Heat Transfer by Convection

Heat transfer by convection is attributable to macroscopic motion of the fluid and therefore is
confined to liquids and gases. Convection is therefore, the motion of the hot body itself, carrying its
heat with it.

The basic equation for the rate of heat transfer by convection under steady state conditions is
q = hAT
Where h is the heat transfer coefficient, which depends on the type of agitation and nature of the
fluid.

Heat Transfer Coefficient

The heat transfer coefficient is a measure of the intensity of heat-transfer between the surface of a
body and its surroundings and its unit is W/m2 K. Table shown below gives the range of some heat
transfer coefficients for various mechanisms of heat transfer.

Table: The heat transfer coefficients

Mechanism Heat Transfer Coefficient, h (W/m2K)

Still air 2.8-23
Moving air 11.35-55
Moving hydrocarbons 55-1700
Moving water 280-17000
Boiling liquids 1700-28000
Condensing organics 1100-2800
Condensing steam 5700-28000

So many factors influence the value of h that it is almost impossible to determine their individual
effects by direct experimental methods. By arranging the variables in a series of dimensionless
groups, the problem is made more manageable in that the number of groups is significantly less than
the number of parameters. It is found that the heat transfer rate per unit area q is dependent on those
physical properties which affect flow pattern-viscosity μ and density ρ, the thermal properties of the
fluid-specific heat capacity Cp and thermal conductivity k, a linear dimension of the surface D, the
velocity of flow u of the fluid over the surface, the temperature difference ∆T and the factor
determining the natural circulation effect caused by the expansion of the fluid on heating-the
product of the coefficient of cubical expansion β and the acceleration due to gravity g. Writing this
as a functional relationship:
q = f (u, D,  ,  , C p , T ,  , g , k )

With nine parameters and four dimensions in above equation will be rearranged in four
dimensionless groups.
hD  Dv  C p   gTD 3  2 
=     
k    k  2 
Nu =  (Re)(Pr)(Gr )
This general equation involves the use of four dimensionless groups but may frequently be
simplified for design purposes.

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Non-dimensional groups
hD
Nu = Nusselt group
k
Dv
Re = Reynolds group

Cp
Pr = Prandtl group
k
gTD 3  2
Gr = Grashof group
2

In the case of convection, heat is transferred from one place to another by the physical mixing of the
hot and cold portions of a fluid. When the mixing occurs due to density difference alone, it is called
natural convection. When it occurs due to the placement of a mechanically induced agitator within
the fluid, or by the introduction of a prime mover, such as a pump, fan, blower, etc. into the system,
it is called forced convection.

For conditions in which only natural convection occurs the velocity is dependent solely on the
buoyancy effects, represented by the Grashof number and the Reynolds group can be omitted.
Nu = g (Pr)(Gr )

For conditions in which only forced convection occurs, the buoyancy effects are negligible.
Therefore, the Grashof group can be omitted.
Nu = f (Re)(Pr)

HEAT TRANSFER CORRELATION FOR NATURAL CONVECTION

hD  D 3  2 gT C p  
From dimensional analysis = f  , 
k   2
k 
where Gr is the Grashof number and the additional variables are acceleration due to gravity, g,
coefficient of thermal expansion, β, and temperature difference, ΔT.

Flow of a fluid normal to a horizontal cylinder/pipe

When the flow of a fluid is normal to a horizontal cylinder, the equation for the calculation of heat
transfer coefficient for natural convection is
 D 3  2 gT   C p  
1/ 4 1/ 4
hD
= 0.53    for 104 < (Pr.Gr) < 109
k   2
  k 
 D 3  2 gT   C p  
0.33 0.33
hD
= 0.12    for 109 < (Pr.Gr) < 1012
k   2
  k 
The characteristic dimension D is the diameter of the horizontal cylinder. Physical properties are
taken at the mean of the surface and bulk temperatures.

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Flow of a fluid normal to a horizontal surface
For vertical plates and cylinders, the natural convection coefficients can be predicted from the
relations
 D 3  2 gT   C p 
0.36
hD 
= 0.138   − 0.55  for 1 < (Pr) < 40 and Gr>109
k   2
  k 
 D 3  2 gT   C p   
0.25 0.25
hD Pr 
= 0.683      for 109<Gr Pr<1012
   k   (0.861 + Pr )
2
k 
The characteristic dimension D is the length. Physical properties are taken at the mean of the
surface and bulk temperatures.

Natural convection from a horizontal plate

The characteristics length is A/p where the surface area is A, and perimeter is p.

a) Upper surface of a hot plate

Nu = 0.54 (Pr ) (Gr )
0.25 0.25
for 104 < (Pr.Gr) < 107
Nu = 0.15(Pr ) (Gr )1/ 3
1/ 3
for 107 < (Pr.Gr) < 1011

b) Lower surface of a hot plate

Nu = 0.27 (Pr ) (Gr )
0.25 0.25
for 105 < (Pr.Gr) < 1011

Natural convection from a vertical plate

Nu = 0.59 (Pr ) (Gr )
0.25 0.25
for 104 < (Pr.Gr) < 109
Nu = 0.10 (Pr ) (Gr )
1/ 3 1/ 3
for 109 < (Pr.Gr) < 1013
(Characteristic dimension is the vertical height of the plate)

Example 1: A large vertical plate 4 m high is maintained at 60°C and exposed to atmospheric air at
10°C. Calculate the heat transfer rate if the plate is 10 m wide.

The properties of air at 308 0K are: β = 1 / 308 = 3.25x10‐3 K-1,

k = 0.02685 (W/mK),
ν = 16.5x10‐6,
Pr = 0.7

Simplified relationships
For air these equations can be approximated by:
When 104 < (Pr.Gr) < 109
 T 
0.25

Horizontal or vertical pipes hc = 1.18 

 L 
 T 
0.25

Vertical planes hc = 1.35 

 L 
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  T 
0.25

Horizontal planes facing upwards hc = 1.31 

 L 
 T 
0.25

Horizontal planes facing downwards hc = 0.59 

 L 
When 109 < (Pr.Gr) < 1012
 T 
0.25

Horizontal or vertical pipes hc = 1.65 

 L 
hc = 2.0(T )
0.25
Vertical planes
 T 
0.25

Horizontal planes facing upwards hc = 2.33 

 L 

Above equations are dimensional equations and are in standard units (∆T in °C and L in meters and
hc in J m-2 s-1 °C-1). The characteristic dimension to be used in the calculation of (Nu) and (Gr) in
these equations is the height of the plane or cylinder in vertical cases and diameter in horizontal
cases. Air properties at average temperature should be in N.s.m-2 for μ, kJ.kg-1°C-1 for Cp, J.m-1.s-
1
°C-1 for k, and kg.m-3 for ρ.

HEAT TRANSFER CORRELATION FOR FORCED CONVECTION

When forced convection occurs the effects of natural convection are usually negligible and the
Grashof number may be omitted.
 Dv C p  
Nu = f (Re)(Pr)
hD
= f  , 
k   k 
The heat transfer coefficient, h, is a function of the pipe diameter D (for horizontal tubes), thermal
conductivity of the fluid k, velocity of the fluid v, density of the fluid ρ, heat capacity of the fluid Cp,
and viscosity of the fluid μ.

Heat Transfer to a Fluid in Turbulent Flow through a Pipe

(1) Dittus-Boelter for turbulent flow in tubes
The Dittus-Boelter equation is used for predicting the heat transfer coefficient for fluids in turbulent
flow in smooth round tubes or pipes is
 Dv   C p  
0.8 a
hD
= 0.023    0.6  Pr  160 ; Re  10 4 ;
k     k 
L  60
Dw
Here the fluid properties are evaluated at the arithmetic mean bulk temperature of the fluid. When
the fluid is heated the value of a = 0.4 and when it is cooled, a = 0.3. For most gases Pr = 1,
therefore, the variation of a has no effect on it.

(2) Sieder-Tate equation for turbulent flow in tubes

The Sieder-Tate equation for turbulent flow in tubes takes into account the variation of the viscosity
of the fluid near the wall with thermal gradients.

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  Dv   C p     
0.8 1/ 3 0.14
hD
= 0.023     
k     k   w 
The equation is valid for Re > 10,000, 0.7 < Pr < 700 and L/D > 60.
The viscosity μw is evaluated at the average wall temperature and all other fluid properties are
evaluated at the arithmetic mean bulk temperature of the fluid.

(3) Colburn Equation for turbulent flow in tubes

The Colburn equation for the evaluation of the heat transfer coefficient for the turbulent flow in
tubes is (St )(Pr )2 / 3 = 0.023(Re )−0.2
h
Where Stanton number st =
vC p
−0.2
 Cp 
2/3
h  Dv 
  = 0.023 
vC p
 k    
which may be rearranged as Nu = 0.023 Re 0.8 Pr1 / 3
 Dv   C p  
0.8 1/ 3
hD
= 0.023    .
k     k 
Here Cp is evaluated at the arithmetic mean bulk fluid temperature and all other fluid properties are
evaluated at the wall temperature.

(4) Special Equations

For turbulent flow in pipes, the following simplified equations hold in SI units.
3.5v 0.8
For air at 1 atm total pressure: h=
D 0.2
v 0.8
For water in the temperature range 4°C < T < 105°C: h = 1429(1 + 0.0146T 0 C )
D 0.2
v 0.8
For organic liquids: h = 423
D 0.2

For Heat Transfer to a Fluid in Laminar Flow through a Pipe

Sieder-Tate Equation for the laminar flow of fluids inside horizontal tubes
The Sieder-Tate equation for the calculation of the heat transfer coefficient for the laminar flow of
fluids inside horizontal tubes or pipes is
0.14
  
1/ 3
 D
 
Nu = 1.86 Re Pr 
 L  w 
 D
The equation is valid for Re < 2100 and  Re Pr  > 100. All the fluid properties are evaluated
 L
at the arithmetic average bulk temperature of the fluid except μw which is calculated at the
average wall temperature.

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For Heat Transfer to a Fluid Flow Parallel to a Flat Plate
When a fluid flows parallel to a flat plate and heat transfer occurs along the whole plate of length L,
the average heat transfer coefficient is given by the equations:

For Pr> 0.7 and in the laminar flow region, where ReL < 3x105
Lv
Nu = 0.664 Re 0L.5 Pr1 / 3 where Re L =


For 60> Pr > 0.7 and in completely turbulent region, where 107 > ReL > 3x105
Nu = 0.036 Re 0L.8 Pr1 / 3
Here the fluid properties are evaluated at the film temperature Tf = (Tw+Tb)/2, where Tw is the
surface or wall temperature and Tb the average bulk fluid temperature.

Example 1. Engine oil at 60°C flows over a 5 m long flat plate whose temperature is 20°C with a
velocity of 2 m/s. Determine the total drag force and the rate of heat transfer per unit width of the
entire plate.

The properties of the oil at the film

temperature
T = 40 C
Density = 876
Conductivity 0.144 W/m.K
Pr = 2870
Kinematic viscosity = 242x10-6 m2/s

Special Relationships
For the flow of air over flat surfaces simplified equations are:
hc = 5.7 + 3.9v for v < 5 m s-1
hc = 7.4v 0.8 for 5 < v < 30 m s-1
Velocity must be m/s and then hc will be in J m-2 s-1 °C-1.

These are dimensional equations and they apply only to smooth plates. Values for hc for rough
plates are slightly higher.

Heating and Cooling Outside Tubes

Typical examples in food processing are water chillers, chilling sausages, processing spaghetti.
Experimental data in this case have been correlated by the usual form of equation:
(Nu) = K (Re)n(Pr)m

For gases and liquids at high or moderate Reynolds numbers:

Nu = 0.26 Re 0.6 Pr 0.3

For liquids at low Reynolds numbers, i.e., 1 < (Re) < 200:
Nu = 0.26 Re 0.43 Pr 0.3

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Fluid Flows past a Single Sphere
When a fluid flows past a single sphere, the heat transfer coefficient is given by
Nu = 2.0 + 0.6 Re 0.5 Pr1 / 3
The equation is valid for 1<Re<70,000 and 0.6 <Pr <400.

For Heat Transfer from a Liquid in an Agitated Vessel to its Jacketed Walls
In the case of heat transfer from a liquid in an agitated vessel to its jacketed walls
 Nd 2    C p     
b 1/ 3 m
hDi
= a     
k     k   w 
where h is the film coefficient for the inner wall
Dj is the internal diameter of the mixing vessel
Nd 2 
is the Reynolds number for mixing, where N is the speed

d the diameter of the agitator

Agitator type A b m Re
Paddle 0.36 2/3 0.21 300<Re<3x105
Disk flat-blade turbine 0.54 2/3 0.14 40<Re<400
Anchor 0.36 2/3 0.18 300<Re<4x105
Helical Ribbon 0.87 0.62 0.14 300<Re<4x105

Paddle Anchor Helical ribbon Flat plate Turbine

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Disk flat-blade turbine operating at Reynolds number between 400 and 2x105
 Nd 2    C p    d   Do 
0.67 0.37 0.1
hD0
= 0.17       
k     k   i  i
d D

Examples

Example 1. Calculate the rate of convection heat loss to ambient air from the side walls of a
cooking vessel in the form of a vertical cylinder 0.9 m in diameter and 1.2 m high. The outside of
the vessel insulation, facing ambient air, is found to be at 49°C and the air temperature is 17°C.
Air properties at 33°C, are μ = 1.9 x 10-5 N s m-2, Cp = 1.0 kJ kg-1°C-1, k = 0.025 J m-1 s-1° C-1, β
= 1/308, ρ =1.12 kg m-3.

Example 2. Water is flowing at 0.3 m s-1 across a 7.5 cm diameter sausage at 74°C. If the bulk
water temperature is 24°C, estimate the heat-transfer coefficient.
Properties of water at 49°C are Cp = 4.186 kJ kg-1°C-1, k = 0.64 J m-1 s-1°C-1, μ = 5.6 x 10-4 N s m-2,
ρ = 1000 kg m-3.

Example 3. Calculate the surface heat transfer coefficient to a vegetable puree, which is flowing at
an estimated 3 m/min over a flat plate 0.9 m long by 0.6 m wide. Steam is condensing on the other
side of the plate and maintaining the surface, which is in contact with the puree, at 104°C. Assume
that the properties of the vegetable puree are, density 1040 kg m-3, specific heat 3980 J kg-1 °C-1,
viscosity 0.002 N s m-2, and thermal conductivity 0.52 J m-1 s-1 ° C-1.

Example 4. Calculate the rate of convection heat loss to ambient air from the side walls of a
cooking vessel in the form of a box of 0.9 m in length (= width) and 1.2 m high. The outside of the
vessel insulation, facing ambient air, is found to be at 49°C and the air temperature is 17°C. A
draught caused the air to move past the cooking vessel at a speed of 61 m/min.

Example 5. Determine the heat transfer coefficient for water flowing in a tube of 16 mm diameter
at a velocity of 3 m/s. The temperature of the tube is 24 °C, and the water enters at 80 °C and leaves
at 36 °C. Use
(i) Dittus-Boelter equation Nu = 0.023 Re 0.8 Pr a
where a = 0.4 when the fluid is heated and a = 0.3 when the fluid is cooled and
(ii) Sieder-Tate equation Nu = 0.023 Re 0.8 Pr1 / 3
for estimation of h.

The properties of water at the arithmetic mean bulk temperature of (80 + 36)/2 = 58°C are
ρ = 984.1 kg/m3 Cp = 4178 J/kg.K μ = 485x10-6 Pa.s k = 0.657 W/m K
At an average wall temperature of 24°C, Viscosity of water, μw = 920x10-6 Pa s.

8
Common properties for air are indicated the table below

Specific heat Thermal Kinematic Expansion Prandtl's

Temperature Density coefficient
capacity conductivity viscosity number
t, (oC) ρ, (kg/m3)
-Cp,(kJ/kg K) k, (W/m K) ν (m2/s) x 10-6 β(1/K) x 10
-3
Pr

-150 2.793 1.026 0.0116 3.08 8.21 0.76

-100 1.980 1.009 0.0160 5.95 5.82 0.74

-50 1.534 1.005 0.0204 9.55 4.51 0.725

0 1.293 1.005 0.0243 13.30 3.67 0.715

20 1.205 1.005 0.0257 15.11 3.43 0.713

40 1.127 1.005 0.0271 16.97 3.20 0.711

60 1.067 1.009 0.0285 18.90 3.00 0.709

80 1.000 1.009 0.0299 20.94 2.83 0.708

100 0.946 1.009 0.0314 23.06 2.68 0.703

120 0.898 1.013 0.0328 25.23 2.55 0.70

140 0.854 1.013 0.0343 27.55 2.43 0.695

160 0.815 1.017 0.0358 29.85 2.32 0.69

180 0.779 1.022 0.0372 32.29 2.21 0.69

200 0.746 1.026 0.0386 34.63 2.11 0.685

250 0.675 1.034 0.0421 41.17 1.91 0.68

300 0.616 1.047 0.0454 47.85 1.75 0.68

350 0.566 1.055 0.0485 55.05 1.61 0.68

400 0.524 1.068 0.0515 62.53 1.49 0.68

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Example 1: isothermal vertical plate A large vertical plate 4 m high is maintained at 60°C and
exposed to atmospheric air at 10°C. Calculate the heat transfers if the plate is 10 m wide.

Solution:
Determine the film temperature as Tf = (Ts + T∞) / 2 = 35°C = 308 K
The properties are: β = 1 / 308 = 3.25x10‐3 , k = 0.02685 (W/mK), ν = 16.5x10‐6 , Pr = 0.7

The Rayleigh number can be found:

The Nusselt number can be found from

Example 1. Engine oil at 60°C flows over a 5 m long flat plate whose temperature is 20°C with a
velocity of 2 m/s. Determine the total drag force and the rate of heat transfer per unit width of the
entire plate.

Solution:
The properties of the oil at the film
temperature
T = 40 C, Density = 876 kg/m3, Conductivity 0.144 W/m.K, Pr = 2870
Kinematic viscosity = 242x10-6 m2/s

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