CH1044 Fluid Dynamics

Boundary layers

Description of the boundary layer

Consider the boundary layer formed in the flow along one side of a thin, smooth, flat plate parallel to the direction of the
oncoming fluid. No other solid surface near, and the pressure is assumed uniform.

The fluid, originally having velocity u in the direction of the plate, is retarded in the neighbourhood of the surface, and
the boundary layer begins at the leading edge of the plate. As more and more of the fluid is slowed down the thickness
of the layer increases. Since there is no sharp line of demarcation for merging of the boundary layer with the main flow,
the thickness of the layer may be taken as the distance form the surface at which the velocity reaches 99% of the
velocity of the main stream.
 The flow in the first part of the boundary layer (close to the leading edge of the plate) is entirely laminar.
 With increasing thickness, however, the laminar layer becomes unstable, and the motion within it becomes disturbed.
The irregularities of the flow develop into turbulence, and the thickness of the layer increases more rapidly. These
changes take place over a short length known as transition region.
 Downstream of the transition region the boundary layer is almost entirely turbulent, and its thickness continues
indefinitely.

Note
•  is very small compared with x.
• The random secondary movements of turbulent flow must die out very close to the surface, and beneath the turbulent
layer an even thinner viscous sub-layer is formed in which the flow is basically laminar.
Typical velocity distributions in laminar and turbulent flow are shown in the below figure

In a turbulent layer there is more intermingling of fluid

particles and therefore a more nearly uniform velocity than
in a laminar flow. As a result the turbulent layer has a
greater velocity gradient at the surface.

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 CH1044 Fluid Dynamics

 
  u
Hence, the shear stress at the surface,  0 ,  0 = 
  y 
  y =0
associated with a turbulent boundary layer is usually greater than that of a wholly laminar one.

The point at which laminar boundary layer becomes unstable depends predominantly on the Reynolds number,
Re x = u  x /  , of the flow in the boundary layer. For
Rex < 105 - the laminar layer is very stable
Rex > 2  106 - it is difficult to prevent transition occurring even when the surface is smooth and
there is no turbulence in the main stream.
(Other factors :- Roughness of the surface, Intensity of the turbulence in the main stream)

For long plates the boundary layer may be laminar over only a relatively short distance from the leading edge and then
it is often assumed - with sufficient accuracy - that the layer is turbulent over its entire length.

Definitions of boundary layer thickness

Boundary layer thickness is defined as that distance from the surface where the local velocity equals 99% of the main
stream velocity.  = y(u = 0.99 u
m)

Displacement thickness *

The volume reduction due to the presence of the boundary layer = ABC
By equating this to the volume given by ABDE
 
 u
 um =  (um − u) dy   =  1 −
* *
 dy
0 0
 um 
The displacement thickness for the boundary layer may be defined as the
distance the surface would have to move in the y direction to reduce the flow
passing by a volume equivalent to the real effect of the boundary layer.

Momentum thickness 

The fluid passing through an element of the boundary layer carries momentum at a rate (uy)u per unit width, where
as in frictionless flow the same mass of fluid would have momentum (uy)um.

For constant density, the total reduction in momentum flow rate   (um − u) u dy equals the momentum flow rate under
0

frictionless conditions through a thickness .

 
u  u
(  um  ) um =   (um − u) u dy whence  =  1 −  dy
0
u  um 
0 m

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 CH1044 Fluid Dynamics
The momentum equation applied to the boundary layer

Consider a steady flow in a boundary layer on a flat plate over which there may be a variation of pressure in the direction
of flow. The width of the surface is large so that the end effects are negligible, and the flow is assumed wholly two-
dimensional.

 The boundary layer is of thickness , and its outer edge is represented by BD. This line is not a streamline, (as x
increases more fluid continually enters the boundary layer) and so select the control volume ACDE where C be the
point on AB produced which is on the same streamline as D.

Forces in x direction

 P   1 P  1 P
F3 = P AC − P+  x  ED+ P+  x (ED − AC )=−   x(ED + AC )
 x   2x  2   x 
 P
as  x → 0, AC → ED in magnitude, and hence, F3 → −  x ED
x
F2 = −  0  x
  P
Therefore the total force F = − 0  x −    x ED
 x
By applying momentum equation to the control volume ACDE
F = net rate of increase of x - momentum
= Flow rate of x-momentum through ED - (Flow rate of x-momentum through AB +
Flow rate of x-momentum through BC)

    2    2 
F =    u dy+
2
   u dy  x  −    u dy +  u m 2 (BC )
 0  x0    0 
   2 
=    u dy  x −  u m 2 (BC ) − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(1)
 x0 
From continuity equation
Mass flow rate across BC = Mass flow rate across ED - Mass flow rate across AB

   
  u m (BC ) =   u dy  x − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (2)
 x  0 


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 CH1044 Fluid Dynamics
Hence

 P    2     
 
− 0  x− 
 x ED =  u dy  x − u  u dy  x
   m
 
 x  x 0  x 0 
 
 P    
  0 +
x
 ED = u m 
 x0   u dy −

 x0
  u 2 dy − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (3)

For a flat plate the variation of pressure with y is negligible, and the pressure in the boundary layer may be taken to be
the same as that outside it. Outside the boundary layer the influence of viscosity is negligible, and the flow may therefore
be assumed to correspond to that of an ideal fluid. Hence,
1
From Bernoulli's equation  P+  um 2 = constant
2
P  um P  um
By differentiating w.r.t. x +  um =0  = −  um
x x x x

And also, ED =  =  dy and  is constant
0

Then equation (3) becomes

 um   
  

 0 −  um
x 0 dy =  u m 

 x0 u dy 


−  
x0
u 2 dy

 u  ( um u ) um
Since um = −u
x x x

 um       um    2
 x 0
dy =    um udy  − 
 x 0  x 0
 0 −  um  udy −  u dy
x0 
  
 0 =   (um − u )u dy +   um  (u −u )dy − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (4)
x0 x 0
m

Since (um - u) becomes zero at the edge of the boundary layer, the upper limit of both integrals may be changed to .
Then from the definition of displacement thickness and momentum thickness, equation (4) simplifies to
 um
0=
d
dx
(
um 2  + ) x m
u * − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (5)

The partial derivative has given way to full derivative since the quantities vary only with x.
 This equation is the form in which the momentum integral equation of the boundary layer is usually expressed. It is
applicable to laminar, turbulent or transition flow in the boundary layer.
P  um
 If =0 Then =0
x x
and the equation reduces to
0 d
=
 um 2
dx

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 CH1044 Fluid Dynamics
The laminar boundary layer on a flat plate with zero pressure gradient

u
For laminar flow = (Where y is measured in a direction perpendicular to u)
y

u 
Thus, if y is measured outwards from the boundary,  0 =   
  y  y =0
P  um
With the assumption that = 0 , and so =0
x x
Then from the momentum integral equation

u   
   =  (um −u ) u dy − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(1)
  y  y =0  x 0
It can be experimentally verified that, (provided the boundary layer remains laminar)
u y
= f () Where = And  is independent of x
um 
Substituting y =  and u = um f () in equation (1)

   f ()    2 
1
um   =   m  1 − f () f ()d
u 
      =0  x  0 

Since f () is assumed independent of x

1
  f () 
 1 − f () f ()d = A and  
     =0
=B where A and B are constants.
0

Then,

um B = 
 um 2 A( d )
= um A − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(2)
2

 x dx

 2
Multiplying by and integrating w.r.t. x   B x =  um A + constant
um 2
For x = 0 ,  = 0 and hence constant = 0

 2 B x   2B x
 =  =   − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (3)
  um A   A ( Re x )
x um 
where Re x =  'local' Reynolds number

From equation (2) and (3)

d 2 B 1 −1 AB
 0 =  um 2 A =  um 2 A  x 2 =  um 2 − − − − − − − − − − ( 4)
dx  um A 2 2 Re x
And so the total friction force between x = 0 and x = l per unit width on one side of the plate is

  (2AB  u l)
l
l
F =   0 dx =  um 2 A  = m
3
and Mean friction stress, o = F/l
0
0

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 CH1044 Fluid Dynamics
The average skin-friction coefficient CF is defined by

Mean frictionstress F  2 AB  2 2 AB

CF = = =2   = − − − − − − − − − (5)
1
um 2 1
um l
2  um l  Re l
2 2
In order to evaluate  from equation (3), the values of A and B have to be calculated, and the form of function f ()
 um 2 AB
0 2 Re x 2 AB
is required. (local skin-friction coefficient cF,), cf = = =
1 1 Re x
 um 2  um 2
2 2
First assumption
• For no slip at the boundary; u = 0 when y = 0 and u = um when y = .
• Viscous forces are negligible outside the boundary layer.

• In the boundary layer the shear stress  decreases linearly and becomes zero when y = ; i.e.  = k ( − y )

u  2

Setting = and integrating gives  u = k  y − y 2  + C and since u = 0 when y = 0; C = 0.
 y  

u k 2  2 
Putting y =  and dividing by  um  =  − 
um  um  2

k 2
must equal to 2  f ( )=
u
So that for u = um when  = 1, =2 −  2
um um

 
 ( ) ( ) ( )
1
2
Now, A =   1 − 2 −  2  2 −  2 d = and B = 2 −  2  = 2
0
15   =0
From equation (3) From equation (4)

 4  x 5.48 x AB 0.365 um 2
 =   =  0 =  um 2 =
 2 Re x
 2 15  Re x Re x Re x

Displacement Thickness Momentum Thickness

 1  1
 u   u 
  1 − f ( )d   f ( )1 − f ( )d
u
 = 1 −
*  dy = 
 = 1 −

 dy = 

 u m um  u m
0 0 0 0

 (1 − 2 +  )d = 3 =
1 5.48 x 2 0.730 x
 1.826 x =  A=  =
= 2
Re x 15 Re x
Re x
0

Comparison of Results for Various Approximate Velocity Distributions in a Laminar Boundary Layer

 (Re x )   Re x  (Re x )   
u
=Cf (Re x )  0
 u 2
 (Re )
 x
um x x x
 m 
2 −  2 5.48 1.826 0.730 0.365
3 1
 − 3 4.64 1.740 0.646 0.323
2 2
2 − 23 +  4 5.48 1.751 0.685 0.343
 
sin    4.80 1.743 0.655 0.328
2 

Blasius’s solution ____ 1.721 0.664 0.332

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