Chapter 4 第4章

Management Functions 管理功能

What is management? 甚麼是管理？
 Management is the process of coordinating resources  管理是協調資源以達成組織目標的過程。
to meet organizational goals.
 管理人員帶領員工達成組織目標，他們制定計劃、
 Managers are the ones who lead other people in
指導員工、監控企業的運作和解決問題。
accomplishing the organisational goals.
 They make plans, give instructions to workers,  總括而言，管理主要包含四個重要活動：計劃、組
oversee operations and solve problems. 織、領導、控制
 Management is primarily engaged in 4 major
activities: Planning, Organising, Leading, Controlling

Importance of management 管理的重要性

A guide to accomplishing organisational goals 協助達成組織目標
 Managers decide the direction of the organisation  管理人員負責決定組織的方向和運用資源的方法，
and how to use its resources to accomplish goals. 以達成組織的目標。
 For example, when a bank would like to expand its  例如，近年很多香港銀行都將業務擴展至中國內
operations into the Mainland, its managers have
地。銀行的管理人員負責：
to:
 制定擴展計劃
 Make plans for the expansion
 決定在內地開設新分行的地點和時間
 Decide where and when to open new branches
 建立新的組織結構
in the Mainland
 Create a new organisational structure to suit  聘請新員工
the expansion
 Hire new workers

Ensure effectiveness and efficiency 確保高效能和高效率

 Effectiveness (‘doing the right thing’)
 效能 (「做恰當的事」)
 An organisation is effective when it can accomplish
 企業組織能夠達成目標，就是有效能。
its goals.

 Efficiency (‘doing the thing right’)  效率 (「恰當地做事」)

 An organisation is efficient when it can get the  有效率的企業組織能以最少的投入獲得最大的產
most output from the least amount of input. 出。
 Efficient operation can lower the expenditure.  有效率的運作可以降低企業的開支。
 In a well-managed organisation, managers:
 在一家管理良好的企業內，管理人員會：
 analyse how to increase output and save resources
 仔細分析如何增加產出和節省資源；
 anticipate problems that may occur during
 預計可能出現的問題；研究完成各項工作的不同
production and find the best way to do a task 方法，並找出最好的做法。
 Management can help organisations provide  因此，完善的管理有助企業有效能和有效率
goods and services effectively and efficiently. 地生產貨品和提供服務。
 When a company is poorly managed, it will often
have problems such as:  企業一旦管理不善，就會出現以下問題：
 Unclear goals; Employees with low morale;  目標模糊; 員工士氣低落; 政策混亂; 部門衝突
Confusing policies; Conflicts among departments  這些問題不單會降低企業的營運效率，更會阻
 These problems prevent the company from 礙企業達到目標。
operating efficiently and accomplishing its
goals.

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Levels of management 管理層級

Top management 高層管理人員

 Usually have titles such as : president, chief executive  通常包括：總裁; 行政總裁; 財務總監
officer (CEO), chief financial officer (CFO)  高層管理人員負責制定影響全公司的決策，以及訂
 Top management makes company-wide decisions and 立公司的整體目標和方向。
determines the overall goals and direction of the
 高層管理人員：
company.
 決定公司的願景和使命；
 Top managers:
 為所有重要的事項作出決策，例如開設新廠房、
 decide on the company’s vision and mission
收購其他公司和發行股份集資等。
 make all important decisions such as opening a
new plant, acquiring another company, and raising
capital by issuing shares

Middle management 中層管理人員

 Usually occupy positions such as: regional manager,  通常包括：地區經理; 分部經理; 部門主管
division manager, department head
 中層管理人員負責執行公司的計劃和高層管理人員
 Middle management carries out company plans and
所作出的決策。
decisions made by top management.
 中層管理人員:
 Middle managers:
 和前線管理人員緊密合作，共同監督公司的日常
 work closely with first-line managers and monitor
運作
the daily running of the business
 resolve operational problems and improve the  解決營運上的問題，以及改善公司的表現
company’s performance  是高層和前線管理人員之間的橋樑
 act as a bridge between top managers and
first-line managers

First-line management (front-line management) 前線管理人員

 often have titles such as : shop manager, assistant  通常包括：分店經理; 助理經理; 督導員
manager, supervisor  前線管理人員 的主要職責是在企業的日常 營運
 First-line management supervises workers in the
中，監督員工的工作。
daily operation of the business.
 前線管理人員:
 First-line managers:
 負責處理生產線所出現的問題，並確保工作能按
 deal with problems in production lines and ensure
計劃完成；
that tasks are done as planned
 supervise and motivate workers, resolve conflicts  指導和激勵員工、解決員工之間的工作衝突、處
among workers in the workplace, handle problems 理可能影響生產過程的問題，以及處理顧客的問
that may affect production, and deal with 題。
customers
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Four management functions 四項管理功能
 Planning  計劃
 Establish goals and objectives for an organisation  為組織訂立目標，以及為達到這些目標而制定最
and determine the best ways to achieve them. 佳方法
 Organising  組織
 Determine what tasks are to be done and how the
 決定執行甚麼工作和如何把這些工作組合起來
tasks are to be grouped.

 Leading  領導
 Guide, direct, and motivate people to work  引導、指示和激勵員工以達成企業的目標
towards organisational goals.

 Controlling  控制
 Monitor activities to ensure that they are done as  監督並確保工作能按計劃完成
planned.

Planning 計劃
 Planning is a management function which involves:  管理學上，計劃的功能包括：
 establishing goals and objectives for an  為組織訂立目標，以及
organisation
 為達到這些目標而制定最佳方法。
 determining the best ways to achieve them
 計劃能指引和帶領員工達成目標。
 Plans are used as road maps in helping people
accomplish their goals.

Importance of planning 計劃的重要性

1. Anticipate potential problems 1. 預計可能出現的問題
 Plans act as a blueprint that guides management  計劃可作為管理層執行商業策略和實現目標所依
in carrying out the company’s business strategy 據的藍圖。
and meeting the company’s goals.  管理人員制定計劃時會展望未來，並預計可能出
 When managers make plans, they look into the
現的問題，
future and anticipate problems which may occur.
 然後管理人員針對這些問題採取預防措施和制定
 Planning thus allows managers to take
應變方案。
precautionary measures against potential
problems and make alternative arrangements to
handle problems when they occur.

2. Provide direction to employees 2. 為員工提供清晰的指引

 Employees are more motivated to work towards  計劃如能列出明確的目標，有助激勵員工努力工
goals and objectives that are clearly set out in 作。
plans.  員工清楚知道企業的目標的話，便會更專注和投
 When they have specific goals in mind, they will 入地完成工作。
become more focused and committed to
completing their tasks.

3. Clarify roles and responsibilities 3. 闡明職責和角色

 Planning can facilitate the coordination of people’s  計劃可以闡明組織內各成員的職責和角色，有助
activities in an organisation. 協調各項工作的執行。

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Types of Business Plan 商業計劃的類型
 Plans can be distinguished by their breadth, time  計劃可按其內容的廣度、期限和具體性來分類。
frame and specificity.
 Classified by breadth  按內容的廣度來分類
 Strategic plan  策略性計劃
 Establish the overall direction and goal  制定公司整體方向和目標
 Has a longer time frame  時間期限較長
 Covers the broader issues of the company  處理公司較宏觀的問題
 Operational plan  運作計劃
 Describe how the company goals are to be  說明如何達到公司的目標
achieved
 時間期限較短
 Has a shorter time frame
 集中處理公司個別的問題
 Focuses on the particular issues of the company

 Classified by time frame  按期限來分類

 Long-term plan  長期計劃
 Last for five years or longer  執行期約有五年或以上
 Covers strategic issues  涵蓋策略性問題，只列出公司的整體方向
 Minor adjustments can be made each year  視乎營商環境的變化，每年可作出輕微調整
 Mid-term plan  中期計劃
 Last for one to five years  一至五年內執行
 Covers both strategic and operational matters  涵蓋策略性和作業性問題
 Major changes can be made each year
 按需要每年可作出重大調整
 Short-term plan
 短期計劃
 Last for one year or less
 一年以內執行
 Covers only operational matters and has
 只涵蓋作業性問題，包含具體細節
specific details
 每月定期作出調整
 Changes are made regularly on a monthly basis

 Classified by specificity  按具體性來分類

 Directional plan  方向性計劃
 Provides only a direction without specific goals  只指出方向，沒有提供明確的目標
 Has only general guidelines  只提供一般的指引
 Has flexibility and allows changes  可按情況作出變動
 Specific plan
 特定性計劃
 Has clearly-stated goals which are quantified
 有明確的目標，並能以數字形式表達
 Has specific details on courses of action
 詳細說明行動方案
 Does not allow changes
 不容許作出變動

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Planning process 制定計劃的過程
 Step 1 第 1 步
 Establishing objectives and goals:  訂立目標：
 decide what the firm wants to achieve.  決定企業要實現的目標。
 Step 2 第 2 步
 Gathering useful and relevant information:  收集有用和相關的資料：
 search for information which is important for
 搜集有助達成目標的資訊。
achieving the objectives.
 Step 3
第 3 步
 Evaluating and determining alternative options:
 評估各種方案，並作出選擇：
 develop and examine possible options which
can be used to achieve the objectives.  制定和檢視其他可達成目標的方案；
 choose the best option which can achieve the  選擇出最佳的方案，以具效能和效率的
objective most effectively and efficiently. 方法實現目標。
 Step 4 第 4 步
 Setting a time frame for action:  制定時間表：
 create a schedule for actions to be taken.  制定採取行動的時間表。
 Step 5 第 5 步
 Implementing the plan:
 執行計劃：
 carry out the actual actions according to the
plan.  按計劃展開實際行動。

 Managers need to monitor the implementation of the  管理人員必須仔細監察計劃的執行。

plan carefully.
 When there are major changes in the environment,  當營商環境出現重大改變時，管理人員應找出計劃
managers should determine how the plan would be 將如何受影響，然後作出相應的調整。
affected and then revise the plan accordingly.

Setting goals effectively 有效地訂立目標

 Goals are the desired outcomes for individuals and  目標是個人或組織希望達到的成果。
organisations.  制定計劃時，管理人員應清楚訂立目標，否則員工
 If one does not know what the goals are, it is
impossible to make a plan or to achieve anything. 便無法制定具體計劃，不能完成任何工作。

Characteristics of SMART goals 良好目標的特點

1. Specific 1. 具體
 Goals should be defined clearly regarding what is
 目標應該清楚界定要達到的結果。
to be achieved.
 Using general terms can cause misunderstanding  目標籠統空泛容易使人誤解。
between people.  例如，要求銀行出納員「改善工作表現」
，目標顯
 For example, instead of asking bank tellers to 得籠統空泛；應改為要求他們「加快完成交易」。
‘improve their work performance’, it is better to
state clearly that they should ‘complete
transactions faster’.
2. Measurable 2. 可量度
 Goals should not be vague and expressed in  目標應不空泛並以數字形式表達，因此可以有途
numbers so there is some means and ways to 徑及方法以量度表現。
measure.  如果目標不能量化，便難以知道是否已經達到目
 If the goals are not quantified, it is difficult to 標。
know whether the goals have been achieved.
3. Attainable 3. 可達到
 Effective goals should be attainable with extra  有效的目標應該能憑着額外的努力可達到。
effort.  唾手可得或遙不可及的目標難以令人產生向上奮
 People will not be motivated if the goals are too 發的動力。
easy to achieve or impossible to accomplish.

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4. Relevance 4. 針對公司表現
 Effective goals should focus on key results which  良好的目標應能針對影響公司業績的關鍵因素，
can affect company performance.  例如，管理層應該設定目標:
 For example, managers should set goals for:  銷售額、市場佔有率、品質、成本及盈利
 Sales revenue, Market shares, Quality, Cost and
Profitability
5. Time frame 5. 設有時限
 Goals without a time framework are not only  沒有時限的目標不但沒有效果，而且常常被員工
ineffective but are also often ignored by workers. 忽略。
 The period should be reasonable and workers  但企業應設定合理的時限，讓員工有足夠時間完
should have enough time to achieve the goals. 成目標。

Goals other than profit-making 賺取利潤外的其他目標

 All organisations have multiple goals:  所有企業都有多個目標，例如：
 Profit-making, Increasing market shares, Creating  賺取利潤、增加市場佔有率、研發新產品、降低生
innovative products, Lowering production costs, 產成本、增加員工對企業的忠誠度
Promoting employee loyalty  只重視賺取利潤而忽略其他目標的企業是不會成功
 A firm cannot be successful by just focusing on 的。
earning profits and ignoring other goals.

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Organising 組織
 Organising determines what tasks are to be done and  組織的意思是訂立企業所有須要做的工作，以及如
how the tasks are to be grouped in an organisation.
何把那些工作組合起來。
 Individuals are grouped into departments and their
 管理人員會把公司劃分成不同部門，各部門則對其
work is coordinated and directed towards
organisational goals. 所屬員工的工作作出協調，以共同朝組織的目標進
 The outcome of organising is an organisational 發。
structure, which specifies the responsibilities for each  透過執行組織的功能，企業會得出組織架構，它說
job position and their relationship. 明每個職位的職責，以及職位之間的關係。
 A company’s organisational structure can be depicted
 企業的組織架構可以組織架構圖（又稱組織圖表）
in an organization chart.
來顯示。
 The chart shows how workers are grouped and
 透過組織架構圖，我們可以了解該企業的人事編
how the lines of communication and authority
flow. 制、溝通流程和職權（ 或權力）的關係。

Characteristics of organisational structure 組織結構的特點

Level (or layers) 層級
 There are different levels in an organisation chart.  組織結構內有不同的層級。
 At the top is the CEO who runs the company with a
 最高層級是公司的行政總裁，他在高層、中層和前
team of senior, middle and first-line managers.
線管理人員的協助下管理整間公司。
 The lowest levels are workers who perform tasks in
 位於組織結構底層的是負責公司日常運作的員工。
the daily operations of the company.
 層級較多的公司擁有金字塔式架構。
 A company with more levels has a tall structure.

金字塔式架構
四個
4 levels 層級

 A company with relatively few levels has a flat  層級相對較少的公司則擁有扁平式架構。

structure.

兩個 扁平式架構
2 levels 層級

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Level (or layers) 層級
 Levels of management  層級
Tall structure Flat structure 金字塔式架構 扁平式架構
Many levels Fewer levels 較多 較少
 Communication  溝通
Tall structure Flat structure
金字塔式架構 扁平式架構
Difficult: Faster:
困難： 迅速：
Many layers and distortion Messages can go up and
由於訊息要經過不同層 訊息可以迅速地在組織
in communication as down the organisation
message need to pass quickly with little 級，溝通上容易出現延誤 內流通，較少 出現誤解。
through many levels. distortion. 和誤解。

 Efficiency and flexibility  效率和靈活性

Tall structure Flat structure 金字塔式架構 扁平式架構
Less efficient and inflexible: Efficient and flexible: 效率和靈活性均較低： 有效率和具靈活性：
Decision-making is slow and Quick decisions can be 決策緩慢，不同層級須要 決策和執行均較迅速。
actions require complicated made and actions taken. 協調，才能採取行動。
coordination among many
levels.

 Span of control  控制幅度

Tall structure Flat structure 金字塔式架構 扁平式架構
Narrow: Wide: 狹窄： 廣濶：
There are many managers. There are few 有很多管理人員。每名管 只有少量管理人員。每名
Each manager manages only managers. Each 理人員只管理很少下屬。 管理人員須管理很多下
a few subordinates. manager has to manage 屬。
many subordinates.

 Motivation  工作動機
Tall structure Flat structure 金字塔式架構 扁平式架構
Low: High: 較低： 較高：
Workers are closely Workers enjoy more 員工受管理人員緊密監 員工享有自主權，工作動
monitored by managers and autonomy and often 督，工作動機較低。 機較高。
so have lower motivation. have higher motivation.

Job relationships 工作關係

 Superiors: persons who give instructions to a job  上司: 向自己發出指令的人
holder.  下屬: 接受自己發出的指令的人
 Subordinates: persons who work under a job holder.
 同事: 職級和自己相同的人
 Colleagues: persons who are at the same level as a
job holder.

上司 下屬
Superiors Subordinate
s

Colleagues Colleagues

同事 同事

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Authority 職權
1. Line authority 1. 直線職權
 Line authority means that job positions at a higher  較高級的職位擁有直線職權（又稱部屬職權）
，可
level have the authority to give instructions to 以向下屬發出工作指令。
those directly below them.  作業主管擁有直線職權，可指導和監督下屬，並
 Line managers can direct and monitor their 作出決策和執行計劃。
subordinates, make decisions, and carry out plans.
 這是上司與下屬的關係。
 This is a superior-subordinate relationship.

2. Staff authority 2. 幕僚職權

 Staff authority is given to positions that are  組織內有些員工擁有幕僚職權，他們可向作業主
created to support, assist and give advice to line 管或其部門提供支援和意見。
managers or departments.  擁有幕僚職權的員工通常是不同 領域的專家，例
 People in those positions are experts in certain
如人力資源、會計、財務和資訊系統等。
areas such as human resources, accounting,
 他們的意見和支援有助作業主管有效地作出決策
finance and information systems.
和完成工作。
 Their advice and assistance help line managers
make decisions and accomplish tasks effectively.

直線職權
營運總監 幕僚職權
權

生產部經理 1 生產部經理 2 人力資源部經理 資訊糸統部經理

人力資源部主任 資訊糸統部主任

Groupings
 Different groups are formed with job positions linked
群組
 在組織架構圖內，相關的職位會連結起來，形成不
together.
 The groups may be called: 同的群組，這些群組可以稱為：
 Divisions, Departments, Committees and Units  支部、部門、委員會及單位

Communication channels 溝通渠道

 The lines in an organisation chart are also the formal  組織架構圖內的直線也代表員工跟上司、下屬和同
communication channels through which workers 事的正式溝通渠道。
communicate with their superiors, colleagues and
subordinates.

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Forming departments 部門的組成
 In an organisation, departments are formed by  企業部門由工作性質相近的職位組成，
grouping similar jobs together.  稱為部門劃分（又稱部門化）。
 This is called departmentalisation or
 組成部門有以下三種常用的方法：
departmentation.
 Three common methods of forming departments:  按功能劃分、按產品劃分及按地區劃分
 By function, By product and By geographical
location

By function 按功能劃分
 Functional departments are formed by grouping jobs  功能部門由功能相近的職位組成
that perform similar functions.  例如會計部、生產部和市場營銷部。
 For example, accounting department, production
department and marketing department  這種方法普遍用於小型公司和產品較少的公司。
 This method is commonly used by small companies
and companies with only a few products.

By product 按產品劃分
 Product departments are formed by grouping jobs
 產品部門由負責生產或銷售同類產品的職位組成。
according to the types of products produced or sold.
 For example, an electronic goods manufacturers  例如，電器生產商可以為每項產品（如電視機、
may set up different departments for each of its 洗衣機、空調等）設立部門。
products such as TVs, washing machines, and  產品眾多的企業大多採用這種方法組成部門。
air-conditioners.
 This method is often used by companies that produce
or sell many types of products.

By geographical location 按地區劃分

 Geographical departments are formed by grouping  區域部門是由同一地區內的職位組成。
jobs according to location.  例如，公司可以為北亞、南亞和歐洲等區域的業
 For example, a company can set up departments
for its business operations in different regions such 務設立不同的部門。
as North Asia, South Asia and Europe.  這種劃分方法多用於在世界各地生產和銷售貨品的
 This method is commonly used by multinational 跨國企業。
corporations which produce and sell goods around
the world.

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Leading 領導
 Leading is the process of guiding, directing and  領導是引導、指示和激勵員工達成組織目標的過程。
motivating people to work towards achieving
organisational goals.
 In an organisation, managers at all levels are leaders.  在組織內，所有層級的管理人員都是領袖。
 They provide directions and guidance which helps  他們提供指示和引導，協助下屬執行工作。
subordinates perform their tasks.  他們鼓勵和支持下屬克服工作上的困難，並在有
 They encourage and support subordinates in
需要時，排解下屬之間的衝突。
helping them overcome difficulties, and resolving
conflicts among them.
 Methods that managers can use to guide, direct and  管理人員可採用以下方法引導、指示和激勵下屬：
motivate their subordinates include:  訂立有意義的目標
 setting meaningful goals  發出清晰的指示
 giving clear instructions  提供支援和意見
 providing support and advice  了解下屬的需要
 understanding their needs  與下屬有效地溝通
 communicating with them effectively
 肯定下屬的貢獻
 recognising their contributions
 對表現優秀的下屬加以獎勵
 giving rewards for good performance

Importance of leading 領導的重要性

1. Motivating workers to perform their tasks 1. 激勵員工執行任務
 Without someone to lead, people would not be  沒有適當的領導，員工便難以發揮團隊精神有效
able to work effectively as a group. 地完成工作。
 Workers will have more job satisfaction when  假如管理人員領導得宜，員工便能從工作中得到
managers display effective leadership behaviour. 更大的滿足感。
 They will also be motivated to perform their tasks.
 他們的工作動機也會較強。

2. Avoiding problems and mistakes 2. 避免問題和出錯

 If managers fail to provide clear direction or  如果管理人員沒有提供清晰的指示和引導，員工
guidance, workers are likely to make mistakes and
可能會出錯，導致工作延誤。
projects will be delayed.

3. Improving company performance 3. 改善公司的業績

 If managers are able to communicate with and  假如管理人員能有效地跟員工溝通和激勵員工，
motivate their workers, workers will be willing to 員工便會努力把工作做好。
perform their jobs well.

Leadership style 領導風格

 Autocratic leadership  獨裁式領導
 Participative leadership  參與式領導
 Laissez-faire leadership  自由放任式領導

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Autocratic leadership 獨裁式領導
 Autocratic leadership means that the leader retains  獨裁式領導（ 又稱專制式領導）是指管理人員把所
as much power and decision-making authority as 有權力集中在自己手上，不讓其他員工參與決策。
possible and does not involve subordinates in the
 下屬只能聽從指令。
decision-making process.
 Subordinates have no choice but to obey the  儘管獨裁式管理人員可能會詢問下屬的想法和意
orders. 見，卻絕少因此而改變自己的決定。
 Although autocratic leaders may ask for
subordinates’ ideas and suggestions, such input
rarely changes their decisions.
 Advantage  優點
 Autocratic leadership is particularly effective in  獨裁式領導在需要快速決策的情況下十分有效。
situations where quick decisions are required.
 Disadvantage  缺點
 Negative impact on employee motivation:  對員工的積極性有負面影響：
 Workers may become passive and unwilling to
take the initiative.  員工在工作上會變得被動，逐漸失去工作滿足
 They often have lower job satisfaction and thus 感。
are less committed to their work.  他們對工作的投入度也會下降。
 Autocratic leadership is appropriate when:  以下的情況適宜採用獨裁式領導：
1. the workers are inexperienced and passive. 1. 員工缺乏經驗和被動
2. the workers are not willing to take up job
2. 員工不願承擔工作責任
responsibilities.
3. there is a crisis and a quick decision is required. 3. 企業出現危機，須要迅速作出決策
4. the information needed for decision-making is 4. 只有管理人員可以取得決策所需的資訊
available only to managers. 5. 決策很可能遭到員工反對
5. workers are likely to resist the decision.

Participative leadership 參與式領導

 Participative leadership (also called democratic
 參與式領導（又稱民主式領導）是指管理人員鼓勵
leadership) means that the leader encourages
subordinates to participate in the decision-making 下屬參與決策過程。
process.  參與式管理人員與下屬分享自己的權力；
 Participative leaders share their power with their  願意接受別人的想法和建議，並讓下屬參與決策。
subordinates.
 They are willing to accept ideas and suggestions
from others and involve them in decision-making.
 Advantage  優點
 Ideas and suggestions from different people may  不同員工 的想法和建議有助管理人員作出更好
result in better decisions.
的決策。
 Workers are more motivated. They would be more
willing to carry out the decisions made by them  由於員工能參與決策，他們一般較願意執行有關
and be more committed in their jobs. 決策，工作時較積極投入。
 Disadvantage  缺點
 Participation is likely to slow down the
 員工的參與可能阻延決策過程。
decision-making process.
 Participative leadership is appropriate when:  以下的情況適宜採用參與式領導：
1. workers are experienced and capable. 1. 員工富有經驗和能幹
2. workers are willing to take up additional job
2. 員工願意承擔額外的工作和職責
responsibilities.
3. other workers will be affected by the decision. 3. 決策會對員工造成影響
4. other workers possess more information needed 4. 員工比管理人員擁有更多決策所需的資訊
for decision-making than the managers. 5. 該決策需要員工的支持才能成功執行
5. the decision cannot be carried out without
support from workers.
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Laissez-faire leadership 自由放任式領導
 Laissez-faire leadership means that the leader  自由放任式領導是指管理人員向下屬提供很少的
provides little or no direction and gives subordinates 指示，給予下屬很高的自由度完成工作。
as much freedom as possible.
 自由放任式管理人員下放權力，並支持員工按自
 Laissez-faire leaders delegate their authority to
subordinates and support them to perform tasks 己的方式完成工作。
on their own.  員工可以自行決定做甚麼以及如何完成。
 Workers can decide what they want to do and how  管理人員不會向員工提供任何指示和引導，但會
to complete their tasks.
對員工的權力設限，並要求員工對結果負責。
 However, the managers can set some limits on
workers’ power and hold them accountable for the
results.

 Advantage  優點
 It gives workers a sense of challenge, commitment  自由放任式領導能為員工帶來挑戰和滿足感，令
and satisfaction in their jobs. 他們更投入工作。
 Disadvantage  缺點
 It may lead to chaos when workers just focus on
 如果員工各自為政，互不合作，這種領導風格或
their own tasks and fail to cooperate with others.
 Inexperienced and passive workers may feel 會帶來混亂。
frustrated and helpless as they do not receive any  缺乏經驗和被動的員工可能會感到沮喪和無助，
instructions and guidance in performing their 因為他們在工作上得不到任何命令和指引。
tasks.

 Laissez-faire leadership is appropriate when:  以下的情況適宜採用自由放任式領導：

1. workers can work independently and are highly 1. 員工積極而獨立
motivated. 2. 工作需要很大程度的表達自由，例如繪畫和設計
2. tasks require freedom of expression, for example, 3. 工作需要高度的創造力，例如科學研究
painting and design.
3. tasks require a high level of creativity such as
scientific research.

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Controlling 控制
 Controlling is the process of monitoring activities to  控制是企業對活動進行監督以確保它們按計劃完成
ensure that they are done as planned. 的過程。
 An effective control system ensures that all activities
 有效的控制系統能確保企業內的所有活動向着企業
in the company are done towards achieving
的目標進發。
organisational goals.
 Managers must:  管理人員必須：
 know how activities are done and determine  了解各項活動如何執行，並確保活動妥善完成
whether they are done properly, and  專注控制那些會影響公司業績的活動， 例如產品
 focus on activities which can affect the company’s 銷售
performance.
 控制的步驟：
 Steps of controlling:

步驟一 步驟二
訂立表現標準 量度實際表現

組織或部門目標

步驟四 步驟三
採取糾正行動 比較實際表現與標準

Step 1 Setting performance standards 步驟一 訂立表現標準

 Managers must decide:  管理人員須決定：
 what activities are to be controlled  要控制哪些活動
 what standards are to be used for controlling  應使用甚麼標準來量度這些活動的成效
those activities
 Performance standards are standards which  表現標準是管理人員用來評估和決定一項活動是否
managers use to evaluate and determine whether an 妥善完成的標準。
activity has been done properly.
 Managers in different functional departments use  企業內不同的功能部門會使用不同的表現標準。
different performance standards.
 Examples:  例子:
 Production department  生產部
 Average cost of goods produced  產品的平均成本
 Goods produced per labour hour  每工時生產的貨品數量
 Number of defective goods produced  次貨的數量
 Marketing department  市場營銷部
 Market share  市場佔有率
 Sales growth rate  銷量增長率
 Number of customer complaints  顧客投訴次數
 Human resources department  人力資源部
 Cost of training per employee  每名員工的培訓成本
 Cost of recruitment per new employee  每名新員工的招聘成本
 Staff turnover rate
 僱員流失率

98
Step 2 Measuring actual performance 步驟二 量度實際表現
 To control, managers must find out what and how  管理人員必須清楚知道要監控的是甚麼活動，以及
activities have been carried out. 這些活動是如何進行的；
 They need to collect information related to those  收集相關的資料，並以數據量度活動的表現。
activities and measure them in numbers.  市場營銷經理會收集銷售數據， 以計算該月的銷
 Marketing managers collect sales data to find the 售增長率。
sales growth rate for the month.
 生產經理會收集成本數據，以計算該月生產的產
 Production managers collect cost data to calculate
品的平均成本。
the average cost of goods produced for the
 人力資源經理會收集員工離職的數據，以計算員
month.
工流失率。
 Human resources managers collect turnover data
to find the staff turnover rate.

Step 3 Comparing actual performance with standards 步驟三 比較實際表現與標準

 Managers determine whether the actual performance  管理人員須決定實際表現是否在可接受的差異範圍
falls within the acceptable range of variation. 內。
 The actual performance is considered acceptable if it
 如果實際表現處於標準的可接受上限和可接受下限
lies between Acceptable upper limit and Acceptable
內，便可視為符合標準。
lower limit.
 如果實際表現超出可接受的差異範圍時，便是重要
 When the actual performance is outside the
偏差。
acceptable range of variation, it would be considered
as significant deviation.

Step 4 Taking corrective actions 步驟四 採取糾正行動

 If the actual performance is considered:  如果實際表現是：
 Acceptable  可以接受的
 Nothing needs to be done.  不用採取任何行動。
 Unacceptable : Managers should  不可以接受的: 管理人員應
1. Investigate the problem thoroughly to find the 1. 全面探究問題，找出原因，
causes. 2. 然後設法解決。
2. Seek way to solve the problem

 Corrective action aims to bring unacceptable  糾正行動有助改善不濟的表現，以達至管理人員的

performance back to a desirable level. 期望。

Principles of effective management 有效的管理原則

1. Division of labour 1. 分工
2. Unity of command 2. 統一命令
3. Unity of direction 3. 統一的方向
4. Authority and responsibility 4. 職權和責任
5. Management by Objectives 5. 目標管理

99
1. Division of labour 1. 分工
 Under division of labour, the production process is  在分工模式下，生產過程會分拆成多個工序，每名
broken down into many different tasks and each 工人只會專門從事其中一項或幾項工序，
worker concentrates on one or a few tasks.
 Each worker specialises in doing a task rather than  每名工人只負責整個生產過程的其中一個環節。
completing the entire production process.
 Since workers can perform more efficiently when they  由於員工的工作效率因只負責某項工序而提升，企
specialise in doing certain tasks, division of labour 業整體產量會因分工而得到提升。
increases production efficiency.
 例子:
 Example:
 Workers do specific tasks on assembly lines.  玩具製造廠內的裝配線多採用分工的方法。
 Workers in a restaurant perform different roles.  餐廳各人執行不同的工作。

 Advantage  優點
 Workers can learn faster if they are given only one  員工只專注於一項或幾項工作，能更快掌握技
or a few tasks instead of many different tasks. 術，並且熟能生巧。
 Workers can improve their skills by repeating a  員工不斷重複同一項工作，技術得以改進。
task many times.
 People can specialise in those tasks which they  員工可專門從事自己擅長的工作，提升效率。
perform well. This helps improve their efficiency.
 Time can be saved as workers do not have to  員工不用轉換工作崗位，可節省時間。
switch from doing one part of job to another.
 Using machines to replace labour is easier because  生產過程分拆為細小的工序，有助使用機器代替
production is divided into small tasks. 人手工作。
 It is easier to supervise the production process.  管理人員較易監督生產過程。

 Disadvantage  缺點
 People that have to do the same task over and  重複地做相同的工作容易令員工感到沉悶和厭
over again may find the work boring. This can lead
倦，減低工作滿足感。
to low job satisfaction.
 When any worker makes mistakes, the whole  一旦某項工序出現問題，整個生產過程都會受到
production process may be affected. 影響。
 Workers with specialised skills cannot perform  擁有專門技術的工人未必能夠執行其他工作。
other tasks.

2. Unity of command 2. 統一命令

 Unity of command requires that each worker has only  統一命令是指企業內每名員工只能有一位直屬上
one superior to whom he is directly responsible. 司，並只向他一人匯報。
 Advantages  優點
 It can avoid conflicting instructions being given by  它可避免員工從不同的上司接收到互相衝突的指
two or more superiors. 令。
 Workers will not be confused by the instruction  員工不會被指令搞糊塗，並且會提高他們的生產
and enhance their productivity. 力。
3. Unity of direction 3. 統一的方向
 Unity of direction ensures that all employees follow
 統一的方向可確保所有員工都進行相同的計劃和朝
the same plan and have the same goals.
 Each plan is led by only one manager. 着共同的目標前進。
 There should be only one plan for a group of  每個計劃只由一名管理人員統領。
activities that have the same objectives.  而該計劃下的所有活動都應有相同的目標。
 When people in an organisaiton have conflicting  如果企業內的員工都朝着互相衝突的目標前進，他
goals, they may act against each other. Confusion may
們的行動可能出現對立。混亂可能發生，因為員工
occur as they do not know what should be done.
 Unity of direction is a solution to this problem. 不知道什麼是應該做的。
 統一的方向有助避免出現衝突及混亂的目標。

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4. Authority and responsibility 4. 職權和責任
Authority 職權
 Authority gives a position the formal and legitimate  職權賦予在位者發出指令和制定決策的正式及合法
power to give orders and make decisions. 權利。
 It is the power given by the organisation to a
person in a position so that he can complete his  這項權力由企業組織賦予，讓在位者能完成獲指
assigned duties and tasks. 派的職務。
 Different positions have different authority.  由於職務有別，不同職位有不同的職權。
 Managers accomplish tasks by exercising authority  管理人員透過行使職權，以確保工作順利完成，例
which gives them the power to give orders, make
如發出指令、作出決策、監督下屬和獎勵表現卓越
decisions, supervise other people, and reward those
who perform well. 的下屬。
 The authority that a person has should match the  員工的職權應與其工作性質相符。責任越多、工作
nature of his job. If a position has greater 越複雜的職位，職權應該越大。
responsibilities and involves more complicated tasks,
more authority should be given to the person
occupying that position.

Responsibility 責任
 Responsibility is the obligation of a person to get the  責任是指完成獲指派職務的義務。
assigned tasks done.
 According to the parity of authority and
 根據職權相稱原則，職權和責任是相輔相成的，而
responsibility, authority and responsibility go
hand-in-hand and should be in balance. 且兩者必須平衡。
 Workers must possess a sufficient amount of  員工獲得充份的職權才能有效地執行工作。
authority to carry out their tasks effectively.
 Parity of authority and responsibility  職權相稱原則
 Workers in a supermarket have the responsibility  超級市場的員工有防止店鋪盜竊的責任。
to prevent shoplifting.  他們必須擁有搜查顧客手提包的職權。
 They should have the authority to check shoppers’
bags.  但他們卻不應擁有搜身的職權。
 They should not be given too much authority, such
as physically searching a customer.

Delegation 授權
 Delegation involves the transfer of formal authority  授權是指管理人員把正式的職權和責任轉移到另一
and responsibility for completing a task from one
person to another person or persons. 個人（通常是下屬）身上，讓他們完成某項工作。
 Although managers can delegate tasks to their  雖然管理人員可授權下屬，但他們仍須對工作的最
subordinates, they are still accountable for the final
終結果負責。
results.
 This is because managers should oversee and  因為管理人員仍須監督下屬工作，以及作出所有
monitor the tasks being carried out by
重要決策。
subordinates.
 To make delegation effective, a manager should  要令授權發揮效用，管理人員應仔細考慮以下的因
consider the following: 素：
 Workers’ abilities and sense of responsibility: A  員工的能力和責任感：假如員工有相關的能力和
manager can delegate authority if his subordinates
have the ability and knowledge to handle the 知識、為人盡責，管理人員便可授權給他。
assigned tasks and are conscientious.
 The importance of the tasks: A manager can  工作的重要性：假如工作本身不會對企業組織造
delegate authority if the tasks do not have a great
成很大影響，管理人員便可授權下屬完成這些工
impact on the organisation.
作。

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5. Management by Objectives (MBO) 5. 目標管理
 Management by Objectives (MBO) ensures that the  目標管理把企業的整體目標轉化成個別單位、部門
overall objectives of the organisation are translated 及員工的具體目標。
into objectives for each succeeding level.  在目標管理下，管理人員和員工一起訂立目標。
 Under Management by Objectives, managers and
 因此，每個員工都清楚知道其工作的目標。
their subordinates set the objectives together.
 管理人員與員工定期會面，討論他們所遇到的問
 Each worker would clearly know the objectives of
his work. 題。
 Superiors and subordinates have regular meetings
to review their objectives and performance.

 Advantages  優點
 Subordinates have a higher commitment to  由於自己有份參與訂立目標，而非管理人員強
objectives that they establish themselves than 加，所以員工會更努力去完成。
those imposed on them by their managers.
 員工更清楚了解自己要達到的目標。
 Subordinates have a clear understanding of the
 有助加强不同層級員工之間的協調。
objectives they are required to achieve.
 This can enhance coordination among workers at  管理人員能確保員工與企業的目標一致。
different levels.  管理人員定期與員工會面，討論他們所遇到的問
 Managers can ensure that objectives of the 題。這有助加強彼此的溝通，促進管理人員和下
subordinates are linked to the organisation’s
屬之間的關係。
objectives.
 Communication between managers and their  管理人員定期向員工提出意見，支持和獎勵，可
subordinates is improved because they have 激勵員工完成工作，改進工作表現。
regular meetings to review their objectives and  由於管理人員定期檢討員工的表現，他們可更有
performance. This helps create a better 效地監控下屬的工作。
relationship between them.
 Subordinates receive feedback, support and
rewards from their managers on a regular basis.
This can motivate them to accomplish their tasks.
Their performance may also improve.
 Since the performance of subordinates is regularly
reviewed, managers have better control over the
tasks being carried out by subordinates.

 Disadvantage  缺點
 Time-consuming because it takes up long time for  耗費時間，因為管理人員和員工須花很多時間定
managers and their subordinates to meet
期會面。
regularly.
 加重管理人員和員工的工作負擔。
 Increase workloads of superiors and subordinates.
 目標管理偏重企業的短期目標，忽略長期目標。
 It focuses primarily on the organisation’s
short-term objectives rather than long-term
objectives.

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