MATTER
21 April 2025 20:05
Characteristics of Matter
➢ Matter has mass and occupies space.
➢ Matter consists of unique substances called elements.
➢ An atom is the smallest unit of an element, retaining its characteristics.
➢ Two or more atoms combine to form a molecule.
➢ A molecule is the smallest unit of matter capable of independent existence.
➢ Molecules can consist of atoms from the same or different elements (e.g., oxygen molecule has two oxygen
atoms; carbon dioxide has one carbon and two oxygen atoms).
➢ Molecules of the same substance are identical (e.g., water molecules from different sources are identical).
➢ Molecules are extremely tiny and cannot be seen with the naked eye; they require an electron microscope
to be observed.
KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER
➢ The kinetic theory of matter explains the behavior and properties of matter.
➢ Matter consists of tiny particles called molecules.
➢ Molecules have spaces between them, known as intermolecular spaces.
➢ Molecules attract each other through intermolecular forces.
➢ Molecules are in continuous motion, possessing kinetic energy. )
➢ The kinetic energy of molecules is directly proportional to temperature; increasing temperature increases
kinetic energy, and decreasing temperature reduces kinetic energy.
➢ The kinetic theory helps explain the properties and interconversion of the three states of matter: solid,
liquid, and gas.
PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
➢ Solids have a definite volume, fixed shape, and free surfaces.
➢ Molecules in solids are closely packed with low kinetic energy and strong intermolecular forces.
➢ Intermolecular spaces in solids are minimal compared to liquids and gases.
➢ Molecules in solids vibrate in fixed positions, resulting in fixed shape and volume.
➢ Solids have fixed shapes, allowing multiple free surfaces.
➢ Solids are difficult to compress due to closely packed molecules and small intermolecular spaces.
➢ Upon heating, molecules in solids gain energy, vibrate more, and expand due to increased intermolecular
spaces and decreased intermolecular forces.
PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS
➢ Liquids have a definite volume but no fixed shape, taking the shape of their container, and have one free
surface.
➢ Molecules in liquids are less closely packed compared to solids, allowing them to move and flow easily.
➢ Liquids have higher kinetic energy and weaker intermolecular forces than solids, preventing them from
maintaining a fixed shape.
➢ Liquids have higher kinetic energy and weaker intermolecular forces than solids, preventing them from
maintaining a fixed shape.
➢ Intermolecular spaces in liquids are slightly larger, and intermolecular forces slightly weaker, compared to
solids, making liquids difficult to compress.
➢ Upon heating, liquids expand due to increased intermolecular spaces.
➢ Molecules in liquids are in constant motion, colliding with container walls and exerting pressure equally in
all directions.
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all directions.
PROPERTIES OF GASES
➢ Gases have neither definite volume nor definite shape.
➢ Molecules in gases are loosely packed and far apart from each other.
➢ Gases have the highest kinetic energy and weakest intermolecular forces among solids, liquids, and gases.
➢ Due to large intermolecular spaces, gases can easily change shape and volume, expanding to fill any
container.
➢ Gases can be compressed easily because of their large intermolecular spaces.
➢ Gases expand significantly upon heating due to weak intermolecular forces.
➢ Gas molecules are in constant motion, colliding with each other and container walls, exerting pressure
equally in all directions.
COHESION AND ADHESION
➢ Cohesion is the force of attraction between molecules of the same substance.
Example: Water molecules sticking together to form droplets.
➢ Adhesion is the force of attraction between molecules of different substances.
Examples: Example: Cooked rice sticking to fingers.
Change of State
➢ Change of state involves absorption or release of heat.
➢ Different substances change state at different temperatures.
➢ Temperature remains constant during the change of state.
➢ Change of state affects physical properties but not chemical properties.
Melting (Fusion)
➢ In solids, molecules are closely packed and held by strong forces, vibrating constantly.
➢ Heating a solid increases molecular vibration, overcoming intermolecular forces.
➢ Molecules move apart, increasing intermolecular space, causing the solid to become liquid from the outer
surface inward.
➢ Temperature remains constant until all molecules absorb sufficient energy to become liquid.
➢ Melting or fusion is the process of a solid turning into a liquid upon heating.
➢ Pure substances melt at a fixed temperature called the melting point.
Vapourisation
➢ Vapourisation is the change of state from liquid to vapour.
➢ Vapourisation includes boiling and evaporation.
➢ Boiling occurs when a liquid is heated, causing molecules to gain energy and move rapidly.
➢ At a specific temperature, molecules overcome intermolecular forces and convert into vapour throughout
the liquid; this process is called boiling.
➢ The fixed temperature at which a pure substance boils and changes from liquid to gas is called the boiling
point.
➢ Evaporation is vapourisation occurring at all temperatures, specifically at the liquid's surface.
➢ Surface molecules gain enough energy to overcome intermolecular attraction and escape as vapour.
➢ Evaporation occurs even below the boiling point, gradually changing liquid to vapour.
Evaporation absorbs heat from the liquid and surroundings, causing a cooling effect.
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➢ Evaporation absorbs heat from the liquid and surroundings, causing a cooling effect.
➢ Example: Sweat evaporation removes heat from our body, helping maintain body temperature at
approximately 37°C.
Condensation
➢ When a gas is cooled, its molecules lose energy and slow down.
➢ Cooling increases intermolecular attraction, bringing molecules closer together.
➢ Continued cooling reduces intermolecular spaces significantly.
➢ Eventually, the gas converts into a liquid at a specific temperature.
➢ The process of changing state from gas to liquid is called condensation.
➢ The fixed temperature at which a pure substance changes its state from gas to liquid is called the
condensation point .
Freezing
➢ When a liquid is cooled, its molecules lose energy.
➢ Cooling increases intermolecular attraction, bringing molecules closer together.
➢ Intermolecular spaces decrease significantly due to cooling.
➢ At a specific temperature, the liquid turns into a solid.
➢ The process of changing from liquid to solid is called freezing.
➢ The fixed temperature at which a pure substance changes from liquid to solid is called its freezing point
➢ The heat removed during freezing equals the heat required for melting the substance.
Sublimation
➢ Solids like camphor, naphthalene, ammonium chloride, and iodine have weak intermolecular forces.
➢ When heated, their molecules quickly gain enough energy to overcome these weak forces.
➢ Molecules directly change from solid to vapour, greatly increasing intermolecular spaces.
➢ Substances that directly convert from solid to vapour are called sublimates.
➢ Substances that directly convert from solid to vapour are called sublimates.
Deposition
➢ When sublimates are cooled, they change directly from vapour to solid without becoming liquid.
➢ Cooling causes molecules to lose energy.
➢ Intermolecular forces increase significantly upon cooling.
➢ Due to increased attraction, gaseous molecules directly form a solid.
➢ The process of changing directly from vapour to solid without passing through the liquid state is called deposition.
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