −4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑦2

96
 𝑑𝑦
Integrating both sides ∫ 2 = ∫ −4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑦

−1
= −2𝑥 2 + 𝑐
𝑦

1
or 𝑦=
2𝑥 2 −𝑐

Substituting y = 1 and x = 0 in equation, we get 𝑐 = −1

we get the particular solution of the given differential equation
1
as 𝑦 =
2𝑥 2 +1

Example 4
Find the equation of the curve passing through the point (1, 1)
whose differential equation is 𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = (2𝑥 2 + 1)dx
Solution
(2𝑥 2 +1)
Separating the variables 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
1
Integrating both sides ∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫(2𝑥 + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥

𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + ln|𝑥 | + 𝑐 )
at the point (1, 1) 1 = 1 + ln 1 + 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑐 = 0

∴ 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + ln|𝑥 |)
Try to solve
1+cos 𝑥
1- 𝑦 ′ =
1−cos 𝑦
𝑑𝑦
2- 𝑥 5 = −𝑦 5
𝑑𝑥

3- 𝑒 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑑𝑦
4- 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦 sec 𝑥
5- 𝑦 ′ = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑥𝑦

97
 2. Homogeneous Differential Equations

The following function in 𝑥 and 𝑦 , 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is a homogeneous

function if
𝑓(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = 𝜆𝑛 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑑𝑦
A differential equation of the form = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)is said to be
𝑑𝑥
homogenous if 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦)is a homogenous function of degree zero.
To solve a homogeneous differential equation of the type
𝑑𝑦
= 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) …(1)
𝑑𝑥

We make the substitution 𝑦 = 𝑣. 𝑥 …..(2)

Differentiating equation (2) with respect to x, we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑣 + 𝑥. ….(3)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
Substituting the value of from equation (3) in equation (1),
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
we get 𝑣 + 𝑥. = 𝑔(𝑣) or 𝑥. = 𝑔(𝑣) − 𝑣 ….(4)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Separating the variables in equation (4), we get

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
= …..(5)
(𝑔(𝑣)−𝑣) 𝑥

Integrating both sides of equation (5), we get

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
∫ (𝑔(𝑣)−𝑣) = ∫ +C …(6)
𝑥

Equation (6) gives general solution (primitive) of the differential

equation (1) when we replace 𝑣 by 𝑦/𝑥
Example 5
𝑑𝑦
Solve the following differential equation (𝑥 − 𝑦) =y
dx

98
 𝑑𝑦 y
Solution = Equation is homogeneous
dx 𝑥−𝑦

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣
𝑦 = 𝑣. 𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑣 + 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣𝑣.𝑥
(𝑣 + 𝑥. ) = (𝑥−𝑣.𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣 𝑣.𝑥
𝑣 + 𝑥. =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥(1−𝑣 )
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑣−𝑣+𝑣 2
𝑥. = (1−𝑣 )
−𝑣 = (1−𝑣 )
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑣 𝑣2
𝑥. = (1−𝑣 )
separate variables
𝑑𝑥

(1−𝑣)𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
=
𝑣2 𝑥

(1−𝑣)𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
∫ =∫
𝑣2 𝑥
1
− − ln|𝑣| = ln|𝑥 | + 𝑐
𝑣

𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
put 𝑣 = ⟹ − − ln | | = ln|𝑥 | + 𝑐
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥

Example 6
𝑑𝑦
Solve the following differential equation (𝑥 − 𝑦) =x+y
dx

Solution
𝑑𝑦 x+y
=
dx 𝑥−𝑦

x+y
Let 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) =
𝑥−𝑦

𝜆x+𝜆y 𝜆(x+y)
𝑓(𝜆𝑥, 𝜆𝑦) = = = 𝜆0 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝜆𝑥−𝜆𝑦 𝜆(𝑥−𝑦)

Therefore, 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is a homogenous function of degree zero. So,

the given differential equation is a homogenous differential
equation.

99
 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣
𝑦 = 𝑣. 𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑣 + 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 x+y
=
dx 𝑥−𝑦

𝑑𝑣 x+𝑣x x(1+𝑣)
⇒ 𝑣 + 𝑥. = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥−𝑣𝑥 𝑥(1−𝑣)

𝑑𝑣 (1+𝑣)
⇒ 𝑣 + 𝑥. =
𝑑𝑥 (1−𝑣)

𝑑𝑣 (1+𝑣)
𝑥. = −𝑣
𝑑𝑥 (1−𝑣)

𝑑𝑣 1+𝑣−𝑣+𝑣 2
𝑥. = Separate variables
𝑑𝑥 (1−𝑣)

(1−𝑣)𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
=
(1+𝑣 2 ) 𝑥

(1−𝑣)𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
∫ =∫
(1+𝑣 2 ) 𝑥

𝑑𝑣 𝑣𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
∫ (1+𝑣2 ) − ∫ (1+𝑣2 ) = ∫ 𝑥

1
tan−1 𝑣 − ln(1 + 𝑣 2 ) = ln 𝑥 + ln 𝑐
2

tan−1 𝑣 = ln 𝑐𝑥√(1 + 𝑣 2 )
𝑦 𝑦
put 𝑣 = ⟹ tan−1 = ln 𝑐√(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
𝑥 𝑥

Example 7
Solve the following differential equation
(𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 )dx − 3x𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = 0
Solution
(𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 )dx = 3x𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 3 +𝑦 3 )
= Equation is homogeneous
𝑑𝑥 3x𝑦 2

100
 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣
Put 𝑦 = 𝑣. 𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑣 + 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑣 𝑥 3 +(𝑣𝑥)3 𝑥 3 (1+𝑣 3 )
𝑣 + 𝑥. = =
𝑑𝑥 3x(𝑥𝑣)2 3𝑥 3 𝑣 2

𝑑𝑣 (1+𝑣) (1+𝑣 3 )−3𝑣 3

𝑥. = −𝑣 =
𝑑𝑥 3𝑣 2 3𝑣 2

𝑑𝑣 1−2𝑣 3
𝑥. = Separate variables
𝑑𝑥 3𝑣 2

3𝑣 2 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
=
1−2𝑣 3 𝑥

3𝑣 2 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
∫ 1−2𝑣3 = ∫ 𝑥
1
− ln(|1 − 2𝑣 3 |) = ln|𝑥 | + ln 𝑐
2

ln(1 − 2𝑣 3 )−1/2 = ln 𝑐𝑥

(1 − 2𝑣 3 )−1/2 = 𝑐𝑥
𝑦 𝑦
put 𝑣 = ⟹ (1 − 2( )3 )−1/2 = 𝑐𝑥
𝑥 𝑥

Try to solve

101
 3. Exact Differential Equations

The ordinary differential equation 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0

is Exact if
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄
=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

The general solution is

∫ 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑄 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑐

Example 8
Solve the following differential equation
(2𝑥 3 + 3y)dx + (3x + y − 1)𝑑𝑦 = 0
Solution
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2𝑥 3 + 3y and 𝑄 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 3x + y − 1
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄
=3 and =3
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄
∴ = the differential equation is exact
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

1
∫ 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑥 4 + 3𝑥𝑦 ‫الحد المشترك بين التكاملين يكتب مرة واحدة‬
‫فى الحل العام‬
1
∫ 𝑄 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑦 + 2 𝑦 2 − 𝑦

The general solution is

1 1
𝑥 4 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑦 = 𝑐
2 2

Example 9
Solve the following differential equation
2 2
(2𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 y + 3𝑥 2 )dx + (𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0

102
Solution
2 2
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 y + 3𝑥 2 and 𝑄 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑒 𝑥 − 2𝑦
𝜕𝑃 2 𝜕𝑄 2
= 2𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 and = 2𝑥 𝑒 𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄
∴ = the differential equation is exact
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
2
∫ 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥 3
2
∫ 𝑄 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑦 2
The general solution is
2
𝑦 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑥 3 − 𝑦2 = 𝑐
4. Reducible to Exact Differential Equations

Let the ordinary differential equation is in the form

𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑄 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0…(1)
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄
If ≠ , then the differential equation is not exact. We
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
calculate the integrating factor 𝜇(𝑥, 𝑦) ≠ 0 to transform
differential equation to exact.
Multiplication equation (1) by 𝜇(𝑥, 𝑦), we get
𝜇(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝜇(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑄 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0…(2)
Then the equation (2) is exact.
We have two cases for integrating factor:
∂P ∂Q
dμ −
∂y ∂x
Case 1 = dx
μ Q

∂P ∂Q
dμ −[∂y− ∂x ]
Case 2 = dy
μ P

103
 Example 10
Solve the following differential equation
4xydx + (4𝑥 2 + 3𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0 (*)
Solution
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) = 4xy and 𝑄 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 4𝑥 2 + 3𝑦
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄
= 4x and = 8x
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄
∴ ≠ the differential equation is not exact.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

∂P ∂Q
dμ [∂y− ∂x ] −(4x−8x)
∴ =− dy = 𝑑𝑦
μ P 4𝑥𝑦
4x 1
= 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑦
4𝑥𝑦 𝑦
dμ 1
∴ = 𝑑𝑦 Integrate both sides
μ 𝑦

ln 𝜇 = ln 𝑦 →𝜇=𝑦
Multiplication equation (*) by 𝜇

𝑦(4xy)dx − 3𝑦(4𝑥 2 + 3𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0

4x𝑦 2 dx + (4𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 0

2) 𝑥2
∫ 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 = ∫(4x𝑦 dx = 𝑦2
2

𝑦2
∫ 𝑄 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = ∫(4𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 2
𝑥2 + 𝑦3

The general solution is

𝑦2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦3 = 𝑐
2

104
 Example 11
Solve the following differential equation
(𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 )dx − 3x𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = 0 (*)

Solution
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 ) and 𝑄 (𝑥, 𝑦) = −3x𝑦 2
𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄
= 3𝑦 2 and = −3𝑦 2
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝑄
∴ ≠ the differential equation is not exact.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

∂P ∂Q
dμ − ][ 3𝑦 2 − (3𝑦 2 )
∂y ∂x
∴ = dx = 𝑑𝑥
μ Q −3𝑥𝑦 2
6𝑦 2 2
= 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑥
−3𝑥𝑦 2 𝑥
dμ 2
∴ = − 𝑑𝑥 Integrate both sides
μ 𝑥

1
ln 𝜇 = −2 ln 𝑥 → ln 𝜇 = ln 𝑥 −2 → 𝜇 = 𝑥 −2 =
𝑥2

Multiplication equation (*) by 𝜇

𝟏 1
(𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 )dx − 3 x𝑦 2 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝒙𝟐 𝑥2
𝑦3 1 2
(x + ) dx − 3 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑥2 𝑥

𝑦3 𝑥2 𝑦3
∫ 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (x + 𝑥 2 ) dx = 2
−
𝑥

1 2 𝑦3
∫ 𝑄 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = ∫ −3 𝑥 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = − 𝑥

The general solution is

𝑥2 𝑦3
− =𝑐
2 𝑥

105
 Try to solve
1. 2xydx + (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 0
2. (y + 2x)dx + xdy = 0
3. e−𝑦 dx − (2y + xe−𝑦 )𝑑𝑦 = 0
4. (cos 𝑦 + 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + (sin 𝑥 − 𝑥 sin 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0
5. (1 − xy)dx + (xy − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 0
6. 𝑦(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 2 + 3𝑦 2 )𝑑𝑦 = 0
7. (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑦 = 0
8. (2y − 3x)dx + x𝑑𝑦 = 0

5. Linear Differential Equations

Let the ordinary differential equation is in the form

𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑃(𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑄 (𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
First, we determine

𝐼 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , it is called Integrating factor

The general solution is

𝐼 (𝑥 )𝑦 = ∫ 𝐼 (𝑥 ). 𝑄 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐
Example 12
Solve the following differential equation
𝑑𝑦 1
+ 𝑦 = 2𝑥, with 𝑥 = −1 𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 1
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

Solution
1
𝑃(𝑥 ) = and 𝑄 (𝑥 ) = 2𝑥
𝑥

106
 1
𝐼 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 ∫𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥
The general solution is

𝑥. 𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥. (2𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐
2 3
𝑥. 𝑦 = 𝑥 +𝑐
3
𝑥 = −1 𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 1
2 𝟓
−1 = + 𝑐 →∴ 𝑐 = −
3 𝟑
2 3 5
𝑥. 𝑦 = 𝑥 −
3 3
Example 13
Solve the following differential equation
𝑑𝑦
−𝑦 =𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Solution
𝑃(𝑥 ) = −1 and 𝑄 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥

𝐼 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 ∫ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 ∫ −1𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 − 𝑥
The general solution is

𝑒 − 𝑥 . 𝑦 = ∫ 𝑒 − 𝑥 . 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐
We integrate by parts
𝑢 = 𝑥, 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥, 𝑣 = −𝑒 −𝑥
𝑒 − 𝑥 . 𝑦 = −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑐
Example 14
107
Solve the following differential equation
𝑑𝑦
+ tan 𝑥 𝑦 = sec 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
Solution
𝑃(𝑥 ) = tan 𝑥 and 𝑄 (𝑥 ) = sec 𝑥

𝐼 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 ∫ tan 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 ln sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑥

The general solution is

sec 𝑥 . 𝑦 = ∫ sec 𝑥 . sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐

sec 𝑥 . 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 + 𝑐

Try to solve

1. y ′ (x − 1) − 𝑦 = 2(x − 1)3
2
2. y ′ − (x+1) 𝑦 = (x + 1)2
dy
3. − 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑡 𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

4. 𝑦 ′ + 2𝑥𝑦 = 2𝑥
5. y ′ cos 𝑥 + 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 1

108
 Second order differential equations
In this chapter we will be looking exclusively at linear second
order differential equations
𝑎𝑦 ′′ + 𝑏𝑦 ′ + 𝑐𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) (1)
where 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 are constants
When 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 0, we call the differential equation homogeneous
and when 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≠ 0,we call the differential equation
nonhomogeneous.
The general solution equals the sum of the homogeneous
solution and the particular solution.
𝑦𝐺 = 𝑦𝐻 + 𝑦𝑃
I - The homogeneous solution
𝑎𝑦 ′′ + 𝑏𝑦 ′ + 𝑐𝑦 = 0 (2)

Let 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝜆𝑥 is a solution of equation (2), then

𝑦′ = 𝜆𝑒 𝜆𝑥 and

𝑦′′ = 𝜆2 𝑒 𝜆𝑥

𝑎(𝜆2 𝑒 𝜆𝑥 ) + 𝑏(𝜆𝑒 𝜆𝑥 ) + 𝑐(𝑒 𝜆𝑥 ) = 0

𝑒 𝜆𝑥 (𝑎𝜆2 + 𝑏𝜆 + 𝑐) = 0

since 𝑒 𝜆𝑥 ≠ 0 ∴ (𝑎𝜆2 + 𝑏𝜆 + 𝑐) = 0
This equation is typically called the characteristic equation.
This characteristic equation is quadratic and so will have two
roots 𝜆1 and 𝜆2 . The roots will have three possible forms.
These are

109
 1. Real and distinct roots 𝜆1 ≠ 𝜆2
The general solution is

𝑦𝐻 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝜆1 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝜆2 𝑥

2. Real and repeated roots, 𝜆1 = 𝜆2 = 𝜆

The general solution is

𝑦𝐻 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝜆𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥𝑒 𝜆𝑥

3. Complex root 𝜆1,2 =∝ ±𝛽𝑖

The general solution is

𝑦𝐻 = 𝑒 ∝𝑥 (𝑐1 cos 𝛽𝑥 + 𝑐1 sin𝛽 𝑥)

Example 1
Solve the following differential equations
1- 𝑦 ′′ − 2𝑦 ′ − 3𝑦 = 0
Solution
The characteristic equation is

𝜆2 − 2𝜆 − 3 = 0
(𝜆 − 3)(𝜆 + 1) = 0

𝜆1 = 3 or 𝜆2 = −1 real & distinct

𝑦𝐻 = 𝑐1 𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥
2- 𝑦 ′′ − 2𝑦 ′ + 𝑦 = 0
Solution
The characteristic equation is

𝜆2 − 2𝜆 + 1 = 0
110
 (𝜆 − 1)(𝜆 − 1) = 0

𝜆1 = 1 or 𝜆2 = 1 real& repeat
𝑦𝐻 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
3- 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑦 = 0
Solution
The characteristic equation is

𝜆2 + 1 = 0
𝜆2 = −1 = 𝑖 2
𝜆 = ±𝒊 complex
𝑦𝐻 = 𝑐1 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 𝑥
4- 𝑦 ′′ + 2𝑦 ′ + 2𝑦 = 0
Solution
The characteristic equation is

𝜆2 + 2𝜆 + 2 = 0
A = 1 ,B = 2 ,C = 2

𝐵 ± √𝐵2 − 4𝐴𝐶
𝜆=−
2𝐴
2 ± √22 − 4 ∗ 2 ∗ 2 −2 ± 2𝑖
=− =
2∗1 2
𝜆 =1±𝑖
𝑦𝐻 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑐1 cos 𝑥 + 𝑐2 sin 𝑥)

111
 Try to solve
Solve the following differential equations
3- 𝑦 ′′ − 10𝑦 ′ + 16𝑦 = 0
4- 𝑦 ′′ − 14𝑦 ′ − 48𝑦 = 0
5- 𝑦 ′′ + 2𝑦 ′ + 5𝑦 = 0
6- 𝑦 ′′ + 4𝑦 ′ + 13𝑦 = 0
7- 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑦 ′ = 0

II- The Particular solution

In this section we will take a look at the first method that can be
used to find a particular solution to a nonhomogeneous
differential equation.

𝑦 ′′ + 𝑏𝑦 ′ + 𝑐𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 0

1- IF 𝒇(𝐱) = 𝐞𝛌𝐱

Example 2
Solve the following differential equations
𝑦 ′′ − 𝑦 ′ − 2𝑦 = 6e2x
Solution
The characteristic equation is 𝜆2 − 𝜆 − 2 = 0
(𝜆 − 2)(𝜆 + 1) = 0

𝜆1 = 2 or 𝜆2 = −1 real & distinct

𝑦𝐻 = 𝑐1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 → 1
Suppose the particular solution is 𝑦𝑃 = Ae2x

112
Then, compare 𝑦𝑃 with 𝑦𝐻 if there is a similar term, multiply 𝑦𝑃
by 𝑥

∴ 𝑦𝑃 = 𝐴𝑥𝑒 2𝑥
Get the first and second derivatives
∴ 𝑦′𝑃 = A( 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 )= A𝑒 2𝑥 (1 + 2𝑥)

∴ 𝑦′′𝑃 = A( 2𝑒 2𝑥 + 4𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝑒 2𝑥 ) = A𝑒 2𝑥 ( 4 + 4𝑥)

Plugging into the differential equation given

A𝑒 2𝑥 ( 4 + 4𝑥 ) − A𝑒 2𝑥 (1 + 2𝑥 ) − 2𝐴𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 = 6e2x
A𝑒 2𝑥 (4 + 4𝑥 − 1 − 2𝑥 − 2𝑥 ) = 6e2x
3𝐴𝑒 2𝑥 = 6e2x
3𝐴 = 6 → 𝐴 = 2
∴ 𝑦𝑃 = 2𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 → 2
From equations 1& 2

𝑦𝐺 = 𝑐1 𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑒 2𝑥

2- IF 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐚𝒙𝒏 + 𝒃𝒙𝒏−𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝒄

Example 3
Solve the following differential equations
𝑦 ′′ − 2𝑦 ′ − 3𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 3
Solution
The characteristic equation is 𝜆2 − 2𝜆 − 3 = 0
(𝜆 − 3)(𝜆 + 1) = 0

𝜆1 = 3 or 𝜆2 = −1 real & distinct

𝑦𝐻 = 𝑐1 𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 → 1

113
Suppose the particular solution is 𝑦𝑃 = a𝑥 2 + 𝑏x + c
Get the first and second derivatives

∴ 𝑦′𝑃 = 2ax + b
∴ 𝑦′′𝑃 = 2a
Plugging into the differential equation given

2𝑎 − 2(2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) − 3(a𝑥 2 + 𝑏x + c) = 𝑥 2 − 3
Compare the coefficient of 𝑥 2
1
−3𝑎 = 1 → 𝑎 = −
3

Compare the coefficient of x

4
−4a − 3b = 0 → −4a = 3b → 𝑏 =
9

Compare the coefficient of 𝑥 0

2 8 −14
2a − 2b − 3c = −3 → 3c = − − → 𝑐 =
3 9 9

1 4 14
∴ 𝑦𝑃 = − 𝑥 2 + x − →2
3 9 9
from equations 1& 2
1 4 14
𝑦𝐺 = 𝑐1 𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 + − 𝑥 2 + x −
3 9 9
3- IF 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛌𝐱 or 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛌𝐱

114
 Example 4
Solve the following differential equations
𝑦 ′′ − 𝑦 = 10 cos 2𝑥
Solution
The characteristic equation is 𝜆2 − 1 = 0
(𝜆 − 1)(𝜆 + 1) = 0

𝜆1 = 1 or 𝜆2 = −1 real & distinct

𝑦𝐻 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 → 1
Suppose the particular solution is 𝑦𝑃 = A cos 2𝑥 + 𝐵 sin2 𝑥
Get the first and second derivatives
∴ 𝑦′𝑃 = −2A sin 2𝑥 + 2𝐵 cos2 𝑥
∴ 𝑦′′𝑃 = −4A cos 2𝑥 − 4𝐵 sin2 𝑥
Plugging into the differential equation given
−4A cos 2𝑥 − 4𝐵 sin2 𝑥 − (A cos 2𝑥 + 𝐵 sin2 𝑥 ) = 10 cos 2𝑥
−5A cos 2𝑥 − 5𝐵 sin2 𝑥 = 10 cos 2𝑥
Compare the coefficient of cos 2𝑥

−5A = 10 → 𝐴 = −2
Compare the coefficient of sin 2𝑥
−5B = 0 → 𝐵 = −2 cos 2𝑥
∴ 𝑦𝑃 = −2 cos 2𝑥 → 2
from equations 1& 2
𝑦𝐺 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 −𝑥 − 2 cos 2𝑥

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 Try to solve
Solve the following differential equations
1. 𝑦 ′′ − 6𝑦 ′ + 9𝑦 = 𝑒 3𝑥
2. 2𝑦 ′′ − 𝑦 ′ − 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥
3. 𝑦 ′′ − 𝑦 ′ + 5𝑦 = sin 2𝑥
4. 𝑦 ′′ + 4𝑦 = sin 2𝑥
5. 𝑦 ′′ + 2𝑦 ′ = 𝑥 2 + 2

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