25 February

2025

INDEX
Science and Technology
01 HIV Self-Testing
First detailed Geological Map of Moon’s South Pole

02 Prelims Vital
Makhana
Kashi Tamil Sangamam

03 Places in News
Germany

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Note:
1. Click on Practice question box to access 10 Prelims questions along with detailed solution
2. Click on IN NEWS ( ) to access the original article of the news
 01: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
HIV Self-Testing
IN NEWS :
A study by ICMR-NITVAR and Mizoram University highlighted how
HIV self-testing has helped young people in Mizoram get tested for the
first time.
Mizoram has the highest HIV prevalence in India, with 2.73% of adults
infected—13 times the national average.
HIV self-testing provides a private, stigma-free, and convenient method for
individuals to know their HIV status.
What is HIV?

HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a virus that attacks the immune

system, specifically the CD4 cells (T cells), which help the body fight
infections.
Without treatment, HIV weakens the immune system, making individuals
vulnerable to opportunistic infections.
A CD4 count is a blood test that measures the number of CD4 cells, a type
of white blood cell that helps fight infection.
A normal CD4 count is between 500 and 1,500 cells/mm3.
 When does HIV turn into AIDS?
AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) is the most advanced
stage of HIV infection.
HIV progresses to AIDS when the CD4 count drops below 200
cells/mm³ or when a person develops severe opportunistic infections.
Without treatment, AIDS is fatal, but antiretroviral therapy (ART)
can delay its progression.
Transmission:
Unprotected sexual contact (heterosexual or homosexual).
Sharing of contaminated needles/syringes (e.g., injecting drug use).
Mother-to-child transmission (during childbirth or breastfeeding).
Blood transfusion (from infected donors).
Diagnosis:
1. ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay)
Purpose: Detects HIV antibodies in blood or saliva.
How it Works:
A sample of blood or saliva is collected and placed in a well coated with
HIV antigens.
If HIV antibodies are present, they will bind to these antigens.
A secondary enzyme-linked antibody is then added, which reacts with a
color-changing substrate.
The intensity of the color change indicates the presence of HIV
antibodies.
 Advantages:
Highly sensitive (can detect low levels of antibodies).
Widely used as a primary screening test.
Limitations:
Cannot detect early-stage infections (before antibodies form).
Requires a confirmatory test (Western Blot or PCR) for diagnosis.
2. Western Blot Test:
Purpose: A confirmatory test for HIV used after a positive ELISA test.
How it Works:
A blood sample is collected and subjected to gel electrophoresis, which
separates HIV proteins by size.
The separated proteins are transferred to a membrane and exposed to
the patient's blood.
If HIV antibodies are present, they will bind to specific proteins,
forming distinct bands.
The presence of multiple bands corresponding to HIV structural
proteins (e.g., gp160, gp120, gp41) confirms infection.
Advantages:
High specificity (reduces false positives from ELISA).
Limitations:
Time-consuming and expensive.
May yield indeterminate results if not enough antibodies are present.
Being replaced by PCR and rapid tests in many countries.
3. PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) Test:
Purpose: Detects HIV’s genetic material (RNA or DNA), used for
early-stage infections and in newborns.
How it Works:
Reverse Transcription PCR (RT-PCR) is used to convert HIV
RNA into DNA.
This DNA is then amplified using special primers to detect the virus at
very low levels.
A fluorescent marker is used to indicate the presence of HIV genetic
material.
Types of PCR for HIV:
Qualitative PCR: Detects the presence of HIV (used for infant
diagnosis).
Quantitative PCR (Viral Load Test): Measures the amount of virus
in the blood (used for monitoring treatment efficacy).
Advantages:
Detects HIV early (even before antibodies develop).
Useful for diagnosing infants born to HIV-positive mothers (as
maternal antibodies can interfere with ELISA/Western Blot).
Helps in monitoring ART effectiveness.
Limitations:
Expensive and technically complex.
Requires specialized laboratory equipment.
Treatment:

Antiretroviral Therapy (ART):

Lifelong treatment that helps control viral load and prevents HIV
progression to AIDS.
Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP):
Emergency medication taken within 72 hours of possible exposure to
prevent HIV.
Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP):
Daily medication for individuals at high risk of HIV infection.
Prevention:
Safe sex practices: Use of condoms and regular testing.
Needle exchange programs: Prevents transmission among drug users.
HIV education & awareness: Reduces stigma and promotes early
detection.
Mother-to-child prevention: ART for HIV-positive mothers to prevent
transmission.
Vaccine:
No fully effective HIV vaccine exists, but several vaccine trials are
ongoing.
The mRNA vaccine technology is being explored for potential HIV
vaccines.
Key Data Points:

Global HIV Cases: 39 million people live with HIV worldwide (UNAIDS
2024).
HIV Cases in India: 25.44 lakh people living with HIV.
HIV Prevalence in Mizoram:
2.73% of adults infected (highest in India).
19.8% of injecting drug users and 24.7% of female sex workers
in Mizoram are HIV-positive.
Global & National Targets for HIV Elimination:

Global Targets (UNAIDS 95-95-95 by 2030):

95% of people living with HIV know their status.
95% of diagnosed cases receive ART.
95% of those on ART achieve viral suppression.
India’s National AIDS Control Programme (NACP-V) Goals:
End AIDS by 2030 through prevention, awareness, and ART
coverage.
Reduce new HIV infections by 80%.
Achieve 95-95-95 targets at the national level.
Why HIV Self-Testing can be a Game-Changer for Mizoram?
Addresses Stigma & Fear:
Many people avoid traditional HIV testing due to stigma, discrimination,
or fear of judgment.
Self-testing provides a private, confidential way to know one’s HIV status.
Encourages First-Time Testers:
In six months of implementation, 2,101 youth in Aizawl took HIV self-
tests.
84% were first-time testers, showing self-testing reaches those who
otherwise wouldn’t get tested.
Effective Linkage to Treatment:
85% of youth (18-24 years) who tested positive went for confirmatory
testing and started ART.
Reaches High-Risk Groups:
Injecting drug users and female sex workers have higher HIV prevalence in
Mizoram.
Self-testing makes it easier for these groups to access testing and
treatment.
Community-Based Implementation:
The study used church-based youth associations, college festivals,
outreach programs, and pharmacies to distribute self-test kits.
Engagement with community leaders helped in awareness and
acceptance.
 First detailed Geological Map of Moon’s South Pole
IN NEWS :
Indian researchers have created the first-ever detailed geological map of
the Moon’s south pole using Chandrayaan-3 data.
The map confirms the presence of a primordial magma ocean beneath the
Moon’s surface.
Key Findings from the Map:
Undulating Lunar Landscape:
The region around Vikram lander has
highlands and low, flat plains.
Secondary craters (formed from
debris impacts) were traced to their
primary source: Schomberger crater.
Magma Mystery Solved:
Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (Pragyan rover) detected
magma beneath the landing site, proving that the ancient molten
ocean covered the entire Moon.
Previous missions (Apollo, Luna, Chang’e) suggested magma’s presence
but lacked data from high-latitude polar regions.
Age of the Region:
The Chandrayaan-3 landing zone is 3.7 billion years old—around the time
microbial life appeared on Earth.
 Earth-Moon Common Origin:
Both bodies share geochemical similarities and have evolved together
since their formation 4.5 billion years ago after a Mars-sized
planetary collision with Earth.
Importance of Lunar Craters:

South Pole-Aitken Basin (near Vikram’s landing site) is one of the oldest
& largest impact craters in the Solar System.
Craters on the Moon do not erode due to the lack of atmosphere, preserving
billions of years of cosmic history.
Studying lunar craters helps scientists understand impact cratering on
Earth and other planets.
Challenges: Lunar Litter & Environmental Concerns:

Human-made debris on the Moon:

Since Luna 2 (1959), multiple nations have landed probes and left
components behind, contaminating the lunar surface.
The thin lunar atmosphere (exosphere) may be affected by exhaust
fumes and lander activities.
Water vapor from lander engines could contaminate lunar ice
reserves, distorting scientific analysis.
As moon colonization and resource mining increase, maintaining the
Moon’s natural state will be a growing challenge.
 02: PRELIMS VITAL
Makhana
IN NEWS :
Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman announced the formation of a
Makhana Board in Bihar.
Union Minister of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare visited Darbhanga,
Bihar, to interact with makhana farmers and discuss production challenges.
The government aims to boost marketing, branding, and mechanization to
make makhana a global superfood.
What are Superfoods?
Superfoods are nutrient-rich foods considered beneficial for health and
well-being.
They contain high levels of antioxidants, vitamins, minerals, and
essential nutrients.
Examples: Makhana, quinoa, chia seeds, turmeric, blueberries, and
spirulina.
What is Makhana?
Makhana (Fox Nuts or Euryale ferox) is a highly nutritious aquatic
crop primarily grown in Bihar, India.
It is a popped seed derived from a water plant and widely used in snacks,
religious offerings, and Ayurvedic medicine.
Bihar’s makhana gained Geographical Indication (GI) status in 2022.
Key Benefits of Makhana:

Benefit Details

Aids digestion, promotes muscle

Rich in Protein & Fiber
growth.

Low in Calories & Fat Ideal for weight management.

High in Antioxidants Slows aging, fights oxidative stress.

Regulates Blood Sugar Low glycemic index, good for diabetics.

Boosts Heart Health Contains magnesium and potassium.

Suitable for people with gluten

Gluten-Free
intolerance.

Supports Kidney Health Acts as a natural detoxifier.

Key Data Points on Makhana Production:

India is the largest producer of makhana, contributing 90% of global

production.
Bihar is the leading producer, accounting for over 85-90% of India’s
makhana output.
The total estimated annual production of makhana in India is 40,000–
50,000 metric tonnes.
National Research Centre for Makhana (NRCM) was established in
Darbhanga, Bihar, for research and development.
Various Boards:

Board Name Ministry

Makhana Board Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers’ Welfare

Tea Board of India Ministry of Commerce & Industry

Coffee Board of India Ministry of Commerce & Industry

Spices Board Ministry of Commerce & Industry

Coconut Development Board Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers' Welfare

Rubber Board Ministry of Commerce & Industry

Cashew Export Promotion

Ministry of Commerce & Industry
Council

National Dairy Development Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry &

Board Dairying

National Jute Board Ministry of Textiles

 Kashi Tamil Sangamam

IN NEWS :
External Affairs Minister along with 45 foreign ambassadors, interacted
with Tamil delegates at the third edition of Kashi Tamil Sangamam in
Varanasi.
The event showcased the historical and cultural links between Kashi
(Varanasi) and Tamil Nadu.
What is Kashi Tamil Sangamam?

A government initiative
to celebrate and revive
the ancient cultural and
spiritual ties between
Kashi (Uttar Pradesh)
and Tamil Nadu.
It is part of the Ek Bharat Shreshtha
Bharat program, promoting national
integration through cultural exchange.
The first edition was launched in November
2022.
Background:

The bond between Kashi and Tamil Nadu dates back over 1,000
years.
Saints, poets, and scholars from Tamil Nadu, including Appar,
Sambandar, and Adi Shankaracharya, visited Kashi for religious
learning.
The Kashi Vishwanath temple has been revered by Tamil saints and is a
major pilgrimage site.
King Rajendra Chola I built a Tamil monastery in Kashi in the 11th
century.
The Tamil community has had a long presence in Kashi, with many still
living in the city.
Objective of Kashi Tamil Sangamam:
Strengthen cultural ties between North and South India.
Promote knowledge exchange in art, literature, spirituality, and
technology.
Encourage people-to-people interactions through visits and academic
discussions.
Showcase India’s cultural unity beyond linguistic and regional differences.
Highlight Tamil contributions to India’s civilizational heritage.
Need for the Initiative:

India’s vast diversity often leads to regional gaps in cultural

awareness.
Many people from North India are unaware of Tamil Nadu’s deep
spiritual connection with Kashi.
Such programs bridge historical divides and create a sense of shared
heritage.
Boosting tourism & cultural tourism by reviving old pilgrimage routes
and traditions.
Enhancing India's global cultural presence, as seen by ambassador
participation.
Key Details Related to Kashi (Varanasi)

Oldest continuously inhabited city in the world, over 3,000 years

old.
Major spiritual, religious, and cultural center of India.
Home to Kashi Vishwanath Temple, one of the 12 Jyotirlingas.
Important hub for Sanskrit learning, music, and art.
Associated with Saint Kabir, Tulsidas, and Guru Nanak.
 03: PLACES IN NEWS
Germany
IN NEWS :
Germany's 2025 federal elections have resulted in a victory for the
conservative Christian Democratic Union (CDU)/Christian Social Union
(CSU) alliance, led by Friedrich Merz, who is now set to become the next
Chancellor.
Details:
Location: Central Europe.
Coastlines: North Sea and Baltic Sea.
Major Rivers: Rhine, Elbe, Danube and
Weser.
Mountain Ranges: The Alps in the south,
Black Forest (Schwarzwald) in the
southwest, Harz Mountains in central
Germany.
Member of NATO, EU, G7, G20.
Berlin Wall fell on 9 November 1989
which led to reunification of West and East
Germany which was officially completed on
October 3, 1990.
Political Setup:

Germany is a Federal Parliamentary

Republic with a multi-party system.
Head of State: President (Ceremonial
Role)
Head of Government: Chancellor
(Executive Leader).
Legislature: Bicameral Parliament