energies

Review
A Comprehensive Review of Machine-Integrated Electric
Vehicle Chargers
Uvais Mustafa 1, * , Rishad Ahmed 2 , Alan Watson 2 , Patrick Wheeler 2, * , Naseer Ahmed 3 and Parmjeet Dahele 3

1 PEMC Lab, School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, University of Nottingham,

Nottingham NG7 2GT, UK
2 School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
3 GKN Automotive, Birmingham B37 7YE, UK
* Correspondence: [email protected] (U.M.); [email protected] (P.W.)

Abstract: Electric Vehicles are becoming increasingly popular due to their environment friendly
operation. As the demand for electric vehicles increases, it has become quite important to explore their
charging strategies. Since charging and traction do not normally occur simultaneously and the power
electronics converters for both operations have some similarities, the practice of integrating both
charging and traction systems is becoming popular. These types of chargers are termed ‘Integrated
Chargers’. The aim of this paper is to review the available literature on the integrated chargers
and present a critical analysis of the pros and cons of different integrated charging architectures.
Integrated chargers for electric vehicles with three-phase permanent magnet synchronous machines,
multi-phase machines and switched reluctance machines were compared. The challenges with the
published integrated chargers and the future aspect of the work were been discussed.

Keywords: electric vehicle; integrated chargers; traction converters; battery charging;

multi-phase machine

1. Introduction
Citation: Mustafa, U.; Ahmed, R.; Increased demand for more environment friendly transportation systems has acceler-
Watson, A.; Wheeler, P.; Ahmed, N.; ated research and development for the electric vehicle (EV) in recent years. Their counter
Dahele, P. A Comprehensive Review parts, internal combustion engine (ICE)-based vehicles, are one of the major reasons for
of Machine-Integrated Electric global warming and increased pollution [1]. Moreover, the lower efficiency of these ICE
Vehicle Chargers. Energies 2023, 16, vehicles and recent high oil prices add to their increased operating costs. Thus, EVs are
129. https://doi.org/10.3390/ gaining more and more attraction from the automotive industry as well as the research
en16010129 community. EVs produce zero emissions and the high efficiency and the regenerative
Academic Editor: Calin Iclodean breaking capability of their electric motors makes them more feasible. Moreover, to achieve
the European Union (EU) green deal targets, European automotive industries aim to sell
Received: 14 November 2022
only new cars with zero carbon emissions from 2030 onwards [2–5]. Worldwide EV unit
Revised: 18 December 2022
sales, within all light vehicle sectors, have jumped from 315,000 in 2014 to nearly 6.5 million
Accepted: 19 December 2022
in 2021, which corresponds to a market share that has grown from 0.44% to 9.49% in that
Published: 22 December 2022
eight-year period [6]. These figures highlight the rapid rate of growth of EVs worldwide
and suggest that EVs are on track to become the future of transportation systems, as such,
their architecture and their standards need to be studied to optimize their performance and
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. to get the best out of the available technologies.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. In an EV, a rotating electric machine replaces the ICE, which provides the traction
This article is an open access article torque for driving purposes [7,8]. A traction converter is required to interface a Li-ion
distributed under the terms and battery pack with the electric machine, which regulates the power flow from the battery to
conditions of the Creative Commons the machine.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// The traction converter is bidirectional, meaning it can provide power to the machine
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ from the battery by acting as a DC to AC inverter during traction, as well as be able
4.0/).

Energies 2023, 16, 129. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16010129 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2023, 16, 129 2 of 25

to provide power back to the battery during braking, where in this case it acts as an
AC to DC converter.
Based on the type of electric machine, the structure of the traction converter can be
different, e.g., a three-leg-three-phase converter for three-phase machines and a five-leg-
five-phase converter for five-phase machines [9–11]. A simplified structure of the EV is
depicted in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Typical on-board charger configuration [12].

Charging the battery requires a state of the art and sophisticated charger that can
abide by the different standards set by the IEEE as well as other automotive societies of
the world [13–15]. EV chargers follow the standards set by the IEEE and other automotive
societies to ensure safe charging and grid operation. Based on these standards, three
different charging levels are defined in the literature, which are summarized in Table 1 [16].

Table 1. Charging levels and outlets.

Approx. Charging Charger Outlet

Charger Charger Voltage Level Power Level Connector
Type Location Time (40kWh
Battery Capacity) Europe/UK USA
On-board 1.4 kW (12 A) 11–36 h
Level 1 120 V ac SAEJ1772 T1 SAEJ1772 T1
1 Phase 1.9 kW (20 A) 4–11 h
4kW (17 A)
On-board 2–6 h
220 V ac/400 8 kW (32 A)
Level 2 1 Phase/3 1–4 h IEC62196 T2 SAEJ1772 T1
Vac 19. 2 kW (80
Phase 2–3 h
A)
480 V ac (US)
0.4–1 h IEC 62196 T2/ SAE J3068
Level 3 Off-board 400 V ac (EU)/ 50 kW100 kW
0.2–0.5 h CCS Combo 2 CCS/Combo 1
200-600 V dc

Based on the placement of the charging circuitry, EV chargers are classified into two
broad categories—off-board and on-board chargers. Off-board chargers have very high-
power capabilities (>50 kW) and can charge the battery in one hour or less. They are
generally big and heavy in size, and thus cannot be placed in the vehicle. They are usually
located in commercial charging stations—the larger ones, with around 100 kW capability,
can charge the battery in 30 min or less [17,18]. The limited number of charging stations
as well as the size, weight, and cost limitation of the off-board charger makes it a less
feasible option. Thus, to make charging more accessible and friendly, on-board chargers
were introduced, which are placed on the vehicle and can be supplied by any single phase
or three phase utility-grid [19]. Though they are not as fast as their off-board counterparts,
recent advancements in semiconductor technologies is bringing them up to speed [20,21].
Figure 2 depicts the broad classification of the chargers.
Energies 2023, 16, 129 3 of 25

Figure 2. Broad classification of the available literature on EV chargers.

Based on Figure 2, an on-board charger (OBC) can be a separate converter, or it can be

integrated with the traction drive. The separate OBCs conventionally have a two -stage
architecture [22–24]. The first stage is the front-end AC to DC conversion along with the
power factor correction (PFC) stage. Three different structures are mainly used for this
stage: a diode bridge, an active rectifier (totem-pole), or a hybrid bridge where only one
leg is active and the other is essentially a diode leg [22,23,25]. If the charger configuration
utilizes a diode bridge, then it cannot perform the PFC, and it will increase the control
complexity of the DC–DC conversion stage, since the latter would then have to do the PFC
as well as control the charging of the battery.
The second stage of the separate OBC involves a DC–DC conversion. This stage is
responsible for converting the DC voltage from the front-end rectifier stage to a suitable
DC voltage for the battery [26–28]. It regulates the power flow to and from the battery. It
is also responsible for creating a galvanic isolation in the charging system. For the non-
isolated chargers i.e., when isolation is created off-board by a transformer, a conventional
buck/boost DC–DC converter can be used. It provides buck-operation in one direction
and boost in the other [22–24]. Interleaved buck/boost converters might also be employed,
which can perform both operations in both the directions [29]. For the isolated chargers, the
dual active bridge (DAB) is one of the most common DC–DC converter topologies [25,27].
In order to improve its performance in terms of losses, voltage stresses, and reverse gain,
the basic DAB topology can be modified to other different converter topologies, such as
SRC, LLC, CLLC [30–38] resonant converters, in order to operate them with soft switching.
Energies 2023, 16, 129 4 of 25

The architecture of both AC–DC and DC–DC stages determines whether the bidirectional
power flow between the vehicle and any other load or grid is possible or not.
The second type of OBCs are the integrated OBCs. Given that charging and traction
are two mutually exclusive events and the semiconductor devices utilized for both traction
and charging can be similar, in order to reduce the cost and improve the performance
of the charging structure, integrated chargers were introduced. They make use of the
motor windings as the input filters and the traction inverter as the power factor correction
converter during charging [39–41].
Based on the charger location and the different standards set for the chargers, this
paper reviews the latest trends and state-of-the-art technologies available for integrated
chargers. Different charger topologies presented in the recent literature are analysed to
highlight their pros and cons. The rest of the paper is structured as follows. The next
section reviews the various standards for chargers published by various authorities. Some
of the recent chargers and their specifications in light of the standards are also presented.
Section 3 describes the operation of available integrated chargers. Section 4 highlights the
challenges and the research gaps for integrated chargers. Section 5 presents a conclusion
and also summarizes the future direction of research in this area.

2. Charging Standards and Commercially Available Chargers

EV chargers have to follow standards set by different authorities such as the SAE,
NFPA, IEEE, IEC, ISO etc. These standards are set to have secure and safe charging
operation. The safety of the vehicle’s circuitry as well as the individual are kept in mind
while designing these standards. Moreover, since the charging involves interaction with the
utility grid, it therefore must consider the power quality of the grid as well. Table 2 discusses
various standards related to EV chargers set by different regulatory authorities [14,42–47].

Table 2. Standards to be followed by electric vehicles and their charging apparatuses.

Standard Code Description

Society for Automobile Engineers (SAE)
Conductive charging standard. Defines the four main types of charging: AC level 1, AC level 2, DC
J1772
level 1, and DC level 2
J1773 Inductive charging standards combined with the level defined in the SAE J1772.
All the protocols to be followed for transferring the energy from the utility to the EV battery system
J2293
for the electric vehicle supple equipment (EVSE)
This document essentially deals with laying down the power quality requirements for off-board or
J2894 on-board chargers while interacting with the utility grid. According to it, the grid current total
harmonic distortion (THD) should be less than 10%.
This document is predominantly for off-board fast DC chargers which use the J1772 coupler. It lays
J2836/2847/2931
out the foundation and communication standards via the SAE J1772 pilot line.
J2929 This document defines the standards for battery propulsion systems.
J2910 Primarily details the safety standards for heavy electric vehicles, such as electric trucks and buses.
J2344 This document defines the safety standards of the electric vehicles.
J2464 This is regarding the safety standards of the Rechargeable Energy Storage System (RESS).
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
NFPA 70 Safety standards for the individuals who work near exposed energized electrical systems.
NFPA 70 E Deals with the safety standards for the individuals.
NFPA 70 B Deals with the design standards for electrical equipment in order to ensure their safe operation.
This document defines the standards and the requirements for electric vehicle charging and supply
NEC 625/626
equipment.
Energies 2023, 16, 129 5 of 25

Table 2. Cont.

Standard Code Description

Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
This document defines the power quality standards for any interaction with the utility grid. The THD
IEEE 519-2014
specified for the grid current is less than 8% for low and medium voltage.
IEEE P2030 Standards for the interoperability of smart grid and charging stations.
This document specifies the design standards for the DC fast charger and also specifies the
IEEE 2030.1.1 communication standards for the controlling signals between the charging infrastructure and the
CHAdeMO coupler interface.
IEEE 1901 This document deals with the data rate for the overnight charging of the vehicles.
IEEE P2690 These standards set the charging network management along with the vehicle authorization.
These standards are essentially for any interaction between the grid and any distributed energy
IEEE 1547
source.
IEEE P1809 This document standardises the sustainable operation of the electric vehicle.
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
IEC TC 64 Standards for practicing safe practice with any electrical installation and electric shock protection.
This document specifies the standards to be followed for the safe operation of any charging
IEC TC 69
infrastructure.
This document defines the power quality standards for the interaction with the utility grid.
IEC 1000-3-6
According to it, the THD in the grid current should be less than 8% for medium and low voltages.
IEC TC 21 This document deals with the battery management system.
International Organization of Standardizations (ISO)
ISO 15118-1 & 2 These are the standards for the road vehicles for communication between the grid and the EVSE.
ISO 6469 Standards for the safety of the Battery Management System
ISO 6469-1:2009 Safety specifications for the RESS
ISO 6469-2:2009 Safety specifications for electric vehicle operation and failure protection
ISO 6469-3:2009 Safety specification for individuals against electric shock and hazard
Underwriters Laboratory (UL)
This document standardises the safety requirements for the EV OBC system, especially for the
UL 2594/2251/2201/2231
components operating at or lower than 600 V.
UL 225a Safety requirement for the design of electric couplers, plugs and receptacles.
Standards for the any converter, inverter, or distributed energy system interacting with each other or
UL 1741
with the grid. V2X communication.
Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker (VDE)
DIN V VDE 0510-11 Safety requirements for secondary battery installations and management systems.
Safety standards for the common mode leakage current between the utility grid and any other
DIN VDE 0126-1-1
connected electrical system.

The standards set up by different agencies are taken into account when designing
a charger for an electric vehicle. Some of the latest electric vehicles and their on-board
charger specifications are given below in Table 3. Off-board chargers are added in the table
for clarity.

Table 3. Commercially Available EVs and their Charger Specifications.

Battery Max.
OBC Charging
Vehicle Ref. No. Year Charger Type Capacity Charging
Specifications Time
(kWh) Power (kW)

• 6h
• Integrated Non-Isolated, • 10.9
Hyundai Ioniq 5 [48,49] 2021 73 • 15–20
• Off-board Bidirectional • 350
min

• Separate Isolated, • 6.6 • 4–5 h

Nissan Leaf [50,51] 2021 • Off-board 40 • 100 • 25 min
Unidirectional
Energies 2023, 16, 129 6 of 25

Table 3. Cont.

Battery Max.
OBC Charging
Vehicle Ref. No. Year Charger Type Capacity Charging
Specifications Time
(kWh) Power (kW)

• Separate • 11 • 7.5 h
Volkswagen ID4 [52,53] 2021 • Off-board Isolated 82 • 150 • 38 min

• Separate • 11 • 3h
BMW X3 [54,55] 2021 • Off-board Non-Isolated 43 • 150 • 25 min

• Separate Isolated, • 22 • 7h
Audi e-Tron [56,57] 2021 • Off-board 71 • 120 • 28 min
Unidirectional

• Integrated Non-isolated, • 22 • 3h
Renault Zoe R135 [58,59] 2020 • Off-board 55 • 50 • 1h
Unidirectional

Mercedes Benz • Separate Isolated, • 11 • 5.8 h

[60,61] 2021 • Off-board 66 • 100 • 30 min
EQA 250 Bidirectional

• 4h
• Separate Non-isolated, • 22
Tesla Model Y [62,63] 2021 75 • 20–30
• Off-board Bidirectional • 250
min

Porsche Turbo • Separate Non-Isolated, • 11 • 9h

[64,65] 2021 • Off-B=board 93 • 50 • 2h
Taycan Unidirectional

Non-Isolated,
BAIC EC180 [66,67] 2017 Separate 22 6.6 3.5 h
Unidirectional

3. Integrated Chargers
The architecture of on-board chargers (OBCs) has been discussed in Section I. The OBC
requires at least two power electronics converters for its two different power conversion
stages. A separate power electronics converter provides power to the electric drive for
propulsion. Separate power electronics increase the size, weight and cost of the overall EV
powertrain system. One solution is the integrated onboard charger. Since both propulsion
drive and the OBC are connected with the EV battery through power converters, and
charging and propulsion are mostly mutually exclusive events, the charger converter can
be modified for propulsion. This can reduce both the cost and size of the powertrain
system. Thus, in an integrated OBC, the electrical components for charging/discharging
and propulsion are shared. Integrated chargers can have single stage architecture or the
conventional dual-stage architecture. Figure 3 below depicts both the architectures.
Energies 2023, 16, 129 7 of 25

Figure 3. Two types of integrated chargers configurations: (a) machine-integrated single stage archi-
tecture; (b) machine-integrated two stage architecture; (c) inverter-integrated single stage architecture;
(d) inverter-integrated two stage architecture.

Integrated chargers can be classified as machine-integrated or converter-integrated.

Machine-integrated chargers have the charging power injected into the machine windings
that are utilizing them as the filter inductors. They can be either single stage or dual stage,
as is depicted in Figure 3a, b. Converter integrated chargers are the ones where the charging
current/power is injected through the traction converter and machine windings are left
untouched. These types can also be classified into single stage or dual stage architectures.
Figure 3 below depicts the different configurations of machine-integrated chargers.
In the single stage architecture, the electric grid is connected to the traction inverter
via machine windings that act as an input filter; thus, no extra bulky filter is needed for
the charger. The traction inverter acts as the AC to DC converter, and output is directly
connected to the traction battery. In the two-stage architecture, an AC–DC rectifier is
connected with the grid, and the power factor correction circuit is implemented first
before the DC link is connected to the traction inverter, which essentially acts as a DC–DC
converter during charging. During traction, a grid-side relay is opened, and the traction
machine is powered via a traction inverter by the traction battery.
A three-phase integrated charger was proposed in [68], as is shown in Figure 4a. It has
the two-stage architecture with an input three-phase AC–DC rectifying stage and a DC–DC
stage utilising the inverter. The front-end converter is a traditional three switch AC–DC
buck converter. During charging, the propulsion inverter acts as a DC–DC interleaved
boost converter using the motor windings. The modulation index of the input stage
and the duty cycle of the semiconductor devices in the propulsion converter are the two
control parameters which govern the charging operation. A level 2 charger prototype was
developed and an efficiency of 95.3% has been reported. The use of only three switches
for the input converter and the reuse of the traction inverter reduces the size and increases
the power density of the charger. Moreover, unlike most other topologies for integrated
chargers, the proposed topology does not require modification in the motor construction.
The main limitation of the topology is that it does not support bidirectional power flow,
and the charging control is complex.
Energies 2023, 16, 129 8 of 25

Figure 4. Two types of integrated charger configurations: (a) three-phase integrated charger [68];
(b) single-phase integrated charger [69].

Same authors from [68] also proposed a similar structure for the single-phase charging
operation investigated in [69], as is depicted in Figure 4b. The topology uses a diode bridge
at the input. The positive terminal is connected with one of the phase terminals of the
machine winding. The negative terminal of the diode bridge is connected with the negative
terminal of the propulsion inverter/battery. During charging, the propulsion inverter, along
with the machine windings, act as an interleaved boost converter and help with the PFC.
The charging current flowing through the machine windings does not produce any torque.
During propulsion, the diode bridge is reverse biased, and the inverter supplies power to
the propulsion machine. This topology does not require any additional component and
does not require modification of the propulsion machine. The size of the powertrain is
reduced due to integration. A level 1 charger prototype was presented with a maximum
power of 3 kW and a maximum efficiency of 93.1%. Detailed modelling of the permanent
magnet synchronous motor/machine (PMSM) winding working as an inductor was also
presented. The use of the bridge diode at the input end makes the charger suitable for
unidirectional operation only.
In [70], the authors proposed another methodology to combine the propulsion con-
verter with the charging converter as depicted in Figure 5. With the use of three relays,
the proposed circuit works either in propulsion mode or in charging mode. Moreover, the
DC–DC converter of the conventional charger is eliminated, as the propulsion inverter can
be used as a buck/boost converter with the help of machine windings. It can be used either
to charge a 48 V battery in buck mode, or a 192 V battery in boost mode. A control strategy
was also presented to maintain unity power factor operation and reduce current harmonics.
The motor stays at standstill during the charging period, although the charging current
flows through the motor windings. A maximum efficiency of 88.3% was reported for the
converter while working as a boost charger. The main limitation of the topology is that it is
not a bi-directional topology, so it does not support vehicle to grid (V2G) operation. The
efficiency is also on the lower band, and there is no galvanic isolation between the charger
and the grid.

Figure 5. Single phase integrated charger using machine windings [70].

Energies 2023, 16, 129 9 of 25

Three-phase machines in the integrated chargers tend to rotate during charging mode
due to the developed torque, so they require either mechanical braking during charging,
which makes them less efficient and wear-and-tear prone, or require complex control
algorithms in order to have the resultant torque as zero. Six-phase machines, on the other
hand, require no such mechanism. Two different sets of three phases can cancel out the
torque produced during charging by the simple arrangement of windings. The authors
in [71] proposed an integrated charger topology using a six-phase machine. It required a
nine-switch-converter (NSC) to control the six-phase machine. The NSC has the advantage
over two different conventional converters to supply and control the two different sets of
three-phase voltages, as it only needs nine switches instead of twelve. It can also supply
two different loads by controlling the switching frequency of the upper switches and lower
switches differently. At the battery side, there is a boost converter. During the charging, the
NSC acts as the conventional PWM converter, and the machine windings are utilized as the
filter inductors. It can be noticed from Figure 6 that the sequence of the lower windings is
reversed; this is to make sure that the total torque produced due to the battery charging
current is zero. During traction operation, relay S3 is open, while S1 and S2 are closed.
This disconnects the converter from the grid, and the NSC works as a drive inverter for
the six-phase machine. The control algorithm is simple and can be applied without any
complications. However, this system requires a specially modified six-phase machine,
which can be costly.

Figure 6. Integrated charger using six-phase machine [71].

In [72], the authors introduced a winding-midpoint current injection technique for

charging an EV battery, as is shown in Figure 7. This is done to cancel out any torque
produced due to the charging current. The topology utilizes three h-bridge converters,
which also work as a boost PFC and a DC–DC buck/boost converter at the battery side.
During charging, the three h-bridges act as active rectifiers, and machine windings are
used as filter inductors. A current controller makes sure that the flux produced in each
winding cancels each other, so there is no resultant torque during the charging mode.
During traction mode, the three h-bridge converters act as single-phase drives for each
winding. The topology requires access to the midpoints of the stator windings, which
requires a specially designed machine for this charger. Moreover, the use of three h-bridges
increases the number of switches, which means increased losses and decreased reliability
of the integrated charger.
Energies 2023, 16, 129 10 of 25

Figure 7. Integrated charger for split-three phase machine proposed in [72].

Similar to [71,73] also exploits the benefit of multi-phase machines for integrated
charger operation, since they have an extra degree of control, which allows precise flux
control in the traction machine during charging to produce zero torque. The authors
presented the scheme for a five-phase machine, but it can be extended to any prime number
of phases with at least one neutral point. For the proposed scheme, only two extra switches
are needed apart from the traction drive, as is shown in Figure 8. During charging mode,
the extra switches S1 and S2 are open, and the three-phase input is connected to the two
neutral points and a phase outlet of the machine. The machine windings are utilized as
filter inductors. The PFC operation is performed by a five-phase converter, which is used
as a traction inverter during traction mode. A bidirectional DC–DC converter is required at
the battery side if the battery voltage is lower than the grid voltage. During charging, a
pulsating field is produced, due to the odd number of phases. This pulsating field is not
enough to generate the starting torque of the machine. Current flowing in the five windings
causes core losses in the machine and reduces the efficiency of the system. Moreover, to
access the midpoints of the windings of the machine, a specially constructed machine
is required.

Figure 8. Three-phase fast charger for polyphase machine proposed in [73].

A fast charger for level 2 charging was proposed in [74], as is shown in Figure 9.
A surface mount permanent magnet (SPM) machine is used in this integrated charger.
An off-board, three-phase transformer is used to isolate the grid from the charger. An
additional contactor is used for the three phases. The secondary side of the transformer
is connected to the three phases of the motor windings. During charging, the contactor
connects the motor winding to the grid, and the windings act as an input filter. Power
factor correction is done with a control strategy by controlling the duty cycle of the traction
converter. During traction, the contactor connects the motor windings in star connection,
and the traction inverter provides the required power. The proposed system supports up
to 30 kW of charging with a maximum efficiency of 97%. The motor produces around
70 Newton meters of torque during charging when 80 A of charging current flows through
Energies 2023, 16, 129 11 of 25

the motor windings. This torque is not enough to rotate the machine, but some vibrations
are produced. Thus, the system is prone to wear-and-tear. Moreover, if the system is to
work in bidirectional mode, an additional DC–DC converter is required at the battery side
in case the DC link voltage is lower than the peak line-to-line grid voltage.

Figure 9. Three-phase fast integrated charger proposed in [74].

The authors in [75] also presented a somewhat similar structure for the integrated
charger as [72]. In [75], the authors modified the interior PMSM (IPMSM) machine’s rotor
to have some damping bars, as is shown in Figure 10. This was to dampen any torque
produced due to the charging currents. The proposed topology can work in bidirectional
mode and, thus, can support both grid to vehicle (G2V) and vehicle to grid (V2G) operations.
An off-board three phase transformer is required for ensuring isolation. The specially
modified machine with the damping bars increases the cost. Also, the core losses increase
due to the damping bars, which reduces the efficiency of the system.

Figure 10. Three-phase integrated charger with hardware reconfiguration proposed in [75].

Renault proposed an integrated charging scheme where the motor windings were
utilized as an input filter, as is shown in Figure 11. The charger can be used for fast charg-
ing, as well as for level 1 or 2 charging [76]. The input rectifier stage was controllable, as
unidirectional IGBTs were connected in series with the rectifying diodes. The duty cycle of
the IGBTs governs the output current. The PFC operation can be performed either by the
three-phase inverter stage or even by the input rectifier stage. A constant current–constant
voltage (CC–CV) charging scheme is utilized, due to its simplicity and effectiveness. The
rectified input current is connected to the neutral point of the star-connected motor wind-
ings. Therefore, the motor needs to be especially constructed according to the needs of the
charger to provide access to the neutral point of the windings.

Figure 11. Three-phase integrated fast charger by Renault [76].

Hyundai patented an integrated charger for plug-in hybrid vehicles [49]. It utilizes
two machines that can be used in both motoring and generating modes. The generating
mode was used to recharge the battery during the braking period. It also facilitates the
Energies 2023, 16, 129 12 of 25

idle stop and go (ISG) feature, as the motor can be used to start and stop the engine during
the start and stop of the vehicle to reduce the emissions. The proposed charger enables
both level 1 and 2 charging. The two motors are connected to the grid using two relays,
as is shown in Figure 12. The input AC is connected between the neutral points, and the
PFC operation is done by the duty cycle control of the traction inverters, which work as
active rectifiers in charging mode. A DC–DC converter is also connected at the battery end
to regulate the DC link voltage. The access to the neutral point and the utilization of two
motors are the main limitations, as they increase the cost and size of the charger.

Figure 12. Integrated charger by Hyundai [49].

The authors in [59] modified the traction inverter by adding two more switches, as
is shown in Figure 13. The new topology can perform bidirectional, single-phase AC–DC
operation, along with the traditional three-phase, bidirectional AC–DC operation. An
interleaved DC–DC converter is also used at the battery end to control the DC link voltage
for traction. It can act as a forward buck or reverse boost converter, depending on whether it
is used for charging or traction. The proposed converter can also supply power back to the
grid (V2G) by controlling the eight-switch converter as a single-phase DC to AC converter.
The PFC operation is maintained using a control algorithm. Since motor windings are not
used for the charging operation, there is no risk of torque production in the motor during
charging. Also, no special construction for the traction machine is required. However, there
is no galvanic isolation, and the added DC–DC converter, along with the two inductors,
increases the charger weight and volume.

Figure 13. Eight-switch inverter (ESI)-based integrated charger [59].

Energies 2023, 16, 129 13 of 25

Most of the published topologies for integrated chargers are high voltage topologies.
In order to apply the integrated charging theory for low voltage battery applications, the
authors in [77] proposed a reconfigurable converter-based topology, as is shown in Figure 14.
The topology works as a traditional two-stage OBC during the charging mode while all
the contactors are in the normally open (NO) state. The traction inverter is reconfigured to
work as a single-phase boost rectifier performing the PFC, and the third leg of the inverter
is used for a DC–DC LLC converter. The LLC converter is utilized to provide the galvanic
isolation. During charging, the two-phase windings of the motor are reconfigured to act in
series, since the winding inductances are low, and the drive is basically designed to act for
a low voltage machine. Thus, to ensure lower input current ripple during charging, the two
windings are reconfigured to act in series to increase the inductance. The reconfiguration
also ensures no torque is produced during the charging operation because of current in
the windings. During propulsion, the system is reconfigured as a traditional three-phase
voltage source inverter (VSI), i.e., all of the relays’ contacts are in the normally closed (NC)
state. The use of 5 electromechanical relays in the topology increases the cost and reduces
the system reliability.

Figure 14. Reconfigurable VSI-based integrated charger [77].

In [78], an integrated charging strategy was proposed for four-wheel drive applications.
The traction inverters for the four different wheels are the only power electronics needed
in this charger. Only two additional relay contact sets are required apart from the traction
inverters, as is shown in Figure 15. During charging, the contact set 1 connects the input
supply between motors N1 and N2, while the contact set 2 is in position 2. The motor’s
windings are utilized as the input current filter. A simple control strategy is applied. Since
the input power is delivered through the neutral point of the windings, equal current
flows in the windings and no torque are produced during the charging. The grid supply is
disconnected during traction, and the contact set 2 position is moved to position 1. Custom
designed motors are needed to get access to the neutral point of the windings.

Figure 15. A four-wheel drive-based integrated charger [78].

The authors in [79] proposed the integrated low voltage charger for electric scooter
applications. It used the traction inverter as the front-end rectifier and PFC during charging,
while a bidirectional DC–DC converter was used at the battery end, as is shown in Figure 16.
The proposed structure is capable of bidirectional power flow and thus can support V2G
Energies 2023, 16, 129 14 of 25

or V2H modes. During traction, the single-phase utility grid is disconnected by the relay
contactor, and the traction inverter works as a traditional motor drive. Motor windings
are utilized as the input filters during charging. The front-end of the charger is connected
to the neutral point of the windings to make sure that there is no torque during charging.
Moreover, in order to eliminate the 100 Hz power ripples introduced by the front-end
rectifier, the DC–DC converter is tuned to provide sufficient gain at 100 Hz to eliminate the
low frequency ripple. The charger needs access to the neutral point of the windings, which
can make it costly, as special care needs to be taken while constructing the motor.

Figure 16. Single-phase integrated charger for electric scooter [79].

The benefits of a switched reluctance motor (SRM) were exploited in [80], (Figure 17)
where a low speed SRM drive and integrated charger was proposed. A four-phase, eight
pole SRM was utilized in the proposed application, which makes use of the modified Miller
converter for the traction purpose. The modified Miller converter is made by two intelligent
power modules (IPM) that essentially contain two three phase converters. While the five
legs of the two IPMs are used as the modified Miller converter, the sixth leg is utilized to
realise a DC–DC buck/boost converter. During charging, one of the phase windings acts
as the input filter, while another winding acts as a DC–DC converter filter. The drive is
suitable for low-speed applications, such as golf carts, commuter cars, electric scooters etc.
The charging is only available at the level 1 charging level.

Figure 17. Integrated charger for an SRM-based EV [80].

One of the major problems for any OBC is the existence of a low frequency ripple
at the rectifier side which is then passed on to the battery through a charging current if
a bulky DC link capacitor is not employed. One of the solutions is to utilize an auxiliary
power filter (APF) circuit to absorb the lower frequency power, as is presented in [81]. The
authors have utilized the motor windings as the input buffer filter during charging with an
extra APF circuit to absorb the double line frequency power ripple. The traction inverter is
utilized for PFC operation. A quasi-z-source DC–DC converter is utilized at the battery
end to minimize the losses and control the power to and from the battery. The introduction
Energies 2023, 16, 129 15 of 25

of the extra APF adds to the cost, weight, and size of the charger. Figure 18 below depicts
the circuit configuration.

Figure 18. Integrated charger with APF [81].

One of the main problems of using the motor windings for charging is the developed
stray torque. The authors of [82] used a split-phase motor design approach to avoid the
development of torque during charging. During the charging operation, the three phase
windings are split so that equal and opposite currents flow in all the phase windings,
which leads to zero torque generation, as is shown in Figure 19. During traction, the
windings are connected in series and they act as the normal three-phase machine driven
by the traction converter. Construction of a split phase motor is the major issue for this
topology, as it will require a specially constructed machine, which would increase the cost
and effort. Moreover, the iron and core losses will also increase in the machine leading to
add additional loss in efficiency. The charger is suitable for level 2 and level 1 charging and
can also accommodate bidirectional power flow; thus, V2G is also supported. To provide
extra protection, the authors advised using the external transformer for isolation.

Figure 19. Split-phase integrated charger [82].

An on-board integrated DC charger was proposed in [83]. The charger enables charg-
ing operation even during traction mode, which is suitable for vehicles with mobile charg-
ing sources, like solar PVs. The charger also provides fault protection. The charger can work
in both buck and boost mode in both directions. However, it can only work with DC inputs.
The front-end DC–DC converter is connected to the neutral of the three-phase winding
during charging and injects the DC current, as is shown in Figure 20. Since the current
responsible for torque generation is the iq current (q-axis charging current component), and
the DC and iq currents are totally unrelated, there is no chance of torque generation during
charging. The main limitation of the charger is that it only operates with DC supplies; thus,
an off-board arrangement for AC to DC conversion is required if there is no solar PV. Thus,
that would limit vehicle charging options, including at night time when there’s no sunlight.
Energies 2023, 16, 129 16 of 25

Figure 20. Integrated DC Charger with Solar PV as mobile DC source [83].

In order to have zero torque during charging, a split-phase three-phase machine was
proposed in [84]. The three phase windings of the machines are split into two equal parts,
and the utility grid is connected to their mid-points, as is shown in Figure 21. This approach
makes sure that the torque produced by one half-phase cancels out the torque produced by
another half-phase. A dual inverter approach is considered in order to provide a path for
the zero-sequence current. A modified new modulation strategy was also discussed, which
minimizes the common-mode current during charging. The main limitation of the topology
is that it requires special construction of the machine for splitting the phase-windings.
Moreover, utilizing the dual inverter increases the cost and reduces the power density of
the charger.

Figure 21. Split-phase integrated charger [84].

The simplest structure that could be found for the integrated chargers is that of utilizing
the three-phase traction VSI as the AC–DC converter when charging and supplying the
power to the battery [85,86]. The said technology has been present for a long time and has
been applied in various arrangements to optimize its performance. It has the advantage
of utilizing the lowest semiconductor devices and also can be controlled with zero torque
during charging. In [85], an open neutral structure was proposed that could be supplied by
Energies 2023, 16, 129 17 of 25

a three-phase supply, as is depicted in Figure 22. For the three-phase supply, it required
a special control strategy for torque control that essentially included d and q axis current
control. In [86], a slightly improved configuration for the three-phase VSI was achieved
via a single-pole-double-throw switch which made it possible to reconfigure the topology
into a single-phase boost rectifier and a buck DC–DC converter during charging operation
by utilizing the machine windings as smoothening inductors, as is depicted in Figure 23.
The topology can be supplied by either three phase or single-phase supply. Apart from
this, another approach is present in [81], where the authors reconfigured the three-phase
machine windings into a split-six-phase machine during charging, which helps to cancel
any torque that might cause the machine to vibrate or rotate.

Figure 22. Three-phase integrated charger topology [85].

Figure 23. Reconfigurable VSI-based integrated charger [86].

Based on the literature survey done, a comparison table is drawn as depicted below in
Table 4. Based on the comparison table, the main challenges with the machine-integrated
OBCs are highlighted in the next section.
Energies 2023, 16, 129 18 of 25

Table 4. Comparison of the all the chargers presented in the literature. * Number of diodes, ** Number of active switches (IGBT/Mosfets).

Charger Power Flow Eff. Ns

Ref. Input Power Charger Arch. AC–DC Stage DC–DC Stage Nd * Pros Cons
Struct. Cap. (%) **

Interleaved (i) Zero torque generation

Machine- 3-switch buck boost using (ii) No modified machine (i) Unidirectional
[67] 3-Phase 2-Stage Unidirectional 95.3 12 9 requirement (ii) Non-isolated
integrated rectifier machine
winding (iii) Reduced active switch

(i) Zero torque generation

Traction Traction VSI (i) Unidirectional
(ii) Both buck and boost operation
[68] 1-Phase VSI- 2-Stage Diode rectifier acting as Unidirectional 88.3 4 6 (ii) Non-isolated
(iii) Reduced size due to low active
integrated buck/boost (iii) Extra relays are required
switches count

(i) Zero torque generation

Interleaved (ii) Low control complexity
Machine- boost using (i) Unidirectional
[70] 1-Phase 2-Stage Diode rectifier Unidirectional 93.1 4 6 (iii) Reduced size
integrated machine (ii) Non-isolated
(iv) No modified machine
windings requirement

Bidirectional (i) Inherent zero torque generated

9-switch (i) Specially constructed machine
Machine- DC–DC (ii) Reduced size due to low active
[69] 3-Phase 2-Stage converter for Bidirectional 76.2 0 11 (ii) Non-isolated
integrated buck/boost switch count
6-phase machine (iii) Poor efficiency
converter (iii) Bidirectional power flow

Bidirectional (i) Higher number of active

Machine- 3 parallel DC–DC (i) Inherent torque cancellation switches
[71] 3-Phase 2-Stage Bidirectional – 0 14 (ii) Bidirectional (ii) Special construction of machine
integrated h-bridges buck/boost
converter (iii) Non-isolated

(i) 2 extra relays are required

5-leg traction (i) Inherent torque cancellation
Machine- (ii) Special construction of 5-phase
[72] 3-Phase 1-Stage VSI for 5-phase – Bidirectional – 0 10 (ii) Low number of active switches
integrated machine
machine (iii) Bidirectional
(iii) Non-isolated

(i) Vibrating torque in machine

3-phase traction (i) Low number of active switches
Machine- during charging
[73] 3-Phase 1-Stage VSI acting as – Bidirectional 97 0 6 (ii) Bidirectional
integrated (ii) Off-board isolation is required
rectifier (iii) High efficiency
(iii) Extra contactors are required
Energies 2023, 16, 129 19 of 25

Table 4. Cont.

Charger Power Flow Eff. Ns

Ref. Input Power Charger Arch. AC–DC Stage DC–DC Stage Nd * Pros Cons
Struct. Cap. (%) **

Bidirectional (i) Non-isolated

3-phase traction (i) Low number of active switches
Machine- DC–DC (ii) Special construction of machine
[74] 3-Phase 2-Stage VSI acting as Bidirectional – 0 8 (ii) Bidirectional
integrated buck/boost with damping bars
rectifier (iii) Zero toque generation
converter (iii) 5 extra relays

(i) Non-isolated
3-phase VSI (i) Inherent zero torque
Machine- Current source (ii) Specially constructed machine is
[75] 3-Phase 2-Stage acting as boost Unidirectional – 6 12 (ii) Low control complexity
integrated rectifier required
converter 1. (iii)
(iii) Unidirectional

Bidirectional (i) Non-isolated

Machine- 3-phase VSI DC–DC (i) Inherent torque cancellation (ii) Specially constructed machine is
[48] 1/3-Phase 2-Stage Bidirectional – 0 14 (ii) Bidirectional required
integrated acting as rectifier buck/boost
conv. (iii) 4 extra relays

H-bridge acting (i) No torque generated

as interleaved (i) Non-isolated
VSI- 8-switch (ii) No special construction of
[76] 1-Phase 2-Stage bidirectional Bidirectional – 0 12 (ii) Increased number of active
integrated converter machine
DC–DC switches
(iii) Bidirectional
converter

(i) Isolated
(ii) Bidirectional
Machine- 3-phase VSI (i) 5 extra relays are required
[59] 1-Phase 2-Stage LLC Bidirectional 97.6 2 6 (iii) No special construction of
integrated acting as rectifier (ii) Low voltage charging
machine
(iv) High efficiency

(i) Zero torque generated

Machine- 3-phase VSI (ii) No special construction of (i) Non-isolated
[77] 1-Phase 1-Stage – Bidirectional – 0 24 machine (ii) 2 extra contactors are required
integrated acting as rectifier
(iii) Bidirectional

Bidirectional (i) Zero torque generated (i) Non-isolated

Machine- 3-phase VSI DC–DC (ii) Lower number of active switches (ii) Extra relay is required
[78] 1-Phase 2-Stage Bidirectional 87.5 0 8
integrated acting as rectifier buck/boost (iii) Bidirectional (iii) Specially constructed machine
converter
Bidirectional (i) Non-isolated
Modified miller (i) Zero torque generated
Machine- DC–DC (ii) Low voltage and low power
[79] 1-Phase 2-Stage converter for Bidirectional – 1 12 (ii) Bidirectional
integrated buck/boost charging
4-phase SRM
converter

(i) APF circuit to remove low

Quasi z-source frequency harmonics
VSI- 3-phase VSI (i) Non-isolated
[80] 1-Phase 2-Stage DC–DC Bidirectional – 0 7 (ii) No special construction of
integrated acting as rectifier (ii) Increased size due to APF
converter machine
(iii) Bidirectional
Energies 2023, 16, 129 20 of 25

Table 4. Cont.

Charger Power Flow Eff. Ns

Ref. Input Power Charger Arch. AC–DC Stage DC–DC Stage Nd * Pros Cons
Struct. Cap. (%) **

(i) 3 extra relays are required

(i) Inherent zero torque generation
Machine- 3-phase VSI (ii) Non-isolated
[81] 3-Phase 1-Stage – Bidirectional – 0 6 (ii) Bidirectional
integrated acting as rectifier (iii) Special construction of machine
(iii) Low number of active switches
is required

(i) Can perform charging while

3-phase VSI mobile
Machine- Diode rectifier acting as (i) Off-board rectifier is needed
[82] 1-Phase 2-Stage Bidirectional – 4 8 (ii) No special construction of
integrated (off-board) DC–DC (ii) Non-isolated
machine
converter (iii) Bidirectional

(i) No extra component is required (i) Non-isolated

Machine- 3-phase VSI (ii) Torque cancellation (ii) Special construction of machine
[83] 3-Phase 1-Stage – Bidirectional – 0 12
integrated acting as rectifier (iii) Bidirectional is required

(i) Bidirectional
Machine- 3-phase VSI (ii) Zero torque operation (i) 3 extra contactors are required
[85] 3-Phase 1-Stage – Bidirectional – 0 6 (iii) No special construction of (ii) Non-isolated
integrated acting as rectifier
machine is required

(i) Bidirectional
Machine- 3-phase VSI (ii) Zero torque operation (i) 4 extra contactors are required
[86] 1/3-Phase 1-stage – Bidirectional – 0 6 (iii) No special construction for (ii) Non-isolated
integrated acting as rectifier
machine
Energies 2023, 16, 129 21 of 25

4. Challenges with Machine-Integrated OBCs

From Section 2, it is clear that integrated OBCs utilize motor windings in one way or
another. Different methods utilizing the motor windings pose various challenges. Some of
the major challenges for the integrated OBCs are highlighted below.
Most of the integrated chargers inject power directly into the windings of the machine
to use them as a power buffer or filter. This rates the system at higher power ratings. This
doesn’t pose a problem, as the machine and the converter are designed for high power
traction. Nevertheless, this direct connection between the grid and the machine can cause
problems, due to the lack of galvanic isolation. Leakage current due to no isolation in the
integrated chargers can cause serious harm to the users, as well as to the control circuitry.
A generalized modelling approach for the common mode current has been discussed
in [87]. In order to avoid the common mode current, the main solution is to use an off-
board transformer, as was proposed in [75]. But this makes the integrated chargers less
useful, since they can’t be directly connected to the utility grid. Tesla has patented another
solution in order to reduce the leakage current in the integrated system [88] by utilizing an
interrupter circuit in case the leakage current exceeds the standard limit. Thus, having no
electrical isolation with the utility grid is one of the major issues for the integrated chargers.
Another main issue with the integrated chargers is that, since they utilize the machine
windings as filters, the charging current, as it flows through the windings, can produce
torque in the machine and possibly give rise to vibrations or even rotation. To avoid
this issue, many different solutions have been adopted in the literature. Multi-phase
machines [71,73] have been utilized to use their windings in such a way that the elec-
tromagnetic torque produced by the different windings because of the charging current
cancel out each other. Splitting the three-phase machine windings to access the middle
point of each phase windings, as shown in [72], also cancels the electromagnetic torque
produced. Apart from the multi-phase approach, the torque production can also be avoided
by implementing a decoupled control algorithm that controls the individual d and q axis
charging current components (id and iq ) during charging operation. This does add to the
complexity of the control system, and, in comparison to other solutions, it costs less.
Splitting the three-phase into six-phase, or the use of higher phase (>3) machines, can
reduce the control complexity. But this approach requires access to the inaccessible points
of the machine windings. The special construction of the machines for this purpose adds to
the cost and design effort.
Using the same converter for traction, as well as for charging, increases the stress on
the switches of the traction converter, which might decrease the long-term reliability of the
semiconductor switches and capacitor. Since the number of power-cycles the converter has
to go through increases, the mean time to failure (MTTF) decreases, which can reduce the
lifetime of the traction inverter. A proper investigation into the decrease in reliability of the
semiconductor switches in integrated chargers is needed to shed more light on this issue.

5. Conclusions and Future Aspects

A comprehensive review of the latest available literature on machine-integrated charg-
ers is the key focus of this work. The main concept of the integrated charger is that the
traction system and the charging converters are integrated since the two operations, i.e.,
EV battery charging and traction, are mutually exclusive events. The integration of the
charging circuitry into the traction system is done by utilizing the machine windings as the
input filters and by modifying the traction inverter through relays or switches. The first
operation smooths the input current, and the second operation ensures a safe transition
between the charging mode and the traction mode. Higher phase (>3) machines are used in
several integrated chargers because of their higher torque density. Moreover, higher phases
give more flexibility in designing the control system for the integrated charger. However,
higher phase machines require modifications in the traction inverter. This paper presents
different topologies that uss all the available options of integration, and the challenges for
different topologies are also discussed.
Energies 2023, 16, 129 22 of 25

In light of the paper, the future aspects of the integrated chargers involve working on
the following problems:
1. Most of the integrated chargers are non-isolated, and authors suggested using an off-
board isolation transformer. This makes the whole concept of the OBC and integrated
OBC less useful, as it will limit the use of OBCs to only be used in charging stations;
thus, integrated chargers with on-board isolation need to be explored.
2. Since the same power electronics components will be utilized for traction and charging
purposes, their utilization time is increased. This will have impact on their reliability.
A study of the power electronics components with enhanced utilization rates is needed
in order to determine the adverse effect on reliability.
3. The cost effectiveness of integrated chargers needs to be investigated when consider-
ing reliability and maintenance issues.
4. When utilizing the machine inductance as a filter, charging current through them
may produce torque; higher-phase machines provide extra flexibility in terms of
control and may present a good option to overcome this issue. Accordingly, their
utilization needs to be investigated along with an effective comparison, in terms of
their performance and cost, with the conventional three-phase machines.
5. The low-speed drives for applications like golf-carts utilize the switched reluctance
motor. Integrated charger configuration for SRM-based drives needs to be investigated
in order to reduce their cost and improve effectiveness.

Funding: This paper draws on research developed at the GKN Automotive Advance Research Centre.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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