Mobile Communication &

Computing
(Code : CSC702)

(Semester VII : Computer Engineering)

(Mumbai University)

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Strictly as Per the Choice Based Credit and Grading System (Rev. 2016)
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of Mumbai University w.e.f Academic Year 2019-2020
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Dipali Y. Koshti Nikahat Mulla

Assistant Professor, Assistant Professor,
Department of Computer Engineering Department of Computer Engineering,
Fr. Conceicao Rodrigues College of Fr. Conceicao Rodrigues College of Engg.
Engg.(Fr.CRCE), Mumbai, (Fr.CRCE), Mumbai,
Maharashtra, India. Maharashtra, India.

(Book Code : MO81A)

 Mobile Communication & Computing
Dipali Y. Koshti, Nikahat Mulla
(Semester VII : Computer Engineering) (Mumbai University)

Copyright © by Authors. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, copied, or stored in a
retrieval system, distributed or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopy, recording, or other
electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by the way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or
otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior written consent in any form of binding or cover other than which it is
published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser and
without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above.

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First Edition : July 2019
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This edition is for sale in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and designated countries in
South-East Asia. Sale and purchase of this book outside of these countries is unauthorized by the publisher.
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ISBN 978-93-89424-36-2
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Published by
TechKnowledge Publications

Head Office : B/5, First floor, Maniratna Complex,

Taware Colony, Aranyeshwar Corner,
Pune - 411 009. Maharashtra State, India
Ph : 91-20-24221234, 91-20-24225678.

[CSC702] (FID : MO81) (Book Code : MO81A)

(Book Code : MO81A)

 We dedicate this Publication soulfully and wholeheartedly,
in loving memory of our beloved founder director
Late Shri. Pradeepsheth Lalchandji Lunawat,
who will always be an inspiration, a positive force and strong support
behind us.

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Lt. Shri. Pradeepji L. Lunawat

Soulful Tribute and Gratitude for all Your

Sacrifices, Hardwork and 40 years of Strong Vision…….
 Preface

Dear Students,

We are extremely happy to come out with this edition of “Mobile Communication &

Computing” for you. We have divided the subject into small chapters so that the topics can be

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arranged and understood properly. The topics within the chapters have been arranged in a proper

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sequence to ensure smooth flow and understanding of the subject.

We present this book in the loving memory of Late Shri. Pradeepji Lunawat, our source
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of inspiration and a strong foundation of “TechKnowledge Publications”. He will always be

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remembered in our hearts and motivate us to achieve our new milestone.

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We are thankful to Prof. Arunoday Kumar, Mr. Shital Bhandari & Shri. Chandroday Kumar

for the encouragement and support that they have extended. We are also thankful to the staff
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members of TechKnowledge Publications and others for their efforts to make this book as good as it

is. We have jointly made every possible efforts to eliminate all the errors in this book. However if

you find any, please let us know, because that will help us to improve the book quality further.

We are also thankful to our family members and friends for their patience and

encouragement.

- Authors


(Book Code : MO81A)

 SYLLABUS

Course Code Course Name Credits

CSC702 Mobile Communication & Computing 4

Course Objectives (CO) :

1. To introduce the basic concepts and principles in mobile computing. This includes major techniques
involved, and networks & systems issues for the design and implementation of mobile computing systems and
applications.

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2. To explore both theoretical and practical issues of mobile computing.

3.

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To provide an opportunity for students to understand the key components and technologies involved and to gain
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hands-on experiences in building mobile applications.

Course Outcomes : On successful completion of course learner will be able :

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1. To identify basic concepts and principles in mobile communication & computing, cellular architecture.
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2. To describe the components and functioning of mobile networking.
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3. To classify variety of security techniques in mobile network.

4. To apply the concepts of WLAN for local as well as remote applications.
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5. To describe and apply the concepts of mobility management

6. To describe Long Term Evolution (LTE) architecture and its interfaces.
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Pre-requisites : Computer Networks

Module Unit
Topics Hrs.
No. No.

1.0 1.1 Introduction to Mobile Computing, Telecommunication Generations, Cellular systems, 6

1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum, Antenna ,Signal Propagation, Signal Characteristics,

Multiplexing, Spread Spectrum: DSSS & FHSS

2.0 2.1 GSM Mobile services, System Architecture, Radio interface, Protocols , Localization and 10
Calling, Handover, security (A3,A5 & A8)

2.2 GPRS system and protocol architecture

2.3 UTRAN , UMTS core network ; Improvements on Core Network,

3.0 3.1 Mobile Networking : Medium Access Protocol, Internet Protocol and Transport layer 12

3.2 Medium Access Control: Motivation for specialized MAC, , Introduction to multiple
Access techniques (MACA)

(Book Code : MO81A)

 Module Unit
Topics Hrs.
No. No.

3.3 Mobile IP: IP Packet Delivery, Agent Advertisement and Discovery, Registration,
Tunneling and Encapsulation, Reverse Tunneling, Routing (DSDV,DSR)

3.4 Mobile TCP : Traditional TCP, Classical TCP Improvements like Indirect TCP, Snooping
TCP & Mobile TCP, Fast Retransmit/ Fast Recovery, Transmission/Timeout Freezing,
Selective Retransmission

4.0 4.1 Wireless Local Area Networks : Introduction, Infrastructure and ad-hoc network 08

4.2 IEEE 802.11:System architecture , Protocol architecture, Physical layer, Medium access
control layer, MAC management, 802.11a, 802.11b

4.3 Wi-Fi security : WEP ,WPA, Wireless LAN Threats, Securing Wireless Networks

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HiperLAN 1 & HiperLAN 2

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4.5 Bluetooth: Introduction, User Scenario, Architecture, protocol stack

5.0 5.1 Mobility Management : Introduction, IP Mobility, Optimization, IPv6 06

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5.2 Macro Mobility : MIPv6, FMIPv6,

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5.3 Micro Mobility: CellularIP, HAWAII, HMIPv6,
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6.0 6.1 Long-Term Evolution (LTE) of 3GPP : LTE System Overview, Evolution from UMTS to 10
LTE
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6.2 LTE/SAE Requirements, SAE Architecture

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6.3 EPS: Evolved Packet System, E-UTRAN, Voice over LTE (VoLTE), Introduction to LTE-
Advanced,

6.4 System Aspects, LTE Higher Protocol Layers, LTE MAC layer, LTE PHY Layer,

6.5 Self Organizing Network (SON-LTE),SON for Heterogeneous Networks (HetNet),

Introduction to 5G

Total 52



(Book Code : MO81A)

 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1 Table of Contents

UNIT I 1.7.5 Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)..............................1-24

1.8 Spread Spectrum Techniques ...................................1-25

Chapter 1 : Introduction to Mobile Computing
1-1 to 1-33 1.8.1 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)...............1-26

1.8.2 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) ..........1-30

Syllabus :
1.8.3 Comparison between DSSS and FHSS .....................1-32
Introduction to Mobile Computing, Telecommunication
Generations, Cellular systems, Electromagnetic Spectrum, UNIT II
Antenna, Signal Propagation, Signal Characteristics, Multiplexing,
Spread Spectrum : DSSS & FHSS Chapter 2 : GSM 2-1 to 2-40

1.1 Telecommunication Generations ................................ 1-1 Syllabus :

1.2 Cellular Systems......................................................... 1-5 GSM Mobile services, System Architecture, Radio interface,

1.2.1 Frequency Reuse in Cellular Systems ........................ 1-5 Protocols , Localization and Calling, Handover, security (A3,A5 &

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A8), GPRS system and protocol architecture, UTRAN, UMTS core
1.2.1(a) Frequency Reuse Concept ......................................... 1-6 network; Improvements on Core Network.

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1.2.1(b) Assignment of Frequencies to Cells ........................... 1-7 2.1 GSM ........................................................................... 2-1
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1.2.2 Advantages of Cellular Systems with Small Cells ....... 1-7 2.1.1 GSM Overview............................................................ 2-1

1.2.3 Disadvantages of Cellular System with Small Cells .... 1-8 2.1.2 Mobile Services .......................................................... 2-3
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1.2.4 Why Hexagonal Pattern is Preferred for Cellular 2.1.3 GSM System Architecture .......................................... 2-6
System ? .................................................................... 1-8 2.1.4 GSM Radio Interfaces ...........................................2-10
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1.2.5 Methods of Increasing Cell Capacity ........................... 1-9 2.1.5 GSM Protocols and Signaling Architecture ................2-12

1.2.6 Cellular System Using CDM ..................................... 1-10 2.1.6 Localization and Calling Description of the Call
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Setup Procedure ........................................................2-14

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1.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum ........................................ 1-11

2.1.6(a) Initialization................................................................2-15
1.4 Antennas .................................................................. 1-13
2.1.6(b) Registration and Location Update ..............................2-15
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1.4.1 Isotropic Antenna...................................................... 1-13 2.1.6(c) Mobile Terminated Call (MTC) ...................................2-17
1.4.2 Omnidirectional Antennas ......................................... 1-14 2.1.6(d) Mobile Originated Call (MOC) .................................2-19

1.5 Signal Propagation ................................................... 1-17 2.1.7 Handover in GSM ......................................................2-20

1.5.1 Path Loss of Radio Signals ....................................... 1-17 2.1.8 GSM Security ............................................................2-22

1.5.2 Additional Signal Propagation Effects ....................... 1-18 2.2 General Packet Radio System (GPRS) .....................2-24

2.2.1 Architecture ...............................................................2-26

1.5.3 Multi-path Propagation and Fading ........................... 1-18
2.2.2 GPRS Protocol Stack ................................................2-29
1.5.3(a) Multi-path propagation .............................................. 1-18
2.2.3 Comparison of GPRS architecture with GSM
1.5.3(b) Fading ...................................................................... 1-19 architecture................................................................2-30

1.6 Signal Characteristics ............................................... 1-20 2.3 UMTS Terrestrial Radio Active Network (UTRAN) .....2-31

1.7 Multiplexing............................................................... 1-21 2.3.1 UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication

System) Core Network ..............................................2-31
1.7.1 Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) ........................... 1-21
2.3.2 UMTS System Architecture .......................................2-31
1.7.2 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) ..................... 1-22
2.3.2(a) UTRA – FDD (W-CDMA) ...........................................2-35
1.7.3 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).............................. 1-22
2.3.2(b) UTRA - TDD (TD-CDMA)...........................................2-38
1.7.4 Frequency and Time Division Multiplexing ................ 1-23 2.3.3 Improvement on Core Network ..................................2-40
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2 Table of Contents

UNIT III 3.3.8 Mobile IP and IPv6 ....................................................3-23

3.4 Routing ......................................................................3-24

Chapter 3 : Event Handling 3-1 to 3-44
3.4.1 Destination Sequence Distance Vector
Syllabus : Routing (DSDV) .........................................................3-26

Mobile Networking : Medium Access Protocol, Internet Protocol 3.4.2 Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) ................................3-28
and Transport layer, Medium Access Control : Motivation for 3.5 Mobile TCP ................................................................3-31
specialized MAC, Introduction to multiple Access techniques
3.5.1 Traditional TCP..........................................................3-31
(MACA), Mobile IP: IP Packet Delivery, Agent Advertisement and
Discovery, Registration, Tunneling and Encapsulation, Reverse 3.5.2 Classical TCP improvements .....................................3-33
Tunneling, Routing (DSDV,DSR), Mobile TCP : Traditional TCP,
3.5.2(a) Indirect TCP (I-TCP) ..................................................3-34
Classical TCP Improvements like Indirect TCP, Snooping TCP &
Mobile TCP, Fast Retransmit/ Fast Recovery, Transmission/ 3.5.2(b) Snooping TCP (S-TCP) .............................................3-36
Timeout Freezing, Selective Retransmission. 3.5.2(c) Mobile TCP (M-TCP) .................................................3-37

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3.1 Mobile Networking ...................................................... 3-1 3.5.3 Fast Retransmit/Fast Recovery .................................3-39

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3.1.1 Medium Access Protocols .......................................... 3-1 3.5.4 Transmission/ Time-out Freezing ..............................3-39

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Internet Protocols ....................................................... 3-1 3.5.5 Selective Retransmission ..........................................3-40

3.1.3 Transport Protocols .................................................... 3-2 3.5.6 Transaction oriented TCP (T/TCP) ............................3-40

3.2 Medium Access Control .............................................. 3-2

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3.5.7 Comparison of TCP Variants .....................................3-41

3.2.1 Motivation for Specialized MAC .................................. 3-2 3.6 IPv4 and IPv6 ............................................................3-42
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3.2.1(a) Hidden Station Problem and Exposed Station UNIT IV
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Problem ...................................................................... 3-3

3.2.2 Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA) ...... 3-4 Chapter 4 : Networking Basics 4-1 to 4-48
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3.3 Mobile IP .................................................................... 3-6 Syllabus :

3.3.1 Mobile IP : Basic Concept ........................................... 3-6 Wireless Local Area Networks : Introduction, Infrastructure and ad-
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3.3.1(a) Need for Mobile IP ...................................................... 3-6 hoc network, IEEE 802.11:System architecture, Protocol
architecture, Physical layer, Medium access control layer, MAC
3.3.1(b) Goals/Requirements of Mobile IP ............................... 3-6
management, 802.11a, 802.11b, Wi-Fi security : WEP, WPA,
3.3.1(c) Basic Terminology ...................................................... 3-7 Wireless LAN Threats, Securing Wireless Networks, HIPERLAN 1
and HIPERLAN 2, Bluetooth : Introduction, User Scenario,
3.3.2 IP Packet Delivery ...................................................... 3-9
Architecture, protocol stack
3.3.3 Agent Advertisement and Discovery ......................... 3-10
4.1 Wireless Local Area Networks .................................... 4-1
3.3.3(a) Agent Advertisement ................................................ 3-10
4.1.1 Introduction ................................................................. 4-1
3.3.3(b) Agent Solicitation ...................................................... 3-12
4.1.2 Types of WLAN .......................................................... 4-2
3.3.4 Registration .............................................................. 3-12
4.1.3 Difference between Ad-hoc Network and Infrastructure
3.3.5 Tunnelling and Encapsulation ................................... 3-15
based Wireless Networks ........................................... 4-3
3.3.5(a) IP-in-IP Encapsulation .............................................. 3-17
4.2 IEEE 802.11 ............................................................... 4-4
3.3.5(b) Minimal Encapsulation .............................................. 3-18
4.2.1 IEEE 802.11 System Architecture............................... 4-4
3.3.5(c) Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE)...................... 3-18
4.2.2 IEEE 802.11 Protocol Architecture ............................. 4-6
3.3.5(d) Optimization ............................................................. 3-20
4.2.3 IEEE 802.11 Physical Layer ....................................... 4-8
3.3.6 Reverse Tunnelling ................................................... 3-21
4.2.3(a) Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Physical Layer
3.3.7 Limitations of Mobile IP............................................. 3-22 (DSSS-PHY) ............................................................... 4-8
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3 Table of Contents

4.2.3(b) Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Physical Layer UNIT V

(FHSS – PHY) ............................................................ 4-9
Chapter 5 : Mobility Management 5-1 to 5-10
4.2.3(c) Infra Red Physical Layer ........................................... 4-10

4.2.4 IEEE 802.11 MAC Sublayer .................................... 4-10 Syllabus :

4.2.4(a) MAC Frame Format .................................................. 4-11 Mobility Management : Introduction, IP Mobility, Optimization,
IPv6; Macro Mobility : MIPv6, FMIPv6; Micro Mobility : CellularIP,
4.2.4(b) Access Mechanisms in IEEE 802.11 ........................ 4-13
HAWAII, HMIPv6
4.2.5 MAC Management .................................................... 4-18
5.1 Introduction to IP Mobility ........................................... 5-1
4.2.5(a) Synchronization in IEEE 802.11................................ 4-18 5.1.1 Mobile IP .................................................................... 5-1
4.2.5(b) Power Management in IEEE 802.11 ......................... 4-19 5.1.2 Optimization ............................................................... 5-2
4.2.5(c) Association/ Reassociation ......................................... 4-21 5.2 IPv6 – Internet Protocol Version 6 .............................. 5-4

4.2.5(d) MAC Management Information Base (MAC-MIB)...... 4-23 5.3 Macro Mobility ............................................................ 5-5

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4.2.6 IEEE 802.11a ........................................................... 4-24 5.3.1 MIPv6 (Mobile IPv6) ................................................... 5-5

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4.2.7
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802.11b .................................................................... 4-24

4.2.8 Comparison of Various IEEE 802.11x Standards ...... 4-25 5.4 Micro Mobility.............................................................. 5-6

4.3 Wi-Fi Security Standards .......................................... 4-25 5.4.1 Cellular IP ................................................................... 5-7
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4.3.1 WEP – Wired Equivalent Privacy .............................. 4-25 5.4.2 HAWAII ...................................................................... 5-9
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5.4.3 HMIPv6 – Hierarchical Mobile IPv6 ............................5-10
4.3.2 WPA ......................................................................... 4-27
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4.3.3 Wireless LAN threats ................................................ 4-28 UNIT VI

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4.3.4 Securing Wireless Network ....................................... 4-29 Chapter 6 : Long Term Evolution of 3GPP 6-1 to 6-32
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4.4 HIPERLAN Standards .............................................. 4-31

Syllabus :
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4.4.1 HIPERLAN T-1 ......................................................... 4-31

Long-Term Evolution (LTE) of 3GPP : LTE System Overview,
4.4.1(a) HIPERLAN-1 MAC Sublayer ..................................... 4-32 Evolution from UMTS to LTE; LTE/SAE Requirements, SAE
Architecture; EPS: Evolved Packet System, E-UTRAN, Voice over
4.4.1(b) HIPERLAN-1 CAC Layer .......................................... 4-33
LTE (VoLTE), Introduction to LTE-Advanced; System Aspects,
4.4.1(c) HIPERLAN-1 Physical Layer .................................... 4-34 LTE Higher Protocol Layers, LTE MAC layer, LTE PHY Layer; Self
Organizing Network (SON-LTE),SON for Heterogeneous Networks
4.4.2 HIPERLAN -2 ........................................................... 4-35
(HetNet), Introduction to 5G
4.4.2(a) HIPERLAN-2 Physical Layer .................................... 4-37
6.1 Long Term Evolution : Overview ................................. 6-1
4.4.2(b) HIPERLAN-2 Data Link Control Layer ...................... 4-38
6.1.1 LTE System Overview ............................................... 6-1
4.5 Bluetooth .................................................................. 4-40
6.1.2 Evolution from UMTS to LTE ...................................... 6-1
4.5.1 Introduction ............................................................... 4-40
6.2 SAE/LTE Architecture................................................ 6-3
4.5.2 User Scenario ........................................................... 4-41
6.2.1 SAE Requirements ..................................................... 6-3
4.5.3 Architecture .............................................................. 4-41 6.2.2 SAE Architecture ........................................................ 6-3
4.5.4 Bluetooth Protocol Stack .......................................... 4-42 6.2.2(a) Evolved Packet System (EPS) ................................... 6-3

4.5.4(a) Bluetooth Baseband States ...................................... 4-45 6.2.2(b) The User Equipment (UE) .......................................... 6-3

4.6 Comparison of IEEE 802.11, HIPERLAN-1, 6.2.2(c) The E-UTRAN ............................................................ 6-4
HIPERLAN-2 and Bluetooth ...................................... 4-46
6.2.2 (d) Evolved Packet Core (EPC) (The core network) ......... 6-4
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4 Table of Contents

6.3 Voice over LTE (VoLTE) ............................................. 6-5 6.6.2 Logical Channels to Transport Channel Mapping.......6-18

6.4 Introduction to LTE-Advanced .................................... 6-7 6.6.3 Logical Channel Prioritization ....................................6-20

6.4.1 LTE Advanced Key Features ...................................... 6-7 6.6.4 Scheduling .................................................................6-20

6.4.2 LTE - Advanced : System Aspects ............................. 6-7 6.7 PHY Layer .................................................................6-20

6.4.2(a) Carrier Aggregation .................................................... 6-7 6.7.1 Generic Frame Structure ...........................................6-20

6.4.2(b) MIMO (Multiple Input and Multiple Output) .................. 6-9 6.7.2 Downlink Multiplexing ................................................6-21

6.4.2(c) Relay Nodes ............................................................... 6-9 6.7.3 Physical Channels .....................................................6-21

6.4.2(d) Coordinated Multipoint (CoMP) ................................. 6-10 6.7.4 Transport Channels ...................................................6-21

6.4.3 LTE Advanced Architecture ...................................... 6-11 6.7.5 Mapping Downlink Physical Channels to Transport
Channels ...................................................................6-22
6.4.3(a) Architecture .............................................................. 6-11
6.8 Self Organizing Network (SON-LTE)..........................6-22
6.4.3(b) Comparison of LTE and LTE-A ................................. 6-12

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6.9 SON for Heterogeneous Networks (HetNet) ..............6-25
6.4.4 LTE Protocol Stack ................................................... 6-13

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6.10 Introduction to 5G ......................................................6-28
6.5 Higher Protocol Layers ............................................. 6-15
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6.10.1 Overview....................................................................6-28
6.5.1 Radio Link Control (RLC) .......................................... 6-15
6.10.2 5GAA (Autonomous Association) ..............................6-29
6.5.2 Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) ............. 6-16
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6.10.3 The Key Technology : C-V2X (Cellular - Vehicle To

6.5.3 Radio Resource Control (RRC) ................................. 6-17
everything) .................................................................6-29
6.6 LTE MAC Layer ........................................................ 6-18
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6.10.4 Applications of 5G Network........................................6-30
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6.6.1 Error Correction through Hybrid ARQ ....................... 6-18

6.10.5 Millimeter Wave .........................................................6-30
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 11

Introduction to Mobile
1
1

Computing
1
1

Unit I
1
1
1
Syllabus

1.1 Introduction to Mobile Computing, Telecommunication Generations, Cellular systems,

1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum, Antenna, Signal Propagation, Signal Characteristics, Multiplexing, Spread Spectrum :
DSSS & FHSS

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Introduction to mobile computing
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Second Generation (2G) – 2.5 Generation (2.5G) : 1990s
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+(–G<K/1
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-2 Introduction to Mobile Computing

 O)13N5BW0qD1WA:NqEDq01:E3E:W)S1EA01Dq:4NW)S104q1)51)Pq14DqD15910WFW)E-1:q--4-EN1)q:PA5-5FS/1
 ZX1DSD)q2D1D4335N)1WA)qNAE)W5AE-1N5E2WAF/1
 ZX1DSD)q2D1A5)15A-S13N5BW0q1’q))qN1B5W:q1V4E-W)S14DWAF10WFW)E-1B5W:q1)q-q3P5AS1’4)1E-D51E1AqU1NEAFq1591-5U10E)E1NE)q1
DqNBW:qD1D4:P1ED125’W-q1=ERL1B5W:q12EW-L1DP5N)12qDDEFq1DqNBW:q1+YGYK/1
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D5-4)W5AD1’qFEA1)51q2qNFq/1
2.5G
 Xq)UqqA1ZX1EA01‘X1)PqNq1UED1A5)124:P1:PEAFq1WA1)Pq1)q:PA5-5FS1PqA:q1EA1WA)qN2q0WENS13PEDqL1Z/%X1UED1WA)N504:q01
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

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g
Aq)U5N8D/1O)1E--5UD14DqND1)51DqA01FNE3PW:D>NW:P10E)E1ED13E:8q)D/1R

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 <A5)PqN1qRE23-q1591Z/%X125’W-q1)q:PA5-5FS1WD1√–X√1+√APEA:q01–E)E1NE)qD195N1XYG1√B5-4)W5AK/1√–X√13N5BW0qD10E)E1
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Advantages of 2G over 1G

n
ZX1D)EA0EN0D1D4335N)1N5E2WAF1’q)UqqA10W99qNqA)153qNE)5ND1EA01:54A)NWqD/11

bl kn

OA1 E00W)W5A1 )51 :WN:4W)>DUW):Pq01 B5W:q1 DqNBW:qDL1 ZX1 qAE’-q01 )Pq1 9WND)1 UEBq1 591 25’W-q1 0E)E1 EA01 OA)qNAq)1 DqNBW:qDL1 A5U1
UW0q-S1E053)q01’S14DqND/1
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
Pu ch

Z/%X1DqNBW:qD1qAE’-q1PWFP1D3qq010E)E1)NEAD9qN15BqN143FNE0q01qRWD)WAF1ZX1Aq)U5N8D/11
Y52q1ZX1D)EA0EN0D1ENq1"1
o
Te

XYG+H–G<>’EDq0K1
o –><GλY1
o OY>U%[(–G<5Aq1
o λ–(+λqND5AE-1–WFW)E-1(q--4-ENK1
o λ\Y1+λqND5AE-1\EA0S1λP5Aq1YSD)q2K1
o \Y(Y–1+\WFP1Y3qq01(WN:4W)D1YUW):Pq01–E)EK1+Z/%K1
o XλYY1+XqAqNE-1λE:8q)1YE0W51YqNBW:qK1+Z/%K1
o √–X√1+√APEA:q01–E)E1NE)qD195N1X-5’E-1√B5-4)W5AK+Z/%K1
Third Generation (3G) - 2000
 HPq1)PWN01FqAqNE)W5A1+‘XK1DSD)q2D1D)EN)q01WA1ZVVV/1
 HPq1‘X1NqB5-4)W5A1E--5Uq0125’W-q1)q-q3P5Aq1:4D)52qND1)514Dq1E40W5L1FNE3PW:D1EA01BW0q51E33-W:E)W5AD/11
 ]BqN1‘X1W)1WD135DDW’-q1)51UE):P1D)NqE2WAF1BW0q51EA01qAFEFq1WA1BW0q51)q-q3P5AS/1
 HPqS1 3N5BW0q1 )Pq1 E’W-W)S1 )51 )NEAD9qN1 DW24-)EAq54D-S1 ’5)P1 B5W:q1 0E)E1 +E1 )q-q3P5Aq1 :E--K1 EA01 A5A>B5W:q1 0E)E1 +D4:P1 ED1
05UA-5E0WAF1WA95N2E)W5AL1qR:PEAFWAF1q2EW-1EA01WAD)EA:q12qDDEFWAFK/11
 ‘X1 25’W-q1 )q:PA5-5FWqD1 D4335N)1 FNqE)qN1 A42’qN1 591 B5W:q1 EA01 0E)E1 :4D)52qND1 ED1 Uq--1 ED1 PWFPqN1 0E)E1 NE)qD1 E)1 -5UqN1
WA:Nq2qA)E-1:5D)1)PEA1ZX/1
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-3 Introduction to Mobile Computing

‘X1D)EA0EN0D1ENq1"1
o ;>(–G<1
o (–G<ZVVV1
o Ф;(>Q‘^1 1
o H–>(–G<1[1H–>Y(–G<1
o –√(H1
Fourth Generation (4G) - 2004
 HPq1954N)P1FqAqNE)W5A1UW--1’q194--S1Oλ>’EDq01WA)qFNE)q01DSD)q2D/1
 O)1 UW--1 E--5U1 E::qDDWAF1 )Pq1 OA)qNAq)1 EAS)W2q1 9N521 EASUPqNqL1 F-5’E-1 N5E2WAFL1 EA01 UW0qN1 D4335N)1 95N1 24-)W2q0WE1
E33-W:E)W5AD/1
 O)1UW--1’q1Aq)U5N81591Aq)U5N8D1E:PWqBq01E9)qN1)Pq1:5ABqNFqA:q1591UWNq01EA01UWNq-qDD1Aq)U5N8D1ED1Uq--1ED1:5234)qNL1

e
:5AD42qN1q-q:)N5AW:DL1:5224AW:E)W5A1)q:PA5-5FSL1EA01DqBqNE-15)PqN1:5ABqNFqA:qD/1

g
 HPqDq1Aq)U5N8D1UW--1’q1:E3E’-q15913N5BW0WAF1QVV1G’3D1WA154)055N1qABWN5A2qA)1EA01QX’3D1WA1WA055N1UW)P1qA0>)5>qA01
io led
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7X1D)EA0EN0D1ENq1"1
o WH√1+W5AF1HqN21√B5-4)W5AK1
ic ow

o ;WG<`1+;5N-0UW0q1OA)qN53qNE’W-W)S195N1GW:N5UEBq1<::qDDK1
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Fifth Generation - 5G (2018)
bl kn

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E1D2EN)1EA018A5U1UPqA1)512E8q14Dq1591UPW:P1)q:PA5-5FS195N12ERW2421q99W:WqA:S/1
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Pu ch

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’q))qN1:5BqNEFq1qBqA1E)1)Pq1:q--1’54A0ENWqD/1
Te

 %X1UW--1E-D513N5BW0q1-5U1Aq)U5N81-E)qA:S1+431)51Q12Dq:K1UPW:P1UW--1’q1Pq-394-195N1)Pq1:NW)W:E-1E33-W:E)W5AD1-W8q1WA04D)NSL1
PqE-)P:ENq1 EA01 2q0W:E-/1 1 %X1 )q:PA5-5FS1 EW2D1 )51 3N5BW0q1 UW0q1 NEAFq1 591 94)4Nq1 WA04D)NWqD1 9N521 Nq)EW-1 )51 q04:E)W5AL1
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 %X1)q:PA5-5FS1UW--13N5BW0q14’WV4W)54D1:5AAq:)WBW)S12qEAD1qBqNS)PWAF19N521BqPW:-qD1)5125’W-q1Aq)U5N8D1)51WA04D)NWqD1
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 %X1UW--14)W-Wbq1√R)Nq2q-S1\WFP19NqV4qA:S1D3q:)N421’EA01’q)UqqA1‘X\b1)51‘V1X\b/1HPqDq1ENq1:E--q012W--W2q)Nq1UEBqD/1
HPqDq1UEBq1:EA1)NEBq-1E)1BqNS1PWFP1D3qq01’4)1:5BqND1DP5N)10WD)EA:q1DWA:q1)PqS1:EAA5)13qAq)NE)q15’D)E:-qD/1
 ФA-W8q17X1)PE)1NqV4WNqD1PWFP135UqNq01:q--4-EN1’EDq1D)E)W5AD1)51)NEAD2W)1DWFAE-15BqN1-5AF10WD)EA:qL1%X1UW--114Dq1E1-ENFq1
A42’qN1591D2E--1:q--1D)E)W5AD1)PE)12ES1’q1-5:E)q015A1D2E--1)5UqND15N1’4W-0WAF1N559D/1
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5G standards
 %X1)q:PA5-5FS1D)EA0EN01ENq1D)W--14A0qN10qBq-532qA)/1Y5L1A519WN21D)EA0EN0D1WD1WA13-E:q1E)1)PWD1)W2qc11)Pq12EN8q)1WD1D)W--1
9WF4NWAF154)1)Pq1qDDqA)WE-1%X19qE)4NqD1EA0194A:)W5AE-W)WqD/1
 HPq13NW2ENS1%X1D)EA0EN0D1’50WqD1WAB5-Bq01WA1)PqDq13N5:qDDqD1ENq1)Pq1‘N01XqAqNE)W5A1λEN)AqNDPW31λN56q:)1+‘XλλKL1)Pq1
OA)qNAq)1√AFWAqqNWAF1HED81=5N:q1+O√H=KL1EA01)Pq1OA)qNAE)W5AE-1Hq-q:5224AW:E)W5A1ФAW5A1+OHФK/1
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-4 Introduction to Mobile Computing

Table 1.1.1 : Comparison between 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G and 5G

NUAU)WSWAR :xR >xR ;xR <xR ExR

OA)N504:q01WA1 QUZV1 QUU‘1 ZVVQ1 ZVVU1 (4NNqA)-S14A0qN10qBq-532qA)1
qR3q:)q01)51N5--154)1’S1ZVZV1
Hq:PA5-5FS1 <GλY1 –><GλYL1 ;>(–G<1 WH√1L1;WG<`1 WH√1<0BEA:q01L1]G<1EA01
OY>U%L1XYG1 (–G<ZVVV1 T]G<L1;;;;1
Ф;(>Q‘^1
H–>(–G<1–√(H1
G4-)W3-qRWAF1 =–G<1 H–G<[1 (–G<1 (–G<1 (–G<1
(–G<1
YUW):PWAF1 (WN:4W)1 (WN:4W)1 λE:8q)1DUW):PWAF1 <--1λE:8q)1 <--1λE:8q)1DUW):PWAF1
)S3q1 DUW):PWAF1 DUW):PWAF195N1 DUW):PWAF1

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B5W:q1L13E:8q)1

g
DUW):PWAF195N1
0E)E1
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Y3qq01 Z/718’3D1)51 Q7/718’3D1 ‘/Q12’3D1 QVV12’3D1 dQV1X’3D1
Q7/718’3D1
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YqNBW:qD1 e5W:q15A-S1 e5W:q1f10E)E1 e5W:q1f10E)E1f1 \WFP1D3qq01 Y43qN19ED)1WA)qNAq)1E::qDDL1W5U1

G4-)W2q0WEL1BW0q51 \WFP1V4E-W)S1 -E)qA:S1Aq)U5N8195N12WDDW5A1
n
:E--WAF1EA01BW0q51 B5W:q15BqN1OλL1 :NW)W:E-1E33-W:E)W5ADL1O5H1EA01
bl kn

D)NqE2WAF1 ‘–1FE22WAF1L1 D4NBqW--EA:qL1E4)5A5254D1

\–1BW0q51 0NWBWAF11EA012EAS125Nq/1
:5A9qNqA:WAFL1
at
Pu ch

\–1
24-)W2q0WE1
D)NqE2WAF1
Te

XEA0UW0)P1 <AE-5F1 Z%G\b1 Z%1G\b1 QVV1G\b1 ^VX\b1

]3qNE)WAF1 ZVV1GX\b1 XYG"1 ZQVV1G\b1 Z^VV1G\b1 ‘1H51UV1X\b1
=qE)4NqD1 UVVG\gL1
QZVVG\b1
(–G<"1
ZVVG\b1
XEA011 TENN5U1’EA01 TENN5U1XEA01 ;W0q1’EA01 Ф-)NE1;W0q1 √R)Nq2q-S1PWFP19NqV4qA:S1
+=NqV4qA:SK1 ’EA01
HS3q1
\EA015BqN1 T<1 \5NWb5A)E-1 \5NWb5A)E-1 \5NWb5A)E-[1 \5NWb5A)E-[1eqN)W:E-1
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9qE)4NqD1 WA)qNAE)W5AE-1 D3qq01 Aq)U5N81-E)qA:S1L11Ф’WV4W)54D1
+YGYL1GGYKL1 N5E2WAF1 PEA0599DL1 :5AAq:)WBW)SL1X-5’E-1:5BqNEFq/11
OA)qNAq)1 GOG]1
E::qDD1EA01 )q:PA5-5FSL1
YOG1 X-5’E-1
WA)N504:q01 25’W-W)S1
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-5 Introduction to Mobile Computing

NUAU)WSWAR :xR >xR ;xR <xR ExR

–WDE0BEA)EFqD1 WW2W)q01 W5U1Aq)U5N81 \WFP135UqN1 \EN01)51 \EN01)51W23-q2qA)L1GEAS1591
:E3E:W)SL1A5)1 NEAFqL1D-5U1 :5AD423)W5AL1 W23-q2qA)L1 )Pq15-010qBW:qD1U54-01A5)1’q1
Dq:4NqL1355N1 0E)E1NE)qD1 W5U1Aq)U5N81 :523-W:E)q01 :523q)qA)1)51%XL1–qBq-53WAF1
’E))qNS1-W9qL1 :5BqNEFqL1\WFP1 PEN0UENq1 WA9NED)N4:)4Nq1Aqq0D1PWFP1:5D)/1
-ENFq13P5Aq1 :5D)1591D3q:)N421 NqV4WNq01
DWbqL1 -W:qADq1
’E:8FN54A01
WA)qN9qNqA:q1
<33-W:E)W5AD1 e5W:q1(E--D1 e5W:q1:E--DL1 eW0q51 \WFP1D3qq01 Y43qN1\WFP1D3qq0125’W-q1
YP5N)1 :5A9qNqA:WAFL1 E33-W:E)W5ADL1 Aq)U5N8DL1Y2EN)1eqPW:-qDL1O5HL1
2qDDEFqDL1 25’W-q1HeL1XλY1 25’W-q1HeL1 eWN)4E-1EA01<4F2qA)q01YqE-W)SL1
’N5UDWAF1 ;qENE’-q1 W5U1-E)qA:S12WDDW5A1:NW)W:E-1
+3EN)WE-K1 0qBW:qD1 E33-W:E)W5AD1q):/1

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1.2 Cellular Systems io led
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Pu ch

:54A)NS1DW0q/1
 HPq1DPE3qD1591:q--D1ENq1AqBqN13qN9q:)1:WN:-qD15N1PqREF5AD1E:)4E--SL1W)10q3qA0D15A1qABWN5A2qA)L15A1UPq)PqN1:5A0W)W5AD1
Te

q):/11\qREF5A1DPE3q1:q--4-EN1DSD)q21WD1DP5UA1WA1=WF/1Q/Z/Q/1

Fig.1.2.1 : Diagrammatic cell Fig. 1.2.2 : Cellular System with seven cell cluster
vs. actual cell coverage

1.2.1 Frequency Reuse in Cellular Systems

(MU - May 14)

Q. What is frequency reuse concept in cellular communication? (May 14, 5 Marks)

 =AW(<WvHzRAW<-W1WD1)Pq1)q:PAWV4q15914DWAF1)Pq1DE2q1NE0W51BAW(<WvHkW-15A1NE0W51)NEAD2W))qN1DW)qD1UW)PWA1E1Fq5FNE3PW:1
ENqE1)PE)1ENq1Dq3ENE)q01’S1D499W:WqA)10WD)EA:q1)51:E4Dq12WAW2E-1WA)qN9qNqA:q1UW)P1qE:P15)PqN/1
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-6 Introduction to Mobile Computing

 To avoid interference in cellular system, each cell uses a different set of frequencies as compared to its immediate
neighbors. In other words, no two neighbors use the same set of frequencies as there will be interference.
 A set of several cells are further grouped into clusters. Cells within the same cluster do not use the same frequency
sets.
 Fig. 1.2.3 shows 3 cell cluster and 7 cell cluster. In Fig 1.2.3 (a) one cell in a cluster uses frequency f1, another cell uses
f2 and the third cell uses f3. The same pattern is repeated for another cluster. Fig. 1.2.3 (b) shows a 7 cell cluster.

1.2.1(a) Frequency Reuse Concept

(MU - May 17)

Q. What is frequency reuse concept in cellular system? (May 17, 5 Marks)

 Consider a cellular system which has S full duplex channels available for use.
 Assume that the S channels are divided into N number of cells and each cell is allocated a group of K channels (K<S).

e
 Thus, total number of channels per cell is K = S/N.

g
 Therefore, the total number of available channels can be expressed as S = KN
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 The N cells which collectively use the complete set of available frequencies is called cluster.
 The factor N is called the cluster size and is typically 4, 7 or 12.
 Frequency reuse factor of a cellular system is given by reciprocal of the cluster size i.e. 1/N.
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(a) 3 cell cluster (b) 7 cell cluster (c) 3 cell cluster with 3 sector
per cell 3 sector antennas

Fig. 1.2.3 : 3 cell cluster, 7 Cell Cluster and 3 cell cluster with sectorized antennas

 If the cluster size N is reduced while the cell size remains constant, more clusters are required to cover that particular
area and hence more capacity is achieved.
 A large cluster size indicates that the ratio between cell radius and the distance between co channel cells is small.
Locating Co-channel cells in a cellular System
 For a hexagonal cell structure, it is possible to cluster cells so that no two adjacent cells use the same frequency. This
is only achievable for a certain cell-cluster sizes, which can be determined from the relationship

N = i2 + ij + j2 Where i,j = 0,1,2,3 etc.

 To find nearest co-channel neighbors of a particular cell
o Move i cells through the center of successive cells.
o
o Turn 60 in the counter clockwise direction.
o Move j cells forward through the center of successive cells.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-7 Introduction to Mobile Computing

 =WF/1Q/Z/71DP5UD1)Pq13N5:qDD1591-5:E)WAF1)Pq1AqENqD)1:5>:PEAAq-1AqWFP’5ND1591:q--1971WA1:-4D)qN1Q/11
 ;q19WND)125Bq1WiZ1D4::qDDWBq1:q--D1WA105UAUEN010WNq:)W5A/1=N521)PqNq1Uq1)4NA1^V!1WA1:54A)qN:-5:81UWDq10WNq:)W5A/1<A01
)PqA125Bq16iQ1:q--195NUEN01)PN54FP1)Pq1:qA)Nq1591)Pq1:q--1)P4D1-5:E)WAF1:q--1971WA1:-4D)qN1‘/1YW2W-EN-S1Uq1:EA1-5:E)q1:q--1
971WA1AqWFP’5NWAF1:-4D)qND1j1:-4D)qN1Z1EA01:-4D)qN17/1

g e
io led
Fig. 1.2.4 : Method of locating co-channel cells in a cellular system (here i=2, j=1)

1.2.1(b) Assignment of Frequencies to Cells

ic ow

<DDWFA2qA)15919NqV4qA:WqD1)51:q--D1:EA1’q105Aq1WA195--5UWAF1)PNqq1UESD/1
n
1. Fixed Channel Allocation (FCA)
bl kn

 HPWD1D:Pq2q1EDDWFAD19WRq01Dq)15919NqV4qA:WqD1)51qE:P1:q--15N1:-4D)qN/1HPq1D:Pq2q1WD1qEDS1)51W23-q2qA)1’4)1A5)1BqNS1
at

q99W:WqA)1W91)NE99W:1-5E01BENWqD/1
Pu ch

 XYG1DSD)q214DqD1)PWD1D:Pq2q/1

2. Borrowing Channel Allocation (BCA)

Te

 OA1)PWD1D:Pq2qL1W91E15Aq1:q--1PED1PqEBS1-5E01)PqA1W)1:EA1’5NN5U19NqV4qA:WqD19N521EA5)PqN1AqWFP’5NWAF1:q--1UPW:P1WD1
PEBWAF1-WFP)1-5E0/11
 \qNq1:q--D1UW)P125Nq1)NE99W:1ENq10SAE2W:E--S1E--5))q0125Nq19NqV4qA:WqD/1
3. Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA)
 HPWD1 D:Pq2q1 WD1 DW2W-EN1 )51 X(</1 <D1 WA1 X(<1 PqNq1 E-D51 9NqV4qA:WqD1 :EA1 ’q1 ’5NN5Uq01 9N521 E1 AqWFP’5NWAF1 :q--/1 OA1
E00W)W5A1)51)PE)L1)Pq1EDDWFA2qA)15919NqV4qA:WqD1WD10SAE2W:L1)PE)1WD19NqV4qA:WqD1:EA1’q1EDDWFAq019Nqq-S1)51:q--D/1
 YWA:q19NqV4qA:WqD1ENq1EDDWFAq010SAE2W:E--S1)51E1:q--L1)PqNq1WD1E1:PEA:q1591WA)qN9qNqA:q1UW)P1:q--D14DWAF1)Pq1DE2q1
9NqV4qA:WqD/11
 H51EB5W01WA)qN9qNqA:q1)Pq1h’5NN5Uq0z19NqV4qA:WqD1:EA1’q1’-5:8q01WA1)Pq1AqWFP’5NWAF1:q--D/1
 HPWD1D:Pq2q1WD14Dq01WA1–√(H/1

1.2.2 Advantages of Cellular Systems with Small Cells

1. Higher capacity

O23-q2qA)WAF1 Y–G1 E--5UD1 9NqV4qA:S1 Nq4Dq/1 O91 5Aq1 )NEAD2W))qN1 WD1 9EN1 EUES1 9N521 EA5)PqN1 )NEAD2W))qN1 )PqA1 )Pq1
)NEAD2W))qND1:EA14Dq1)Pq1DE2q19NqV4qA:S1UW)P54)1EAS1WA)qN9qNqA:q/1HP4D1D2E--qN1:q--D1E--5U125Nq1A42’qN15914DqND/1
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-8 Introduction to Mobile Computing

2. Less transmission power

O91)Pq1)NEAD2W))qN1WD19EN1EUES19N521)Pq1Nq:qWBqN1)PqA1W)1NqV4WNqD1PWFP135UqN1)51)NEAD2W)1)Pq1DWFAE-/1=5N125’W-q10qBW:qD1
35UqN1WD1)Pq12EWA1:5AD)NEWA)L1D51Nq04:q01:q--1DWbq1NqV4WNqD1-qDD1)NEAD2WDDW5A135UqN/1
3. Local interference only
;W)P1-ENFqN1:q--DL1)Pq10WD)EA:q1’q)UqqA1)Pq125’W-q1D)E)W5A1EA01)Pq1’EDq1D)E)W5A1WD125Nq1EA01PqA:q1)PqNq1ENq1:PEA:qD1
591 25Nq1 WA)qN9qNqA:q1 3N5’-q2D/1 ;W)P1 D2E--1 :q--DL1 25’W-q1 D)E)W5AD1 EA01 ’EDq1 D)E)W5AD1 5A-S1 PEBq1 )51 0qE-1 UW)P1 h-5:E-z1
WA)qN9qNqA:q/1
4. Robustness
(q--4-EN1DSD)q2D1ENq10q:qA)NE-Wbq01EA01D5125Nq1N5’4D)1EFEWAD)1)Pq19EW-4Nq1591DWAF-q1:5235AqA)D/1O915Aq1EA)qAAE19EW-DL1W)1
5A-S1E99q:)D1:5224AW:E)W5A1UW)PWA1E1D2E--1ENqE/1

1.2.3 Disadvantages of Cellular System with Small Cells

e
1. Complex infrastructure

g
(q--4-EN1 DSD)q2D1 NqV4WNq1 E1 :523-qR1 WA9NED)N4:)4Nq1 )51 :5AAq:)1 )51 E--1 ’EDq1 D)E)W5AD/1 O91 )Pq1 :q--1 DWbq1 WD1 D2E--L1 )PqA1 W)1
io led
NqV4WNqD12EAS1EA)qAAEDL1DUW):PqDL195N1:E--195NUEN0WAFL1-5:E)W5A1NqFWD)qND1)519WA01E125’W-q1D)E)W5A1q):/1HPWD1UW--12E8q1
)Pq1UP5-q1DSD)q21qR3qADWBq/1
2. Handover needed
ic ow

;PqA125’W-q1D)E)W5A125BqD19N5215Aq1:q--1)51EA5)PqN1:q--L1)Pq13N5:qDD1:E--q01PEA05BqN1WD1:ENNWq0154)/1–q3qA0WAF15A1
n
)Pq1:q--1DWbq1EA01)Pq1D3qq0159125Bq2qA)L1)PWD1:EA1PE33qA1V4W)q159)qA/1
bl kn

3. Frequency Planning
at

(q--4-EN1DSD)q21Aqq0D13N53qN13-EAAWAF15919NqV4qA:S10WD)NW’4)W5A1)51EB5W01WA)qN9qNqA:q1’q)UqqA1)NEAD2W))qND/1
Pu ch

1.2.4 Why Hexagonal Pattern is Preferred for Cellular System ?

Te

 ;PqA1:5ADW0qNWAF1Fq52q)NW:1DPE3qDL1UPW:P1:5BqN1EA1qA)WNq1NqFW5A1UW)P54)15BqN-E33WAF15N1-qEBWAF1FE3D1EA01UW)P1qV4E-1
ENqEDL1)PqNq1ENq1)PNqq1DqADW’-q1:P5W:qD/1
Q/1 √V4W-E)qNE-1)NWEAF-q1
Z/1 YV4ENq1
‘/1 \qREF5A1
 HPq1HE’-q1Q/Z/Q10qD:NW’qD1)Pq14AW)1:5BqNEFq1ENqE195N1qE:P1591)Pq1E’5Bq12qA)W5Aq01DPE3qD/1
Table 1.2.1 : Unit coverage area for Triangle, square and Hexagon shapes

>WbbRSz?WR >WvSAWRSλRHWvSAWR:k-SUvHWR @vkSRHλAWAUMWRUAWUR

HNWEAF-q1 Y1 Q/‘1Y"1
YV4ENq1 YkZ1 Z1Y"1
\qREF5A1 Yk‘1 Z/^1Y"1
 <1D)40S1591E’5Bq1)E’-q1NqBqE-D1)Pq195--5UWAF135WA)D/1
 <NqE1:5BqNEFq1591PqREF5A1WD1)UW:q1)PE)1591)NWEAF4-EN1ENqE/1
 H51:5BqN1EA1ENqE1591)PNqq1PqREF5AE-1:q--D1W/q/1l/Z1Y"##L1^1)NWEAF4-EN1:q--D15N171DV4ENq1:q--D1ENq1NqV4WNq0/1
 OA15)PqN1U5N0DL1W911PqREF5AE-1ENqE1591l/Z1Y"## NqV4WNqD1)PNqq19NqV4qA:WqDL1)Pq1)NWEAF4-EN1:q--D1NqV4WNq1^19NqV4qA:WqD1EA01
DV4ENq1:q--D1NqV4WNq1719NqV4qA:WqD/1
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-9 Introduction to Mobile Computing

OA1FqAqNE-1UW)P1)Pq1\qREF5A13E))qNA1"1
Q/1 HPq19qUqD)1A42’qN1591:q--D1:EA1:5BqN1E1FWBqA1Fq5FNE3PW:E-1NqFW5A1
Z/1 ;q1:EA1:-5Dq-S1E33N5RW2E)q1E1:WN:4-EN1NE0WE)W5A13E))qNA1UPW:P1U54-015::4N195N1EA152AW0WNq:)W5AE-1’EDq1D)E)W5A1
EA)qAAE/1

1.2.5 Methods of Increasing Cell Capacity

HPqNq1ENq1’EDW:E--S1)PNqq1UESD1591WA:NqEDWAF1:E3E:W)S1591:q--4-EN1DSD)q2/1
Q/1 (q--1Y3-W))WAF1
Z/1 (q--1Yq:)5NWbE)W5A1
‘/1 GW:N5:q--1g5AqD11

1. Cell Splitting


e
(q--1D3-W))WAF1WD1)Pq13N5:qDD15910WBW0WAF1)Pq1NE0W51:5BqNEFq1591E1:q--1WA1E1:q--4-EN1DSD)q21WA)51)U515N125Nq1AqU1:q--1DW)qD/11


g
(q--1D3-W))WAF1WD15Aq1591)Pq1UESD1)51WA:NqEDq1)Pq1:E3E:W)S1UW)PWA1)Pq1NqFW5A1591)Pq15NWFWAE-1:q--/11

io led
H512WAW2Wbq1WA)qN9qNqA:qL1E1:qN)EWA10WD)EA:q124D)1’q12EWA)EWAq01’q)UqqA1:q--D14DWAF1)Pq1DE2q19NqV4qA:WqD/1\5UqBqNL1
)PWD10WD)EA:q1:EA1’q1Nq04:q01UW)P54)10WD)4N’WAF1)Pq1:q--1Nq4Dq13E))qNA/11
 <D1 )Pq1 DWbq1 591 )Pq1 :q--D1 ENq1 Nq04:q0L1 )Pq1 DE2q1 9NqV4qA:WqD1 :EA1 ’q1 4)W-Wbq01 WA1 25Nq1 :q--DL1 UPW:P1 WA1 )4NA1 2qEAD1 25Nq1
ic ow

D4’D:NW’qND1:EA1’q1E::52250E)q015A1)Pq1DSD)q2/11
 λEN)W:4-EN-S1WA1:5AFqD)q01ENqEDL1)Pq1:q--4-EN153qNE)5N159)qA1D3-W)D1EA1qRWD)WAF1:q--1WA)51)U515N125Nq1D2E--qN1:q--D/11
n
 TqU1 )NEAD:qWBqND1 ENq1 3-E:q01 EA01 )Pq1 35UqN1 591 )Pq1 )NEAD2W))qND1 ENq1 Nq04:q01 WA1 5N0qN1 )51 :5A9WAq1 )Pq1 DWFAE-D1 )51 )Pq1
bl kn

AqU-S1:NqE)q01:q--D/1

at

=5N1qRE23-qL1E1:q--1)PE)15NWFWAE--S1PE01E1NE0W4D1591^121:54-01’q1D3-W)1WA)51)PNqq1:q--D1UW)P1qE:P1AqU1:q--1PEBWAF1E1Z121
Pu ch

NE0W4D/11
Te

Fig. 1.2.5 : Cell splitting

Cell Sectorization

Fig. 1.2.6 : Cell Sectorization

 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-10 Introduction to Mobile Computing

 <A5)PqN1UES1)51WA:NqEDq1:q--4-EN1DSD)q2zD1:E3E:W)S1WD1)51Nq3-E:q1)Pq152AW0WNq:)W5AE-1EA)qAAE1E)1qE:P1’EDq1D)E)W5A1’S1
)PNqq15N125Nq1Dq:)5N1EA)qAAED/R
 ФDq15910WNq:)W5AE-1Dq:)5N1EA)qAAED1D4’D)EA)WE--S1Nq04:qD1)Pq1WA)qN9qNqA:q1E25AF1:5>:PEAAq-1:q--D/1R
 HPWD1E--5UD10qADqN19NqV4qA:S1Nq4Dq/1R
 HPq1’EDq1D)E)W5A1:EA1qW)PqN1’q1-5:E)q01E)1)Pq1:qA)qN1591)Pq15NWFWAE-1+-ENFqK1:q--L15N1)Pq1:5NAqND1591)Pq15NWFWAE-1+-ENFqK1:q--/R
 Yq:)5NWbE)W5A1WD1-qDD1qR3qADWBq1)PEA1:q-->D3-W))WAFL1ED1W)105qD1A5)1NqV4WNq1)Pq1E:V4WDW)W5A1591AqU1’EDq1D)E)W5A1DW)qD/R
Using Micro cell zone
 HPq10WDE0BEA)EFq1591:q--1Dq:)5NWAF1:5A:q3)1WD1)Pq1Aqq0195N1EA1WA:NqEDq01A42’qN1591PEA0599D/1
 HPq1)q:PAWV4q18A5UA1ED12W:N5:q--1)PE)14DqD1b5AqD1WAD)qE01591Dq:)5ND1)51Nq04:q1)Pq1A42’qN1591PEA0599D/1
 <D1 DP5UA1 WA1 =WF/1 Q/Z/l1 )PWD1 )q:PAWV4q1 q23-5SD1 )PNqq1 EA)qAAED1 )PE)1 3N5BW0q1 :5BqNEFq1 WA)51 )Pq1 2W:N51 :q--/1 <--1 )PNqq1
EA)qAAED1ENq1:5AAq:)q01)51)Pq1DE2q1’EDq1D)E)W5A/1

g e
io led
ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te

Fig. 1.2.7 : Micro Cell Zone

 HPq1EA)qAAE1UW)P1)Pq1’qD)1Nq:q3)W5A1591)Pq125’W-q1WD14Dq0195N1’5)P1)Pq143-WA81EA01)Pq105UA-WA8/1<D1)Pq125’W-q1)NEBq-D1
UW)PWA1E1DE2q12W:N51:q--1W)14DqD1)Pq1DE2q1:PEAAq-1EA01)PqNq1WD1A51Aqq0195N1PEA0599/1
 <D1)Pq125’W-q125BqD1WA)51EA5)PqN1b5Aq1)Pq1’EDq1D)E)W5A1DW23-S1DUW):PqD1)Pq1:PEAAq-1)51E10W99qNqA)1b5Aq/1

1.2.6 Cellular System Using CDM

 OA1:q--4-EN1DSD)q2D14DWAF1(–G14DqND1ENq1Dq3ENE)q01)PN54FP1:50qD/1]Aq1591)Pq1E0BEA)EFqD1591)PqDq1DSD)q2D1WD1)PE)1)PqS1
05Az)1Aqq01:523-qR19NqV4qA:S13-EAAWAF1EA01:523-qR1:PEAAq-1E--5:E)W5A1D:Pq2qD/11
 X4)1:q--13-EAAWAF1UW)P1(–G19E:qD1EA5)PqN13N5’-q2/1OA1(–G1:q--1DWbq1WD1A5)19WRq0/1YE)PqN1DWbq1591:q--10q3qA0D15A1)Pq1
:4NNqA)1-5E0/11
 ФA0qN1E1-WFP)1-5E01E1:q--1’q:52qD1-ENFqN1UPW-q1W)1DPNWA8D1W91)Pq1-5E01WA:NqEDqD/11
 G5’W-q1D)E)W5A194N)PqN1EUES19N521)Pq1’EDq1D)E)W5A12ES10N53154)1591)Pq1:q--/11
 =WF/1Q/Z/Z1DP5UD1E14DqN1)NEAD2W))WAF1E1PWFP1’W)1NE)q1D)NqE21UW)PWA1(–G1:q--/11
 Xq:E4Dq1591)PWD1E00W)W5AE-14DqNL1)Pq1:q--1DPNWA8D/1<D1E1NqD4-)1)Pq1)U514DqND10N53154)1591)Pq1:q--/11(–G1:q--D1ENq1:5225A-S1
DEW01)5RBAWUSLW/1
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-11 Introduction to Mobile Computing

Fig. 1.2.8 : Cell breathing depending on the current load

1.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum

.MU – May 15, Dec. 15.

e
Q. Draw and explain electromagnetic spectrum for communication. (May 15, Dec. 15, 5 Marks)

g
 =5N1 NE0W51 )NEAD2WDDW5AL1 )PqNq1 ENq1 2EAS1 9NqV4qA:S1 ’EA0D/1 √E:P1 9NqV4qA:S1 ’EA01 PED1 D52q1 E0BEA)EFqD1 EA01
io led
0WDE0BEA)EFqD1EA01:EA1’q14Dq01ED13qN1)Pq1E33-W:E)W5A/1
 =WF/1 Q/‘/Q1 W--4D)NE)qD1 )Pq1 9NqV4qA:S1 D3q:)N421 95N1 NE0W51 )NEAD2WDDW5A/1 =NqV4qA:WqD1 D)EN)1 E)1 ‘VV\b1 EA01 F51 431 )51 5BqN1
‘VVH\b/11
ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te

Fig. 1.3.1 : Frequency spectrum

 HPq1Nq-E)W5A1’q)UqqA19NqV4qA:S1B1EA01UEBq-qAF)PRCRWD1FWBqA1’S1)Pq1qV4E)W5A1
 = c/f where, c = 3 108 m/s (the speed of light in vacuum)
Frequency ranges for wired networks
Table 1.3.1 : Frequency ranges for wired networks

DW:k<)R =AW(<WvHzREUvMWR
HUWD)q01λEWN1 V>‘/%1m\b1
(5>ERWE-1:E’-q1 V1j1%VV1G\b1
=W’qN1]3)W:D1 QZ^1>11‘lV1H\b1
Frequency ranges for radio transmission
Table 1.3.2 : Frequency ranges for radio transmission

=AW(<WvHzR NAλ?UMUSkλvR
=AW(<WvHzREUvMW-R G??bkHUSkλvR
FUv:R >LUAUHSWAk-SkH-R
e=+e5W:q1 ‘VV1\b1j1‘m\b1 X;11 ФDq01’S1)q-q3P5Aq1DSD)q2195N1EAE-5F1D4’D:NW’qN1-WAqD1
=NqV4qA:SK1
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-12 Introduction to Mobile Computing

Frequency Propagation
Frequency Ranges Application
Band Characteristics
VLF (Very Low 3 KHz – 30 KHz GW Long-range navigation; submarine communication
Frequency)
LF (Low 30 KHZ – 300KHz GW Long-range navigation; marine communication radio
Frequency) beacon
MF(medium 300 KHz – 3 MHz GW and night Maritime radio; direction fading; AM broadcasting
frequency) SW
HF(High 3 MHz – 30MHz SW Amateur radio; international broadcasting; military
Frequency) communication;
Long distance aircraft and ship communication.
VHF (Very High 30 MHz – 300 MHz LOS VHF television; FM broadcast and two-way radio, AM
Frequency) aircraft communication; aircraft navigational aids

e
UHF(Ultra High 300 MHz – 3GHz LOS UHF television; cellular telephone; radar; microwave links;

g
Frequency) personal communication systems
io led
SHF(Super High 3 GHz – 30 GHz LOS Satellite communication; radar; terrestrial microwave links;
Frequency) wireless local loop
EHF 30 GHZ – 300GHz LOS Experimental; wireless local loop
ic ow

Infrared 300GHz – 400THz LOS Infrared LANs; consumer electronic allocations

n
Visible light 400 THz – 900 THz LOS Optical communication
bl kn
at

Note : GW - Ground Wave, LOS - Line-of-Sight., SW - Sky Wave

Pu ch

Depending upon the frequency, the radio waves can exhibit following three types of behavior.
Te

1. Ground Wave (<2 MHz) : Low frequency waves usually follow the Earth’s surface and can propagate long distance.
These waves are used for submarine communication or AM radio.
2. Sky wave (2-30 MHz) : These waves are reflected at the atmosphere and hence can bounce back and forth between
the ionosphere and the Earth’s surface, traveling around the world. They are used for international broadcast.
3. Line-of-Sight (>30 MHz) : These waves follow a straight line of sight. They are used in Mobile phone systems. Also,
Satellite systems, cordless telephones etc. use these waves.

(a)

Fig. 1.3.2 : Contd…

 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-13 Introduction to Mobile Computing

(b)

g e
io led
ic ow
n
(c)
bl kn

Fig. 1.3.2 : Ground Wave propagation, Sky wave Propagation and Line-of –Sight propagation


at

=WF/1Q/‘/Z1DP5UD1E--1)PNqq1)S3qD1591DWFAE-13N53EFE)W5A/1
Pu ch

1.4 Antennas
Te

.MU – Dec. 14, May 17, Dec. 18.

Q. Write about types of antennas and their radiation pattern. (Dec. 14, 5 Marks)
Q. What is an antenna? Explain different types of antennae. (May 17, 5 Marks)
Q. Write a short note on antenna. (Dec. 18, 10 Marks)

 <A1UvSWvvU1WD1E10qBW:q1)PE)1:5ABqN)D1q-q:)N52EFAq)W:1NE0WE)W5A1WA1D3E:q1WA)51q-q:)NW:E-1:4NNqA)D1WA1:5A04:)5ND15N11
BW:q>BqNDEL10q3qA0WAF15A1UPq)PqN1W)1WD1’qWAF14Dq0195N1Nq:qWBWAF15N195N1)NEAD2W))WAFL1NqD3q:)WBq-S/1
 HPq1AU:kUSkλvR?USSWAv1591EA1EA)qAAE10qD:NW’qD1)Pq1Nq-E)WBq1D)NqAF)P1591)Pq1NE0WE)q019Wq-01WA1BENW54D10WNq:)W5AD19N521)Pq1
EA)qAAEL1E)1E1:5AD)EA)10WD)EA:q/11
 OA1NqE-W)S1)Pq1NE0WE)W5A13E))qNA1WD1)PNqq>0W2qADW5AE-L1’4)14D4E--S1)Pq12qED4Nq01NE0WE)W5A13E))qNAD1ENq1E11
)U5>0W2qADW5AE-1D-W:q1591)Pq1)PNqq>0W2qADW5AE-13E))qNAL1WA1)Pq1P5NWb5A)E-15N1BqN)W:E-13-EAqD/11
 HPqNq1ENq1BENW54D1)S3qD1591EA)qAAED10WD:4DDq01’q-5U/1

1.4.1 Isotropic Antenna

 <A1k-λSAλ?kHRUvSWvvU1WD1E1)Pq5Nq)W:E-1EA)qAAE1)PE)1NE0WE)qD1W)D135UqN14AW95N2-S1WA1E--10WNq:)W5AD/R
 OA15)PqN1U5N0DL1E1)Pq5Nq)W:E-1WD5)N53W:1EA)qAAE1PED1E13qN9q:)1‘^V10qFNqq1D3PqNW:E-1NE0WE)W5A13E))qNA/1YE0WE)W5A13E))qNA1
591WD5)N53W:1EA)qAAE1WD1DP5UA1WA1=WF/1Q/7/Q/1R
 O)1WD1EA1k:WUb1EA)qAAE1UPW:P1NE0WE)qD1qV4E--S1WA1E--10WNq:)W5AD1EA01PED1E1FEWA1591Q1+V10XKL1W/q/1bqN51FEWA1EA01bqN51-5DD/R
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-14 Introduction to Mobile Computing

 O)1WD14Dq01)51:523ENq1)Pq135UqN1-qBq-1591E1FWBqA1EA)qAAE1)51)Pq1)Pq5Nq)W:E-1WD5)N53W:1EA)qAAE/R
 =WF/1Q/7/Q1DP5UD1E1)U510W2qADW5AE-1:N5DD>Dq:)W5A1591)Pq1NqE-1)PNqq10W2qADW5AE-13E))qNA/R
 <A)qAAED1:EA1’q1’N5E0-S1:-EDDW9Wq01ED1λ)vk:kAWHSkλvUb1EA01:kAWHSkλvUb1EA)qAAED/1

Fig. 1.4.1 : Radiation pattern of Isotropic antenna

1.4.2 Omnidirectional Antennas



e
ФA-W8q1 WD5)N53W:1 EA)qAAEDL1 0W35-q1 EA)qAAED1 ENq1 NqE-1 EA)qAAED/1 HPq1 0W35-q1 NE0WE)W5A1 3E))qNA1 WD1 ‘^V1 0qFNqqD1 WA1 )Pq1

g
P5NWb5A)E-13-EAq1EA01E33N5RW2E)q-S1l%10qFNqqD1WA1)Pq1BqN)W:E-13-EAq/1
 O)1WD1E-D51:E--q01)Pq1nA5A>0WNq:)W5AE-n1EA)qAAE1’q:E4Dq1W)105qD1A5)19EB5N1EAS13EN)W:4-EN10WNq:)W5A/1R
io led
 –W35-q1EA)qAAED1ENq1DEW01)51PEBq1E1FEWA1591Z/Q710XL1UPW:P1WD1WA1:523ENWD5A1)51EA1WD5)N53W:1EA)qAAE/1HPq1PWFPqN1)Pq1FEWA1
591)Pq1EA)qAAEDL1)Pq1D2E--qN1)Pq1BqN)W:E-1’qE21UW0)P1WD/R

ic ow

HPWD1)S3q1591EA)qAAE1WD14Dq94-195N1’N5E0:ED)WAF1E1DWFAE-1)51E--135WA)D1591)Pq1:523EDD15N1UPqA1-WD)qAWAF195N1DWFAE-D19N521
E--135WA)D/1
n
Dipoles
bl kn

 HPq125D)1:5225A-S14Dq01EA)qAAE1WD1HWASIkUv10W35-q/1
 HPq10W35-q1:5ADWD)D1591)U51:5--WAqEN1:5A04:)5ND1591qV4E-1-qAF)PL1Dq3ENE)q01’S1E1D2E--19qq0WAF1FE3/11
at
Pu ch

 HPq1-qAF)P1591)Pq10W35-q1WD1PE-91)Pq1UEBq-qAF)P1o1591)Pq1DWFAE-1+95N1q99W:WqA)1NE0WE)W5A1591qAqNFSK/1
 =WF/1Q/7/Z1DP5UD1E1)S3W:E-1\qN)bWEA10W35-q/1
Te

Fig. 1.4.2 : Hertzian dipole

 <1o[Z10W35-q1PED1E14AW95N215N152AW0WNq:)W5AE-1NE0WE)W5A13E))qNA1WA15Aq13-EAq1EA01E19WF4Nq1WkMLS13E))qNA1WA1)Pq15)PqN1
)U513-EAqD/1HPWD1WD1DP5UA1WA1=WF/1Q/7/‘/1R
 HPWD1)S3q1591EA)qAAED1ENq14Dq01WA1ENqE1D4:P1ED1254A)EWAL1BE--qS1q):/R
 <-)P54FP1)PWD1WD1E1DW23-q1EA)qAAEL1W)1WD10W99W:4-)1)51254A)15A1E1N5591)531591E1BqPW:-q/1R

Fig. 1.4.3 : Radiation pattern of Hertzian dipole

 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-15 Introduction to Mobile Computing

Monopoles
 YP5UA1WA1=WF/1Q/7/71WD1)Pq1W0qE-1BqN)W:E-125A535-q1EA)qAAE/R
 O)1PED1)Pq1-qAF)P1o[71EA01E-D518A5UA1ED1DUAJλvk1EA)qAAE/R
 <125A535-q15BqN1EA1WA9WAW)q1FN54A013-EAq1WD1)Pq5Nq)W:E--S1)Pq1DE2q1ED1)Pq10W35-q1WA19Nqq1D3E:q/R
 HPq19-E)1D4N9E:q1591E1BqPW:-qzD1)N4A815N1N5591:EA1E:)1ED1EA1E0qV4E)q1FN54A013-EAq/R
 HPWD1)S3q1591EA)qAAE1WD1q99W:WqA)195N1254A)WAF15A1E1N5591)531591E1:EN/1R

Fig. 1.4.4 : Monopole

e
Directional Antenna

g
 <1:kAWHSkλvUbRUvSWvvU15N1BWU)RUvSWvvU1WD1EA1EA)qAAE1UPW:P1NE0WE)qD15N1Nq:qWBqD1FNqE)qN135UqN1WA1D3q:W9W:10WNq:)W5AD/1
io led
 HPWD1E--5UD1WA:NqEDq013qN95N2EA:q1EA01Nq04:q01WA)qN9qNqA:q19N5214AUEA)q01D54N:qD/1
 ФA-W8q152AW0WNq:)W5AE-1EA)qAAEDL10WNq:)W5AE-1EA)qAAED124D)1’q1EW2q01WA1)Pq10WNq:)W5A1591)Pq1)NEAD2W))qN15N1Nq:qWBqN/11

ic ow

√RE23-qD15910WNq:)W5AE-1EA)qAAED1ENq13ENE’5-W:1EA01pEFW1EA)qAAE1DP5UA1WA1=WF/1Q/7/%1EA01=WF/1Q/7/^1NqD3q:)WBq-S/11
 =WF/1Q/7/l1DP5UD1)Pq1NE0WE)W5A13E))qNA1591E10WNq:)W5AE-1EA)qAAE1UW)P1)Pq12EWA1-5’q1WA1)Pq10WNq:)W5A1591`>ERWD/1
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te

Fig. 1.4.5 : Parabolic antenna

Fig. 1.4.6 : Yagi antenna

 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-16 Introduction to Mobile Computing

Fig. 1.4.7 : Radiation pattern of directional antennas

Sectorized Antenna
 YqBqNE-10WNq:)W5AE-1EA)qAAED1:EA1’q1:52’WAq015A1E1DWAF-q135-q1)51:5AD)N4:)1E1Dq:)5NWbq01EA)qAAE/11
 HPqS1 ENq1 UW0q-S1 4Dq01 WA1 :q--4-EN1 )q-q3P5AS1 WA9NED)N4:)4Nq/1 =5N1 qRE23-qL1 <1 :q--1 :EA1 ’q1 Dq:)5NWbq01 WA)51 )PNqq1 5N1 DWR1
Dq:)5ND/1=WF/1Q/7/Z1DP5UD1NE0WE)W5A13E))qNA1591)PqDq1Dq:)5NWbq01EA)qAAED/1

g e
io led
Fig. 1.4.8 : Radiation pattern of sectorized antennas
ic ow

Antenna arrays

n
<A1EA)qAAE1ENNES1WD1E1:5A9WF4NE)W5A159124-)W3-q1EA)qAAED1+q-q2qA)DK1ENNEAFq01)51E:PWqBq1E1FWBqA1NE0WE)W5A13E))qNA/1

bl kn

G4-)W3-q1EA)qAAED1E--5U10W99qNqA)10WBqNDW)S1D:Pq2qD1)51W23N5Bq1)Pq1V4E-W)S1EA01Nq-WE’W-W)S1591E1UWNq-qDD1-WA8/1
 <A)qAAE10WBqNDW)S1WD1qD3q:WE--S1q99q:)WBq1E)12W)WFE)WAF1q99q:)D159124-)W3E)P13N53EFE)W5A/11
at


Pu ch

HPWD1WD1’q:E4Dq124-)W3-q1EA)qAAED1E--5U1E1Nq:qWBqN1DqBqNE-15’DqNBE)W5AD1591)Pq1DE2q1DWFAE-/1
 √E:P1EA)qAAE1UW--1qR3qNWqA:q1E10W99qNqA)1WA)qN9qNqA:q1qABWN5A2qA)/1O915Aq1EA)qAAE1WD1qR3qNWqA:WAF1E10qq319E0qL1W)1WD1
Te

-W8q-S1)PE)1EA5)PqN1PED1E1D499W:WqA)1DWFAE-/1(5--q:)WBq-S1D4:P1E1DSD)q21:EA13N5BW0q1’q))qN1-WA8/1
 –W99qNqA)10WBqNDW)S1D:Pq2qD1ENq135DDW’-q/1
 ]Aq1D4:P1D:Pq2q1WD1-WbWHSkλvR:kAWA-kSz1UPqNq1)Pq1Nq:qWBqN1E-UESD14DqD1)Pq1EA)qAAE1q-q2qA)1UW)P1)Pq1-ENFqD)154)34)/1
 HPq1 5)PqN1 )S3q1 591 0WBqNDW)S1 WD1 :kAWA-kSzR Hλ)BkvkvM1 WA1 UPW:P1 E1 :52’WAE)W5A1 591 35UqN1 591 E--1 )Pq1 DWFAE-D1 WD1 )E8qA1 )51
3N504:q1FEWA/1
=WF/1Q/7/U1DP5UD1)U51D4:P10W99qNqA)1D:Pq2qD/1
o OA1=WF/1Q/7/U1+EK1)U51o[71EA)qAAED1ENq1ENNEAFq01UW)P1E10WD)EA:q1591o[Z1’q)UqqA1)Pq2/1
o OA1=WF/1Q/7/U1+’K1)PNqq1D)EA0EN01o[Z10W35-qD1ENq1:52’WAq01UW)P1E10WD)EA:q1591o[Z1’q)UqqA1)Pq2/1

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.4.9 : Diversity antenna systems
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-17 Introduction to Mobile Computing

1.5 Signal Propagation

.MU – Dec. 18.
Q. What are various issues in signal propagation ? (Dec. 18, 10 Marks)

 YWA:q1UWNq-qDD1Aq)U5N8D14Dq14AF4W0q012q0WE1D4:P1ED1NE0W51UEBqDL1)Pq1DWFAE-1PED1A51UWNqD1)510q)qN2WAq1)Pq10WNq:)W5A1591
3N53EFE)W5AL1UPqNq1ED1DWFAE-D1WA1UWNq01Aq)U5N815A-S1)NEBq-1E-5AF1)Pq1UWNq/11
 OA1UWNq01Aq)U5N8L15Aq1:EA1qEDW-S10q)qN2WAq1)Pq1’qPEBW5N1591E1DWFAE-1)NEBq-WAF1E-5AF1)PWD1UWNq1D4:P1ED1Nq:qWBq0135UqN1
0q3qA0WAF15A1)Pq1-qAF)P/11
 =5N1UWNq-qDD1)NEAD2WDDW5AL1)PWD13Nq0W:)E’-q1’qPEBW5N1WD15A-S1BE-W01WA1E1BE:442/1<D1DP5UA1WA1=WF/1Q/%/Q10q3qA0WAF1435A1
)Pq10WD)EA:q19N521)Pq1DqA0qNL1)Pq1)NEAD2W))q01DWFAE-1:EA19E--1WA)51)Pq195--5UWAF1NEAFqD/1
1. Transmission Range

e
;W)PWA1)PWD1NEAFq1)Pq1Nq:qWBqN1Nq:qWBqD1)Pq1DWFAE-D1UW)P1E1BqNS1-5U1qNN5N1NE)q1EA01PqA:q1E’-q1)51:5224AW:E)q/1
2. Detection Range

g
io led
;W)PWA1)PWD1NEAFq1)Pq1Nq:qWBqN1:EA10q)q:)1)Pq1)NEAD2WDDW5A1W/q/1)Pq1)NEAD2W))q0135UqN1WD1-ENFq1qA54FP1)510W99qN1DWFAE-1
9N521’E:8FN54A0/1
3. Interference Range
ic ow

;W)PWA1)PWD1NEAFqL1)Pq1DqA0qN12ES1WA)qN9qNq1UW)P15)PqN1)NEAD2WDDW5AD1’S1E00WAF1)51’E:8FN54A01A5WDq/1HPq1Nq:qWBqN1UW--1
n
A5)1’q1E’-q1)510q)q:)1)Pq1DWFAE-1’4)1)Pq1DWFAE-12ES10WD)4N’15)PqN1DWFAE-D/1
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te

Fig. 1.5.1 : Ranges for transmission, detection and interference of signals

1.5.1 Path Loss of Radio Signals

Free Space Loss

 OA19Nqq1D3E:qL1)Pq1DWFAE-195--5UD1E1D)NEWFP)1-WAq/11O91D4:P1E1D)NEWFP)1-WAq1qRWD)D1’q)UqqA1)Pq1DqA0qN1EA01)Pq1Nq:qWBqNL1W)1WD1
:E--q01)Pq1-WAq1591DWFP)1+W]YK/11
 HPq1DWFAE-1qR3qNWqA:qD19Nqq13E)P1-5DD1qBqA1W91A515’6q:)1qRWD)D1’q)UqqA1)Pq1DqA0qN1EA01)Pq1Nq:qWBqN/1HPWD1WD1’q:E4Dq1)Pq1
Nq:qWBqN135UqN1λ$1WD13N535N)W5AE-1)51Q[0"1/1\qNq101WD1)Pq10WD)EA:q1’q)UqqA1)Pq1DqA0qN1EA01)Pq1Nq:qWBqN/1\qA:qL1ED101
WA:NqEDqDL1)Pq1Nq:qWBq0135UqN1λ$10q:NqEDqD/1
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-18 Introduction to Mobile Computing

Other Parameters affecting signal Strength

 HPq1Nq:qWBq0135UqN1E-D510q3qA0D15A1)Pq1UEBq-qAF)P1EA01)Pq1FEWA1591)Pq1Nq:qWBqN1EA01)NEAD2W))qN1EA)qAAE/1
 =5N1 -5AF1 0WD)EA:q1 :5224AW:E)W5AL1 25D)1 NE0W51 )NEAD2WDDW5A1 )E8qD1 3-E:q1 )PN54FP1 EWNL1 NEWAL1 DA5UL1 95FL1 q):/1 HPq1
E)25D3PqNq1PqEBW-S1WA9-4qA:qD1)Pq1V4E-W)S1591)Pq1DWFAE-/1√/F/1DE)q--W)q1)NEAD2WDDW5A/1

1.5.2 Additional Signal Propagation Effects

1. Blocking / Shadowing
 HPq1DWFAE-D1UW)P1PWFPqN19NqV4qA:S1’qPEBq1-W8q1E1D)NEWFP)1-WAq/11
 HPqDq1DWFAE-D1ENq1’-5:8q01’S1qBqA1D2E--15’D)E:-qD1-W8q1E1UE--L1E1:EN15N1E1)N4:815A1E1N5E0/1HPWD13PqA52qA5A1WD1:E--q01
’-5:8WAF15N1DPE05UWAF/1
2. Reflection
 ;PqA1 E1 DWFAE-1 qA:54A)qND1 E1 D4N9E:q1 )PE)1 WD1 -ENFq1 Nq-E)WBq1 )51 )Pq1 UEBq-qAF)P1 591 )Pq1 DWFAE-L1 E1 3PqA52qA5A1 :E--q01

e
Nq9-q:)W5A15::4ND/11
 HPq1Nq9-q:)q01DWFAE-1WD1A5)1ED1D)N5AF1ED1)Pq15NWFWAE-L1ED1)Pq15’6q:)1:EA1E’D5N’1D52q1591)Pq1DWFAE-zD135UqN/1

g
3. Refraction
io led
 HPWD1q99q:)15::4ND1’q:E4Dq1)Pq1Bq-5:W)S1591)Pq1q-q:)N52EFAq)W:1UEBqD10q3qA0D15A1)Pq10qADW)S1591)Pq12q0W421)PN54FP1
UPW:P1W)1)NEBq-D/11

ic ow

<D1DP5UA1WA1=WF/1Q/%/ZL1UEBqD1)PE)1)NEBq-1WA)51E10qADqN12q0W421ENq1’qA)1)5UEN0D1)Pq12q0W42/1
4. Scattering
n
 O91)Pq15’6q:)1DWbq1WD1WA1)Pq15N0qN1591)Pq1UEBq-qAF)P1591)Pq1DWFAE-15N1-qDDL1)PqA1)Pq1DWFAE-1:EA1’q1D:E))qNq01WA)512EAS1
bl kn

D2E--1DWFAE-D/11
 Y:E))qNq01DWFAE-D1ENq1UqE8qN1)PEA1)Pq15NWFWAE-1DWFAE-/1
at
Pu ch

5. Diffraction
–W99NE:)W5A15::4ND1E)1)Pq1q0Fq1591EA1W23qAq)NE’-q1’50S1)PE)1WD1-ENFq1ED1:523ENq01)51)Pq1UEBq-qAF)P1591E1NE0W51UEBq/1
Te

Fig. 1.5.2 : Blocking, reflection, refraction and diffraction of waves

1.5.3 Multi-path Propagation and Fading

1.5.3(a) Multi-path propagation

 HPq1UWNq-qDD1:PEAAq-1WD1E124-)W3E)P13N53EFE)W5A1:PEAAq-/1
 HPq1NE0W51UEBqD1)PE)1q2EAE)q19N521)Pq1)NEAD2W))qN1051A5)1NqE:P1)Pq1Nq:qWBqN15A-S1’S1E1DWAF-q13E)P/1HPq1DWFAE-1:EA1)E8q1
2EAS10W99qNqA)13E)PD19N521)Pq1DqA0qN1)51)Pq1Nq:qWBqN104q1)51Nq9-q:)W5AL1D:E))qNWAF1EA010W99NE:)W5A/1HPWD1q99q:)1WD1:E--q01
24-)W>3E)P13N53EFE)W5A/1
 G4-)W>3E)P13N53EFE)W5A1WD15Aq1591)Pq125D)1DqBqNq1NE0W51:PEAAq-1W23EWN2qA)D/1
 =WF/1Q/%/‘1DP5UD1E1DqA0qN15A1)Pq1-q9)1PEA01DW0q1EA015Aq135DDW’-q1Nq:qWBqN15A1)Pq1NWFP)1PEA01DW0q/11
 <1NE0W51UEBq1q2W))q01’S1E1DqA0qN1:EA1)E8q1)Pq1W]Y13E)P1+W/q/1)NEBq-1WA1D)NEWFP)1-WAqKL15N1W)12ES1’q1D:E))qNq01E)1D2E--1
5’D)E:-qD15N1Nq9-q:)q01E)1-ENFq1’4W-0WAFD/
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-19 Introduction to Mobile Computing

 As a result, we have multiple copies of the same signal being transmitted and received with different delays, different
amplitudes and phases.
 This effect caused by multi-path propagation is called delay spread i.e. the original signal is spread due to different
delays of parts of the signal.

g e
io led
ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch

Fig. 1.5.3 : Multi-path propagation and inter-symbol interference

Te

 As shown in Fig. 1.5.3, a short impulse will be smeared out into a broader impulse or into several weaker impulses. As
a result, energy intended for one symbol spills over the adjacent symbol. This effect is called inter symbol interference
(ISI).
 ISI makes detection of the signal difficult at the receiver. In real situation many weaker impulses arrive at the receiver.
Some of the received pulses are too weak to be detected and appear as noise.

1.5.3(b) Fading
The term fading means rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases, or multipath delays of a radio signal over a short
period or short travel distance.
1. Fading effect due to mobility
In addition to multipath propagation, another problem called fading occurs due to mobility. Following two types of
fading may occur due to mobility.
(i) Short-term fading
 Short term fading occurs when receivers or senders or both move. It occurs due to the quick changes in the received
power.
 The receiver now has to try to continuously adapt to the varying channel characteristics.
 However, if such changes are too fast then (e.g. driving on a highway through a city) receiver cannot adapt fast
enough and the error rate of the transmission increases dramatically. Short term fading is shown in Fig. 1.5.4.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-20 Introduction to Mobile Computing

Fig. 1.5.4 : Short term and long term fading

(ii) Long-term fading
 HPq1-5AF1)qN219E0WAF15::4ND1UPqA1)Pq1DqA0qN1WD1D)E)W5AENS1EA01)Pq10WD)EA:q1591)Pq1Nq:qWBqN1)51)Pq1DqA0qN1BENWqD1D-5U-S/1
 O)15::4ND104q1)51D-5U1:PEAFqD1WA1)Pq1EBqNEFq135UqN1Nq:qWBq0/1HPWD1WD1DP5UA1ED1)Pq1EBqNEFq135UqN1WA1=WF/1Q/%/7/11
 YqA0qND1 :EA1 :523qADE)q1 95N1 -5AF1 )qN21 9E0WAF1 ’S1 WA:NqEDWAF[0q:NqEDWAF1 DqA0WAF1 35UqN1 D51 )PE)1 )Pq1 Nq:qWBq01 DWFAE-1

e
E-UESD1D)ESD1UW)PWA1:qN)EWA1-W2W)D/1

g
2. Fading Effects due to Multipath Time Delay Spread
io led
(i) Flat Fading
 =-E)19E0WAF15::4ND1UPqA1)Pq1’EA0UW0)P1591)Pq1)NEAD2W))q01DWFAE-1WD1-qDD1)PEA1)Pq1:5PqNqA:q1’EA0UW0)P1591)Pq1:PEAAq-/11

ic ow

√V4WBE-qA)-SL1 )Pq1 9E0WAF1 WD1 9-E)1 9E0WAF1 W91 )Pq1 DS2’5-1 3qNW501 591 )Pq1 DWFAE-1 WD1 25Nq1 )PEA1 )Pq1 N2D1 0q-ES1 D3NqE01 591 )Pq1
:PEAAq-/1
n
(ii) Frequency Selective Fading
bl kn

 =NqV4qA:S1 Dq-q:)WBq19E0WAF1 5::4ND1 UPqA1 )Pq1 DWFAE-1’EA0UW0)P1WD1 25Nq1)PEA1)Pq1:5PqNqA:q1’EA0UW0)P1591)Pq125’W-q1

NE0W51:PEAAq-/11
at


Pu ch

√V4WBE-qA)-S1)Pq1DS2’5-D104NE)W5A1591)Pq1DWFAE-1WD1-qDD1)PEA1)Pq1N2D10q-ES1D3NqE0/1

1.6 Signal Characteristics

Te

 YWFAE-D1 ENq1 )Pq1 3PSDW:E-1 Nq3NqDqA)E)W5A1 591 0E)E/1 –E)E1 WA1 E1 :5224AW:E)W5A1 DSD)q21 :EA1 ’q1 qR:PEAFq01 )PN54FP1 )Pq1
DWFAE-D/1YWFAE-D1ENq194A:)W5AD1591)W2q1EA01-5:E)W5A/1
 YWFAE-13ENE2q)qND1Nq3NqDqA)1)Pq10E)E1BE-4qD/1YWFAE-13ENE2q)qND1ENq1)Pq1<23-W)40q1+<KL19NqV4qA:S1+9K1EA013PEDq1DPW9)1
+qK/1HPq125D)1WA)qNqD)WAF1)S3q1591DWFAE-195N1NE0W51)NEAD2WDDW5A1WD13qNW50W:1DWFAE-1+qD3q:WE--S1DWAq1UEBqKL14Dq01ED1:ENNWqND/1
 HPq1FqAqNE-194A:)W5A1591E1DWAq1UEBq1WDL11D+)K1i1<)1DWA+Z119)1)1f1)K1

Fig. 1.6.1 : Time Domain representation of a signal (a sine wave without phase
shift and with a phase shift )
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-21 Introduction to Mobile Computing

1.7 Multiplexing
.MU - May 18.

Q. Discuss multiplexing in wireless communication. (May 18, 10 Marks)

 G4-)W3-qRWAF12qEAD1)Pq1E’W-W)S1)51DqA010E)E1:52WAF19N52124-)W3-q1D54N:qDL14DqND15N1:PEAAq-D15BqN1E1:5225A1DPENq01
)NEAD2WDDW5A1 2q0W421 UW)P1 2WAW2421 WA)qN9qNqA:q1 EA01 2ERW2421 4)W-WbE)W5A/1 H51 2E8q1 q99W:WqA)1 4Dq1 591 PWFP>D3qq01
:5224AW:E)W5A1-WAqDL1D52q195N2159124-)W3-qRWAF1WD14Dq0/11
 =54N1)S3qD159124-)W3-qRWAF1ENq1:5225A-S14Dq01WA1:5224AW:E)W5A1DSD)q2D/1
Q/1 Y3E:q1–WBWDW5A1G4-)W3-qRWAF1+Y–GK1
Z/1 HW2q1–WBWDW5A1G4-)W3-qRWAF1+H–GK1
‘/1 =NqV4qA:S1–WBWDW5A1G4-)W3-qRWAF1+=–GK1

e
7/1 (50q1–WBWDW5A1G4-)W3-qRWAF1+(–GK1

g
1 io led
1.7.1 Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)
 OA1D3E:q10WBWDW5A124-)W3-qRWAFL1)Pq1qA)WNq1NqFW5A1591)NEAD2WDDW5A1WD10WBW0q01WA)5124-)W3-q1D3E:qD/1=5N1qR:PEAFWAF10E)EL1
qE:P14DqN1WD1E--5:E)q01E1:5224AW:E)W5A1:PEAAq-/R
ic ow

 =WF/1Q/l/Q1DP5UD1DWR1:PEAAq-D18%# )518&1EA01E1)PNqq10W2qADW5AE-1:55N0WAE)q1DSD)q2/1HPq10W2qADW5AD1ENq1:50q1:L1)W2q1)1
EA019NqV4qA:S1+9K/11O)1E-D51DP5UD1D3E:q1Y'1Nq3NqDqA)q01BWE1:WN:-qD/1(PEAAq-18%1)518(1:EA1’q12E33q015A)51)Pq1)PNqq1D3E:qD1
n
Y%1)51Y(1UPW:P1:-qEN-S1Dq3ENE)qD1)Pq1:PEAAq-/1
bl kn

 O)1 :EA1 ’q1 A5)q01 )PE)1 )PqNq1 WD1 D52q1 D3E:q1 ’q)UqqA1 qE:P1 :PEAAq-/1 HPWD1 D3E:q1 WD1 :E--q01 E1 M<UA:R HLUvvWb/1 =5N1 )Pq1
Nq2EWAWAF1:PEAAq-DL1)PNqq1E00W)W5AE-1D3E:qD1U54-01’q1Aqq0q0/11
at
Pu ch
Te

Fig. 1.7.1 : Space Division Multiplexing

Application
 HPWD124-)W3-qRWAF1D:Pq2q1:EA1’q14Dq0195N1=G1NE0W51D)E)W5AD1W91E1DWAF-q1=G1D)E)W5A1)NEAD2W)D1WA1E1FWBqA1NqFW5A1+DES1D52q1
:W)SK1 5A-S/1 HPq1 DE2q1 )NEAD2WDDW5A1 NEAFqD1 :EA1 )PqA1 ’q1 DPENq01 ’S1 0W99qNqA)1 NE0W51 D)E)W5AD1 EN54A01 )Pq1 U5N-01 UW)P54)1
WA)qN9qNqA:q/11
 Y–G1WD1E-D514Dq01WA1:q--4-EN1DSD)q2D1UPqNq1)Pq1DqNBW:q1ENqE1WD10WBW0q01WA)510W99qNqA)1:q--D/1√E:P1:q--1WD1EDDWFAq010W99qNqA)1
9NqV4qA:S1’EA01D4:P1)PE)1)PqNq1WD1A51WA)qN9qNqA:q1WA1E06E:qA)1:q--D/1
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-22 Introduction to Mobile Computing

Advantage
Y–G1WD1qEDS1)51W23-q2qA)/1
Problem
O91)U515N125Nq1:PEAAq-D1ENq1qD)E’-WDPq01WA1)Pq1DE2q1D3E:q1+=5N1qRE23-qL1DqBqNE-1NE0W51D)E)W5AD1UEA)1)51’N5E0:ED)1WA)51
)Pq1DE2q1:W)SKL1)PqA1Y–G1E-5Aq1:EAA5)1’q14Dq0/1

1.7.2 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

 OA19NqV4qA:S10WBWDW5A124-)W3-qRWAFL1)Pq1qA)WNq19NqV4qA:S1NEAFq1WD10WBW0q01WA)519NqV4qA:S1’EA0D/R
 √E:P1:PEAAq-1Fq)D1E1:qN)EWA1’EA01591)Pq1D3q:)N42195N1)Pq1UP5-q1)W2q/1
 –W99qNqA)19NqV4qA:S1’EA0D1ENq1Dq3ENE)q01’S1F4EN01D3E:qD/1

g e
io led
ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te

Fig. 1.7.2 : Frequency Division Multiplexing

Application
HPWD1D:Pq2q1WD14Dq0195N1NE0W51D)E)W5AD1UW)PWA1)Pq1DE2q1NqFW5AL1UPqNq1qE:P1NE0W51D)E)W5A14DqD1W)D15UA19NqV4qA:S/1
Advantages
 T51:523-qR1:55N0WAE)W5A1’q)UqqA1DqA0qN1EA01Nq:qWBqN1WD1NqV4WNq0/1
 HPWD1D:Pq2q1U5N8D195N1EAE-5F1DWFAE-D1ED1Uq--/1
Disadvantages
 HPq1’EA0UW0)P1WD1UED)q01W91)Pq1)NE99W:1WD10WD)NW’4)q014AqBqA-S/1
 HPq1D:Pq2q1WD1WA9-qRW’-q/1

1.7.3 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

 OA1H–GL1)Pq1qA)WNq1D3q:)N421WD1FWBqA1)51E13EN)W:4-EN1:PEAAq-195N1E1:qN)EWA1)W2q1WA)qNBE-/1
 <D1DP5UA1WA1=WF/1Q/l/‘L1E1:PEAAq-18'1WD1FWBqA1)Pq1UP5-q1’EA0UW0)P195N1E1:qN)EWA1E254A)1591)W2q/11
 X4EN01D3E:qD1ENq1Aqq0q01WA1H–G1ED1Uq--L1UPW:P1ENq1A5U1Nq3NqDqA)q01’S1)W2q1FE3D/1
 HP4DL1WA1H–G1E--1)Pq1:PEAAq-D14Dq1)Pq1DE2q19NqV4qA:S1’4)1E)10W99qNqA)1)W2q/1
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-23 Introduction to Mobile Computing

1
Fig. 1.7.3 : Time division multiplexing

e
Advantage

g
io led
HPqNq1WD15A-S15Aq1:ENNWqN1WA1)Pq12q0W421E)1EAS1)W2q1UPW:P1NqD4-)D1WA1PWFP1)PN54FP34)1qBqA1W91)PqNq1ENq12EAS14DqND/R
Disadvantage
ic ow

Q/1 O91)U51)NEAD2WDDW5AD15BqN-E31WA1)W2qL1HλKHLUvvWbRkvSWABWAWvHW12ES15::4N/11
Z/1 H51EB5W01:5>:PEAAq-1WA)qN9qNqA:qL1W)1WD1NqV4WNq01)PE)10W99qNqA)1DqA0qND1ENq13Nq:WDq-S1DSA:PN5AWbq0/R
n
1.7.4 Frequency and Time Division Multiplexing
bl kn

 OA1)PWD124-)W3-qRWAF1D:Pq2qL19NqV4qA:S1EA01)W2q10WBWDW5A124-)W3-qRWAF1ENq1:52’WAq0/11
at


Pu ch

<D1 DP5UA1 WA1 =WF/1 Q/l/7L1 :PEAAq-1 8'1 4DqD1 :qN)EWA1 9NqV4qA:S1 ’EA01 95N1 E1 :qN)EWA1 E254A)1 591 )W2q/1 T5U1 F4EN01 D3E:qD1 ENq1
NqV4WNq01WA1’5)P10W2qADW5AD/11
Te

Fig. 1.7.4 : Frequency and time division multiplexing

Application
HPq1D:Pq2q1WD14Dq01WA1XYG1+X-5’E-1YSD)q2195N1G5’W-q1(5224AW:E)W5AK1
Advantages
Q/1 ]99qND1’q))qN13N5)q:)W5A1EFEWAD)1)E33WAF/R
Z/1 λN5BW0qD13N5)q:)W5A1EFEWAD)19NqV4qA:S1Dq-q:)WBq1WA)qN9qNqA:q/R
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-24 Introduction to Mobile Computing

Disadvantage
Tq:qDDENS1:55N0WAE)W5A1WD1NqV4WNq01’q)UqqA10W99qNqA)1DqA0qND/R

1.7.5 Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)

 OA1)PWD1D:Pq2qL1E--1:PEAAq-D14Dq1)Pq1DE2q19NqV4qA:S1E)1)Pq1DE2q1)W2q195N1)NEAD2WDDW5A/1
 ФDqND1ENq1A5U1Dq3ENE)q014DWAF1:50qD/1

g e
io led
ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te

Fig. 1.7.5 : Code division multiplexing

 OA1)PWDL1DWFAE-D19N52124-)W3-q1WA0q3qA0qA)1D54N:qD1:EA1’q1)NEAD2W))q01E)1)Pq1DE2q1)W2q15BqN1)Pq1DE2q19NqV4qA:S1’EA0/11
 HPWD1)ED81:EA1’q1E:PWqBq01BWE1D3NqE01D3q:)N421)q:PAWV4q1WA1UPW:P1D3q:WE-1:50qD1:E--q01ED15N)P5F5AE-1:50qD1ENq14Dq01)51
D3NqE01qE:P1DWFAE-15BqN1E1-ENFqL1:5225A19NqV4qA:S1’EA0/1
 Y5L1WA1(–GL1qE:P1:PEAAq-1WD1EDDWFAq01E13EN)W:4-EN15N)P5F5AE-1:50q1EA01)PWD1WD1P5U124-)W3-qRWAF1WD1E:PWqBq0/1
 X4EN01D3E:qD1ENq1A5U1NqV4WNq01WA1)Pq1:50q10W2qADW5A/11
Advantages
Q/1 O)1FWBqD1F55013N5)q:)W5A1EFEWAD)1WA)qN9qNqA:q1EA01)E33WAF/11
Z/1 XEA0UW0)P14)W-WbE)W5A1WD1BqNS1q99W:WqA)/1
‘/1 T51DSA:PN5AWbE)W5A1WD1Aqq0q01’q)UqqA1)Pq1DqA0qN1EA01)Pq1Nq:qWBqN/1
Disadvantages
Q/1 eENSWAF14DqN10E)E1NE)qD/1
Z/1 G5Nq1:523-qR1DWFAE-1NqFqAqNE)W5A1EA01PqA:q1PWFP1:523-qRW)S1E)1)Pq1Nq:qWBqN/1
‘/1 O)1WD1W23-q2qA)q014DWAF1D3NqE01D3q:)N421)q:PA5-5FS/1
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-25 Introduction to Mobile Computing

7/1 <1Nq:qWBqN124D)1’q13Nq:WDq-S1DSA:PN5AWbq01UW)P1)Pq1)NEAD2W))qN1)51E33-S10q:50WAF1:5NNq:)-S/11
%/1 λNq:WDq1 35UqN1 :5A)N5-1 WD1 NqV4WNq0/1 <--1 DWFAE-D1 DP54-01 NqE:P1 )Pq1 Nq:qWBqN1 UW)P1 25Nq1 5N1 -qDD1 )Pq1 DE2q1 35UqN1
5)PqNUWDq1-5U135UqN1DWFAE-D1:54-01’q10NEWAq01’S1PWFP135UqN15AqD/11

1.8 Spread Spectrum Techniques

.MU - May 12, Dec. 12, May 13, May 14.

Q. What are the main benefits of spread spectrum system ? Explain direct sequence spread spectrum in detail. How can
DSSS systems benefit from multipath propagation ? (May 12, 10 Marks)
Q. What are benefits of Spread Spectrum systems ? (Dec. 12, 5 Marks)
Q. Explain different types of Spread Spectrum technique used in cellular system. (May 13, 5 Marks)
Q. What is Spread Spectrum ? (May 14, 5 Marks)

 Y3NqE01D3q:)N421WD1EA1W235N)EA)195N21591qA:50WAF195N1UWNq-qDD1:5224AW:E)W5AD/11

e
 OA1:5A)NED)1)51NqF4-EN1AENN5U’EA01)q:PA5-5FSL1)Pq1D3NqE0>D3q:)N4213N5:qDD1WD1E1UW0q’EA01)q:PA5-5FS/1

g
 OA1)PWD1)q:PAWV4q1)Pq19NqV4qA:S1591)Pq1)NEAD2W))q01DWFAE-1WD10q-W’qNE)q-S1D3NqE01WA1)Pq19NqV4qA:S1052EWA/1HPq1NqD4-)EA)1
io led
DWFAE-1PED124:P1FNqE)qN1’EA0UW0)P1)PEA1)Pq15NWFWAE-1DWFAE-/1
 HPq13N5:qDD1591D3NqE0WAF1EA010q>D3NqE0WAF1WD1DP5UA1WA1=WF/1Q/Z/Q/1
ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te

Fig. 1.8.1 : Spread Spectrum: Spreading and despreading

+WK1 =WF/1Q/Z/Q1+WK1DP5UD1AENN5U’EA01DWFAE-1)NEAD2W))q0195N21E1DqA0qN/1HPWD1WD1)Pq1DWFAE-14DqN1UEA)D1)51DqA0/1
+WWK1 0λ[091WD1)Pq135UqN10qADW)S1591)PWD1DWFAE-/1HPq1qAqNFS1NqV4WNq01)51)NEAD2W)1)Pq1DWFAE-1WD1qV4E-1)51)Pq1ENqE1:5BqNq01
’S1)Pq1DWFAE-/11
+WWWK1 Yq:5A01 D)q31 WD1 )51 D3NqE01 )Pq1 4DqN1 DWFAE-/1 HPq1 3N5:qDD1 591 D3NqE0WAF1 )Pq1 DWFAE-1 WD1 A5)PWAF1 ’4)1 :5ABqN)WAF1 E1
AENN5U’EA01DWFAE-1WA)51’N5E0’EA01DWFAE-/1HPWD1:EA1’q1E:PWqBq01’S124-)W3-SWAF1E1λT1DqV4qA:q1UW)P1)Pq14DqN10E)E/1
HPq1 qAqNFS1 NqV4WNq01 )51 )NEAD2W)1 )Pq1 DWFAE-1 WD1 DE2qL1 ’4)1 )Pq1 35UqN1 -qBq-1 WD1 24:P1 -5UqN1 )PEA1 )Pq1 AENN5U’EA01
DWFAE-/1
+WBK1 –4NWAF1 )Pq1 )NEAD2WDDW5AL1 AENN5U1 ’EA01 EA01 ’N5E0’EA01 WA)qN9qNqA:q1 Fq)1 E00q01 )51 )Pq1 DWFAE-1 +DP5UA1 WA11
=WF/1Q/Z/Q1+WWWKK/1
+BK1 <)1)Pq1Nq:qWBqN1D421591WA)qN9qNqA:q1EA014DqN1DWFAE-D1WD1Nq:qWBq01+DP5UA1WA1=WF/1Q/Z/Q1+WBKK/1
+BWK1 HPq1 Nq:qWBqN1 A5U1 0qD3NqE0D1 )Pq1 DWFAE-1 W/q/1 :5ABqN)D1 )Pq1 D3NqE01 4DqN1 DWFAE-1 WA)51 E1 AENN5U’EA01 DWFAE-/1 HPWD1 WD1
E:PWqBq01 ’S1 24-)W3-SWAF1 )Pq1 Nq:qWBq01 DWFAE-1 UW)P1 )Pq1 DE2q1 λT1 DqV4qA:q1 4Dq01 WA1 D)q31 Z1 EA01 ’S1 4DWAF1 ’EA03EDD1
9W-)qN1)51:4)159919NqV4qA:WqD1-q9)1EA01NWFP)1591)Pq1AENN5U’EA01DWFAE-1+DP5UA1WA1=WF/1Q/Z/Q1+BKK/R
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-26 Introduction to Mobile Computing

Advantages of Spread Spectrum Techniques

Q/1 X5501 3N5)q:)W5A1 EFEWAD)1 AENN5U’EA01 WA)qN9qNqA:q1 "1 <1 DWFAE-1 UW)P1 AENN5U1 9NqV4qA:S1 WD1 D4’6q:)1 )51 :E)ED)N53PW:1
WA)qN9qNqA:q1)PE)1:EA1UW3q154)1AENN5U1’EA01DWFAE-D195N1)Pq104NE)W5A1591)Pq1WA)qN9qNqA:q/11Y3NqE01D3q:)N421)q:PAWV4q1
D3NqE0D1)Pq1AENN5U1’EA01DWFAE-1WA)51E1’N5E01’EA01DWFAE-14DWAF1E1D3q:WE-1:50q1)51E:PWqBq1NqDWD)EA:q1EFEWAD)1)PWD1AENN5U1
’EA01WA)qN9qNqA:q/1
Z/1 YqDWD)EA:q1 )51 WA)qN:q3)W5A1 "1 <1 :5AD)EA)>9NqV4qA:S1 DWFAE-1 WD1 qEDS1 )51 WA)qN:q3)L1 EA01 WD1 )PqNq95Nq1 A5)1 Uq--1 D4W)q01 )51
E33-W:E)W5AD1WA1UPW:P1WA95N2E)W5A124D)1’q18q3)1:5A9W0qA)WE-/1OA1D3NqE01D3q:)N421)q:PAWV4qL1)Pq1DWFAE-1WD1D3NqE014DWAF1E1
D3q:W9W:L1 ’4)1 :523-W:E)q01 2E)Pq2E)W:E-1 94A:)W5A/1 OA1 5N0qN1 )51 WA)qN:q3)1 )Pq1 DWFAE-L1 E1 Nq:qWBqN1 24D)1 8A5U1 P5U1 )51 0q>
D3NqE01)Pq1DWFAE-/11
‘/1 Y3NqE01 Y3q:)N421 DSD)q2D1 :EA1 :5>qRWD)1 UW)P1 5)PqN1 NE0W51 DSD)q2DL1 UW)P54)1 ’qWAF1 0WD)4N’q01 ’S1 )PqWN1 3NqDqA:q1 EA01
UW)P54)10WD)4N’WAF1)PqWN1E:)WBW)S/1HP4D1)Pq1D3NqE01D3q:)N421DSD)q2D12ES1’q153qNE)q01UW)P54)1)Pq1Aqq0195N1-W:qADq/1
7/1 Y3NqE01D3q:)N421)q:PAWV4qD1:EA1NqDWD)124-)W>3E)P19E0WAF/1
Disadvantages of Spread Spectrum Techniques

g e
Q/1 (523-qRW)S1591Nq:qWBqN1WD1WA:NqEDq0/1
io led
Z/1 WENFq19NqV4qA:S1’EA01WD1Aqq0q0195N1D3NqE0WAF1)Pq1DWFAE-/11
‘/1 Y3NqE01DWFAE-D1UW)P1-5U1D)NqAF)P12ES1WA)qN9qNq1UW)P15)PqN1)NEAD2WDDW5AD1EA01E33qEN1ED1A5WDq/1
7/1 λNq:WDq135UqN1:5A)N5-1WD1Aqq0q0/1
ic ow

L?AWU:kvMRSLWR-?WHSA<)RHUvRBWRUHLkWAW:RkvRS0λR:kBBWAWvSR0Uz-R
n
Q/1 –WNq:)1YqV4qA:q1Y3NqE01Y3q:)N421+–YYYK11
bl kn

Z/1 =NqV4qA:S1\533WAF1Y3NqE01Y3q:)N421+=\YYK1

1.8.1 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

at
Pu ch

 =WF/1Q/Z/Z1DP5UD1)Pq1)NEAD2W))qN1591–YYY/1
Te

Fig. 1.8.2 : DSSS Transmitter

1. DSSS Transmitter
–YYY1)NEAD2W))qN1WAB5-BqD1)U512E65N1D)q3D/1
LSW?R:RMRL?AWU:kvMRSLWR-kMvUbRR
 Y3NqE0WAF1WA1–WNq:)1YqV4qA:q12504-E)W5A1WD1E:PWqBq01’S12504-E)WAF1)Pq1:ENNWqN1DWFAE-1+4DqN10E)EK1UW)P1E10WFW)E-1:50q1
DqV4qA:q1UPW:P1PED1E1’W)1NE)q124:P1PWFPqN1)PEA1)PE)1591)Pq12qDDEFq1)51’q1DqA)/11
 HPWD10WFW)E-1:50q1DqV4qA:q1WD1)S3W:E--S1E13Dq405NEA0521’WAENS1:50q/1O)1WD1E-D518A5UA1ED1λT1+n3Dq405>A5WDqnK1DqV4qA:q1
5N1:PW33WAF1DqV4qA:q/1
 Y3NqE0WAF1:EA1’q105Aq1’S1DW23-S1`]YWAF14DqN1’W)1D)NqE21UW)P1:PW33WAF1DqV4qA:q/1
 HPq1)W2q13qNW501591E1DWAF-q1’W)1WA1)Pq1λT1:50q1WD1)qN2q01E1!"#$L1EA01)Pq1’W)1NE)q1591)Pq1λT1:50q1WD1)qN2q01)Pq1!"#$%&'()/111
 HPq1D3NqE0WAF13N5:qDD1WD1DP5UA1WA1=WF/1Q/Z/‘/1
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-27 Introduction to Mobile Computing

g e
Fig. 1.8.3 : Spreading with DSSS
io led
 (5ADW0qN1)Pq1:PW33WAF1DqV4qA:q1ED1VQQVQVQ/11
 O91)Pq14DqN1’W)1WD1V1)Pq1NqD4-)1591`]YWAF1WD1)Pq1:PW33WAF1DqV4qA:q1W)Dq-9/11
ic ow

 O91)Pq14DqN1’W)1WD1Q1)Pq1NqD4-)1WD1)Pq1:523-q2qA)1591:PW33WAF1DqV4qA:q/1

n
O911)Pq11’W)104NE)W5A15914DqN10E)E1WD1))#EA01)Pq104NE)W5A15915Aq1:PW31WA1:PW33WAF1DqV4qA:q1WD1)*L1)PqA1)Pq1D3NqE0WAF19E:)5N11
bl kn

D1i1))+#)*#0q)qN2WAqD1)Pq1’EA0UW0)P1591E1DWFAE-/11
 O91)Pq15NWFWAE-1DWFAE-1PED1’EA0UW0)P101)PqA1)Pq1NqD4-)WAF1DWFAE-1Aqq0D1+-RDR0K1’EA0UW0)P/1
at
Pu ch

LSW?R>RMREU:kλR)λ:<bUSkλvR
 HPq1D3NqE01DWFAE-1WD1A5U12504-E)q01UW)P1E1NE0W51:ENNWqN/11

Te

HPq1NE0W51:ENNWqN1DPW9)D1)PWD1DWFAE-1)51)Pq1:ENNWqN19NqV4qA:S/11
 HPWD1DWFAE-1WD1)PqA1)NEAD2W))q0/1
2. DSSS Receiver
HPq1–YYY1Nq:qWBqN1WAB5-BqD1)PNqq1D)q3D1"1
+WK1 –q2504-E)W5A1
+WWK1 (5NNq-E)W5A1
+WWWK1 –q:WDW5A1GE8WAF1

Fig. 1.8.4 : DSSS Receiver

 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-28 Introduction to Mobile Computing

NkOR PW)λ:<bUSλAR
–q2504-E)W5A1591)Pq1Nq:qWBq01DWFAE-1WD1E:PWqBq01’S14DWAF1)Pq1DE2q1:ENNWqN1ED1)Pq1)NEAD2W))qNL1NqBqNDWAF1)Pq12504-E)W5A1
3N5:qDD/1XEA0UW0)P1591)Pq1NqD4-)EA)1DWFAE-1WD1E33N5RW2E)q-S1DE2q1ED1)PE)1591)Pq15NWFWAE-1D3NqE01D3q:)N421DWFAE-/1
NkkOR >λAAWbUSλAR
\qNq1 )Pq1 Nq:qWBqN1 4DqD1 )Pq1 DE2q1 3Dq4051 NEA0521 DqV4qA:q1 +(PW31 DqV4qA:qK1 ED1 )Pq1 )NEAD2W))qN/1 λDq4051 NEA0521
DqV4qA:qD1 E)1 )Pq1 DqA0qN1 EA01 )Pq1 Nq:qWBqN1 PEBq1 )51 ’q1 3Nq:WDq-S1 DSA:PN5AWbq01 ’q:E4Dq1 )Pq1 Nq:qWBqN1 :E-:4-E)qD1 )Pq1
3N504:)1591E1:PW31+`]Y153qNE)W5AK1UW)P1)Pq1WA:52WAF1DWFAE-/1–4NWAF1E1’W)13qNW501EA1WA)qFNE)5N1E00D1E--1)PqDq13N504:)D/11
NkkkOR PWHk-kλvR@vkSR
=WAE--S1)Pq10q:WDW5A14AW)10q:W0qD1W91)Pq1D421Nq3NqDqA)D1’WAENS1V15N1QL1’EDq015A1)Pq1D421FqAqNE)q01’S1)Pq1WA)qFNE)5N1
04NWAF1qE:P1’W)13qNW50/1
DSSS and Multipath fading

e
 ;q18A5U1)PE)1WA124-)W3E)P13N53EFE)W5A1)PqNq1qRWD)1DqBqNE-13E)PD1UW)P10W99qNqA)10q-ESD1’q)UqqA1E1)NEAD2W))qN1EA01E1

g
Nq:qWBqN/11<D1E1NqD4-)1)Pq1Nq:qWBqN12ES1Nq:qWBq124-)W3-q1:53WqD1591)Pq1DWFAE-L1qE:P1UW)P10W99qNqA)10q-ESD/1

io led
EUJWRAWHWkAWA-R:EA1’q14Dq01)512W)WFE)q1)Pq1q99q:)159124-)W3E)P13N53EFE)W5A/1
 <1NE8q1Nq:qWBqN14DqD1vR:5NNq-E)5ND1:E--q01BkvMWA-195N1vRD)N5AFqD)13E)PD/11
 √E:P1:5NNq-E)5N1WD1DSA:PN5AWbq01)51)Pq1)NEAD2W))qN13-4D1)Pq10q-ES15A1)PE)1D3q:W9W:13E)P/11
ic ow

 <D1D55A1ED1)Pq1Nq:qWBqN10q)q:)D1E1AqU13E)P1UPW:P1WD1D)N5AFqN1)PEA1)Pq1:4NNqA)-S1UqE8qD)13E)PL1W)1EDDWFAD1)PWD1AqU13E)P1
n
)51)Pq1:5NNq-E)5N1UW)P1)Pq1UqE8qD)13E)P/11

bl kn

HPq154)34)D1591)Pq1:5NNq-E)5ND1ENq1)PqA1:52’WAq01EA019q01WA)51)Pq10q:WDW5A14AW)/1
at
Pu ch
Te

Fig. 1.8.5 : Rake receivers

QRU)?bWRλBRPLLLRR
ФDqN1–E)E1"1VQ1
(PW31"1QVQQVQQQVVV1+QQ>:PW31XEN8qN1:50qK1
`]Y1591’W)1V1UW)P1:PW3"1QVQQVQQQVVV1
`]Y1591’W)1Q1UW)P1:PW3"1VQVVQVVVQQQ11
Y3NqE01DWFAE-11111"1QVQQVQQQVVVVQVVQVVVQQQ11
Yq:qWBq01DWFAE-1"1QVQQVQQQVVVVQVVQVVVQQQ11
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-29 Introduction to Mobile Computing

`]Y1591Nq:qWBq01DWFAE-1UW)P1:PW3"11
+QVQQVQQQVVVQVQQVQQQVVVK1`]Y1+QVQQVQQQVVVVQVVQVVVQQQ1K1i1+VVVVVVVVVVVQQQQQQQQQQQK1
YqD4-)1591OA)qFNE)5N"1V1L1QQ1
YqD4-)1591–q:WDW5A14AW)"1V1r171D51’W)1WD1V1
1 1 1 111111QQ1d1l1D51’W)1WD1Q1
–q:50q010E)E"1VQ1
√BqA1W91qNN5N15::4ND104NWAF1)NEAD2WDDW5AL1Nq:qWBq01DWFAE-1:EA1D)W--1’q10q:50q01:5NNq:)-S/11
=5N1 q/F/1 954N)PL1 9W9)PL1 DqBqA)P1 EA01 954N)qqA)P1 ’W)1 WA1 Nq:qWBq01 DWFAE-1 WD1 :PEAFq0L1 )PqA1 )Pq1 Nq:qWBq01 DWFAE-1 U54-01 ’q1
QVQS:QSQVVVVQ:VQVVVQQQ1
T5U1`]Y1591Nq:qWBq01DWFAE-1UW)P1:PW31"11
+QVQQVQQQVVVQVQQVQQQVVVK1`]Y1+QVQS:QSQVVVVQ:VQVVVQQQK1i1+VVVQQVQVVVV1QQVQQQQQQQQK1
YqD4-)1591WA)qFNE)5N"1‘L1QV1

e
YqD4-)1591–q:WDW5A14AW)"1‘1r171D51’W)1WD1V1

g
1 1 1 1 11111QV1d1l1D51’W)1WD1Q1
io led
–q:50q010E)E"1VQ1
Note : Decision maker decides on to 0 if the sum is between 0-4 and 1 if sum is between 7-11.
ic ow

Advantages of DSSS
n
Q/1 YqDWD)EA:q1)51AENN5U1’EA01WA)qN9qNqA:q1EA01EA)W>6E22WAF1q99q:)D/1
bl kn

Z/1 YqDWD)EA:q1)51OA)qN:q3)W5A/1
‘/1 YqDWD)EA:q1)51=E0WAF1+G4-)W3E)P1√99q:)DK/1
at
Pu ch

Disadvantages of DSSS
Q/1 λNq:WDq135UqN1:5A)N5-1Aq:qDDENS/1
Te

Z/1 ]BqNE--1DSD)q21WD1:523-qR/1
‘/1 OD1NqV4WNq01’q)UqqA1)Pq1DqA0qN1EA01)Pq1Nq:qWBqN/1
Applications of DSSS
HPq1–YYY1(5224AW:E)W5AD1ENq1UW0q-S14Dq01)50ES195N1GW-W)ENSL1OA04D)NWE-1Y:WqA)W9W:L1EA01(WBW-14DqD/1HPq1E33-W:E)W5AD1
WA:-40q1)Pq195--5UWAF1"R
:DR >PDGRAU:kλ-RR
1 O)1WD14Dq94-1WA124-)W3-q1E::qDD1:5224AW:E)W5AD1UPqNqWA12EAS14DqND1:5224AW:E)q15BqN1E1DPENq01:PEAAq-/11 1
=5N1qRE23-qL1(–G</1
>DR TUGVRR
R ;WNq-qDD1W<T1UW0q-S14Dq1D3NqE01D3q:)N421:5224AW:E)W5AD/1O√√√1ZVZ/QQ1WD1E1D)EA0EN01)PE)1WD10qBq-53q0195N125’W-q1
:5224AW:E)W5AL1 EA01 UW0q-S1 W23-q2qA)q01 )PN54FP54)1 )Pq1 U5N-0/1 HPq1 D)EA0EN01 0q9WAqD1 )PNqq1 )S3qD1 591 λPSDW:E-1
WESqN1 :5224AW:E)W5AD/1 HPqDq1 ENq1 1 OA9NENq01 +OYK1 (5224AW:E)W5ADL1 –WNq:)1 YqV4qA:q1 Y3NqE01 Y3q:)N421
(5224AW:E)W5ADL1=NqV4qA:S1\533WAF1Y3NqE01Y3q:)N421:5224AW:E)W5AD/1
;DR >λA:bW--RNLλvW-RR
R YqBqNE-1 2EA49E:)4NqND1 W23-q2qA)1 Y3NqE01 Y3q:)N421 WA1 (5N0-qDD1 3P5AqD1 04q1 )51 )PqWN1 E0BEA)EFqD1 -W8q1 Dq:4NW)SL1
W224AW)S1)51A5WDq1EA01-5AFqN1NEAFq/1
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-30 Introduction to Mobile Computing

1.8.2 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

 =\YY1W23-q2qA)D1H–G13-4D1=–G/R
 OA1)PWD1D:Pq2q1)5)E-1EBEW-E’-q1’EA0UW0)P1WD1D3-W)1WA)512EAS1:PEAAq-D1591D2E--qN1’EA0UW0)P/1
 HNEAD2W))qN1EA01Nq:qWBqN1D)ES15A15Aq1591)PqDq1:PEAAq-D195N1D52q13Nq0q9WAq01)W2q1EA01)PqA1P531)51EA5)PqN1:PEAAq-/1
 HPq13E))qNA1591:PEAAq-14DqD1+9NqV4qA:S13E))qNAK1WD1:E--q01)Pq1Lλ??kvMR-W(<WvHW/1R
 HW2q1D3qA)15A1E1:PEAAq-1UW)P1:qN)EWA19NqV4qA:S1WD1:E--q01)Pq1:0WbbRSk)W/1
 HPqNq1ENq1)U51BENWEA)D1591=\YY1:E--q01D-5U1EA019ED)1P533WAF/1
1. Slow hopping
 HNEAD2W))qN14DqD15Aq19NqV4qA:S195N1DqBqNE-1’W)13qNW50D/1=WF/1Q/Z/^1DP5UD1DWR14DqN1’W)D1UW)P1E13qNW501))#/1HNEAD2W))qN14DqD1
9NqV4qA:S1 9"1 95N1 )NEAD2W))WAF1 )Pq1 9WND)1 )PNqq1 ’W)D1 EA01 )E8qD1 0Uq--1 )W2q1 ),-1 HPqA1 )NEAD2W))qN1 P53D1 )51 )Pq1 AqR)11
9NqV4qA:S19(/1
 Y-5U1P533WAF1WD1:PqE3qN1EA01PED1Nq-ERq01)5-qNEA:q/1

e
 O)1WD1-qDD1W224Aq1)51AENN5U’EA01WA)qN9qNqA:q/11

g
2. Fast hopping
io led
 HNEAD2W))qN1:PEAFqD19NqV4qA:S1DqBqNE-1)W2qD104NWAF1E1’W)13qNW50/1OA1=WF/1Q/Z/^1)Pq1)NEAD2W))qN1P53D1)PNqq1)W2qD104NWAF1
E1’W)13qNW50/11
ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te

Fig. 1.8.6 : Slow and fast frequency hopping

 =ED)1 9NqV4qA:S1 P533WAF1 DSD)q2D1 ENq1 25Nq1 :523-qR1 )51 W23-q2qA)1 ’q:E4Dq1 )NEAD2W))qN1 EA01 Nq:qWBqN1 DP54-01 D)ES1
DSA:PN5AWbq0/1
 HPqDq1DSD)q2D1PEBq1’q))qN1NqDWD)EA:q1EFEWAD)1AENN5U’EA01WA)qN9qNqA:q1EA019NqV4qA:S1Dq-q:)WBq19E0WAF/1
FHSS Transmitter
=WF/1Q/Z/l1DP5UD1DW23-W9Wq01’-5:810WEFNE21591=\YY1)NEAD2W))qN/1
LSW?R:RM1 G504-E)q14DqN10E)E14DWAF10WFW)E->)5>EAE-5F12504-E)W5A1D4:P1ED1=Ym15N1XλYm/1=5N1qRE23-qL19NqV4qA:S19.1WD14Dq01
95N1E1’WAENS1V1EA019%1WD14Dq0195N1’WAENS1Q/11
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-31 Introduction to Mobile Computing

LSW?R>RM1 =NqV4qA:S1 P533WAF1 WD1 3qN95N2q01 ’S1 4DWAF1 P533WAF1 DqV4qA:q/1 HPq1 P533WAF1 DqV4qA:q1 WD1 9q01 WA)51 E1 9NqV4qA:S1
DSA)PqDWbqN1FqAqNE)WAF1)Pq1:ENNWqN19NqV4qA:S19'-1
LSW?R;RM1 Yq:5A01 2504-E)W5A1 WD1 05Aq/1 O)1 4DqD1 2504-E)q01 AENN5U’EA01 DWFAE-1 EA01 :ENNWqN1 9NqV4qA:S1 )51 FqAqNE)q1 E1 AqU1
D3NqE01DWFAE-1UW)P19NqV4qA:S15919'#f19.#95N1E1’W)1V1EA0119'-1f19%195N1E1’W)1Q/1

Fig. 1.8.7 : FHSS transmitter

=HLLREWHWkAWAR

e
=\YY1Nq:qWBqN13qN95N2D1NqBqNDq194A:)W5AD1)51Nq:5AD)N4:)14DqN10E)E/111

g
LSW?R:RMR –q2504-E)q1Nq:qWBq010E)E1’S14DWAF1P533WAF1DqV4qA:q1EA01:5ABqN)1DWFAE-1WA)51AENN5U’EA01DWFAE-/1
io led
LSW?R>RM1 λqN95N21EAE-5F>)5>0WFW)E-12504-E)W5A1)51Nq:5AD)N4:)14DqN10E)E/1
ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch

Fig. 1.8.8 : FHSS receiver

Slow hopping Vs. Fast hopping

Te

Table 1.8.1 : Slow hopping Vs. Fast Hopping

NUAU)WSWAR Lbλ0RHλ??kvMR =U-SRHλ??kvMR

GEWA1O0qE1 YqBqNE-1’W)D1ENq1)NEAD2W))q014DWAF1E1 ]Aq1’W)1WD1)NEAD2W))q014DWAF1DqBqNE-10W99qNqA)1
DE2q19NqV4qA:S/1 9NqV4qA:WqD/1
YqDWD)EA:q1)51AENN5U’EA01 λN5BW0qD1-qDDqN1NqDWD)EA:q1)51 Xq))qN1NqDWD)EA:q1)51AENN5U’EA01WA)qN9qNqA:q1
WA)qN9qNqA:q1 AENN5U’EA01WA)qN9qNqA:q/1 EA019NqV4qA:S1Dq-q:)WBq19E0WAF/1
Yq:4NW)S1 W5UqN1Dq:4NW)S1ED1:523ENq01)519ED)1 G5Nq1Dq:4Nq01DWA:q15Aq1’W)1WD1)NEAD2W))q014DWAF1
P533WAF/1 DqBqNE-10W99qNqA)19NqV4qA:WqD/1
(523-qRW)S1 WqDD1:523-qR1)51W23-q2qA)1ED1 G5Nq1:523-qR1ED1:523ENq01)51D-5U1P533WAF/1
:523ENq01)519ED)1P533WAF/1

Applications of FHSS
Q/1 XYG14DqD1D-5U19NqV4qA:S1P533WAF1)51EB5W01:5>:PEAAq-1WA)qN9qNqA:q1EA01)51WA:NqEDq1)Pq1:PEAAq-1:E3E:W)S/1
Z/1 X-4q)55)P14DqD1=\YY/1O)14DqD1lU19NqV4qA:WqD1UW)P1Q^VV1P53D[Dq:/1
‘/1 ;W<T1 "1 G5D)1 591 )Pq1 ;WNq-qDD1 W<T1 D)EA0EN0D1 0q9WAq1 )PNqq1 )S3qD1 591 λPSDW:E-1 WESqN1 :5224AW:E)W5AD/1 HPqDq1 ENq1
OA9NENq01 +OYK1 (5224AW:E)W5ADL1 –WNq:)1 YqV4qA:q1 Y3NqE01 Y3q:)N421 (5224AW:E)W5ADL1 =NqV4qA:S1 \533WAF1 Y3NqE01
Y3q:)N421:5224AW:E)W5AD/1
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-32 Introduction to Mobile Computing

1.8.3 Comparison between DSSS and FHSS

Table 1.8.2 : Difference between DSSS and FHSS

NUAU)WSWAR PLLLR =HLLR

(523-qRW)S1 Y3NqE0WAF1EA010WD3NqE0WAF1WD1DW23-q/1 O)1NqV4WNqD1E1:523-qR19NqV4qA:S1DSA)PqDWbqN1

WA15N0qN1)51FqAqNE)q1)Pq1P53D/11

XEA0UW0)P1 <-UESD14DqD1)5)E-1’EA0UW0)P/1 ФDq15A-S1E135N)W5A1591)5)E-1’EA0UW0)P1E)1E1

4)W-WbE)W5A1 )W2q/11

YqDWD)EA:q1)51 –YYY1U5N8D1’qD)195N1-ENFq10E)E13E:8q)D1WA1E1-5U1)51 =\YY1U5N8D1’qD)195N1D2E--10E)E13E:8q)D1WA1

WA)qN9qNqA:q1 2q0W421WA)qN9qNqA:q1qABWN5A2qA)/1 PWFP1WA)qN9qNqA:q1qABWN5A2qA)/1

√99q:)1591 –YYY1DSD)q2D153qNE)q15BqN1UW0qN1’EA0DL1 =\YY1DSD)q2D153qNE)q1UW)P1AENN5U1’EA01

24-)W3E)P19E0WAF1 )NEAD2W))WAF1)PqWN1DWFAE-15BqN1E1FN54315919NqV4qA:WqD1 DWFAE-D1-5:E)q01EN54A010W99qNqA)1:ENNWqN1

e
DW24-)EAq54D-S/1<D1-5AF1ED1)Pq1EBqNEFq1-qBq-1591)Pq1 9NqV4qA:WqD/1O91E)1E1D3q:W9W:1252qA)L1)Pq1

g
Nq:qWBq01DWFAE-1WD1PWFP1qA54FPL1)Pq1–YYY1Nq:qWBqN1UW--1
io led =\YY1DSD)q21WD14DWAF1E1:ENNWqN19NqV4qA:S1
’q1E’-q1)510q)q:)1)Pq1NE0W51DWFAE-/11 DWFAW9W:EA)-S19E0q01ED1E1NqD4-)159124-)W3E)PL1
)Pq1=\YY1Nq:qWBqN1:54-01A5)1Fq)1qA54FP1
qAqNFS1)510q)q:)1)Pq1NE0W51DWFAE-/1
ic ow

√99q:)15910q-ES1 OA1–YYY1DSD)q2DL1)Pq1:PW33WAF13N5:qDD1FqAqNE)qD1E1 =\YY1DSD)q2D1PEBq1’q))qN1:PEA:qD1)51’q1

D3NqE01 PWFP1NE)q1)NEAD2W))q01DWFAE-/1HPq1DS2’5-D1591)PWD1 4A0WD)4N’q01’S1)Pq13NqDqA:q159124-)W3E)P1
n
)NEAD2W))q01DWFAE-1ENq124:P1DP5N)qN1[1AENN5UqN1+WA1 q99q:)D1+0q-ES1D3NqE0K/1
bl kn

)W2qK1)PEA1)Pq1DS2’5-D1FqAqNE)q01’S1EA1=\YY1
DSD)q21)NEAD2W))WAF1)Pq1DE2q10E)E1NE)q/1HPqDq1
at
Pu ch

AENN5U134-DqD1ENq125Nq1DqADW)WBq1)510q-ESD1)PEA1E1
UW0qN134-Dq14Dq01WA1=\YY1DSD)q2D/1
Te

λ5UqN1:5A)N5-1 TqEN19EN13N5’-q21qRWD)D1WA1–YYY1EA01)PqNq95Nq1 O)1WD1A5)124:P1E99q:)q01’S1AqEN19EN13N5’-q21

3Nq:WDq135UqN1:5A)N5-1WD1NqV4WNq0/11 ED1WA1–YYY1PqA:q135UqN1:5A)N5-1WD1A5)1E1
3N5’-q21

<:V4WDW)W5A1HW2q1 –4q1)51-5AF1λT1:50qD1W)1NqV4WNqD1-5AF1E:V4WDW)W5A1 O)1PED1Nq-E)WBq-S1DP5N)1E:V4WDW)W5A1)W2q1

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)Pq19NqV4qA:S1P533WAF1DSD)q2/1

Review Questions

Q. 1 What types of mobile and wireless devices are available in the market ?

Q. 2 Explain the needs of mobile communication with its applications.

Q. 3 Explain multi-path propagation and Different types of path losses and signal propagation effects in wireless
transmission.

Q. 4 Explain various wideband modulation techniques employed in cellular / mobile technologies.

Q. 5 Draw the block diagram of FHSS transmitter and receiver. Differentiate between slow hopping and fast hopping.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 1-33 Introduction to Mobile Computing

Q. 6 Explain what is spread spectrum? How spreading can be achieved? What are the merits of spread spectrum
technique?

Q. 7 Explain different methods to increase the capacity of an analog cellular system and without increasing number of
antennas.

Q. 8 What are the advantages of cellular System? Explain cellular system in detail also explain frequency reuse concept in
cellular system.

Q. 9 What do you mean by frequency reuse concept? Explain.

Q. 10 What is CDMA? How does it suit to mobile cellular systems ?

Q. 11 Discuss different multiplexing techniques.

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 99

GSM
2
9
9
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Unit II
9
9
Syllabus

2.1 GSM Mobile services, System Architecture, Radio interface, Protocols , Localization and Calling, Handover,
security (A3, A5 & A8)
2.2 GPRS system and protocol architecture
2.2 UTRAN, UMTS core network; Improvements on Core Network

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2.1 GSM
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2.1.1 GSM Overview

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(MU - Dec. 12)

Q. List and explain GSM services. (Dec. 12, 5 Marks)

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 JKA9CPzU9qDPE9D79T,H9BP-98D9R5D6z4A96DzkA9-A56zkA-98KP89P5A9kDCRP8zNEA98D9/,'X9PU49D8KA59“,JX9-2-8AC-9P898KA9-PCA9
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 T,H9z-9P9-AkDU49qAUA5P8zDU9+T9-2-8AC”95AREPkzUq98KA97z5-89qAUA5P8zDU9PUPEDq9-2-8AC-x9
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Modifications and Derivatives of GSM
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-2 GSM

o UAI,KNVNOr::7fr::m/NR9JKA9-2-8AC9-RAkz7zkP8zDU9BP-96A5z7zA49zU9D54A598D9PEEDB973835A9q5P43PE9CD4z7zkP8zDU-9PU49
UAB9zCR5D6ACAU8-x9
o UAI,KNvNOq[E]Nr::m/NRNJKA9CD4z7zkP8zDU-98D98KA9D5zqzUPE9T,HL::9P5A9NAzUq9zU85D43kA4x9
 SDEEDBzUq9P5A98KA94A5z6P8z6A-9D798KA9D5zqzUPE9T,H9L::x9

DCS 1800
 TUA9zCRD58PU89CD4z7zkP8zDU98D98KA9D5zqzUPE9T,HL::9BP-N8KA94A6AEDRCAU8ND7NFYGYHIFNIKFFCFI[N.J,HK]9F';,9W’::Ox99
 ';,9W’::9z-9R5zCP5zE294A6D8A498D98KA9DRA5P8zDU9zU9P5AP-9Bz8K9KzqK985P77zk9-3kK9P-935NPU9PU49-3N35NPU9P5AP-x99
 /89z-9kPEEA49P-9';,9zU9RUz8A49UzUq4DC9PU49“;,9zU9=DUq9UDUqx9
 JKA9CPzU94z77A5AUkA9NA8BAAU9T,HL::9PU49';,W’::9BP-9zU98KA9EDBA59RDBA59D798KA9NP-A9-8P8zDU9PU49CDNzEA9-8P8zDUx9_-9
P95A-3E898KA9kAEE9-z–A9NAkDCA-9-CPEEA5x99
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Table 2.1.1 : Difference between GSM 900 and DCS 1800

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H,9kEP--A-9 +:\9FUD89zCREACAU8A4O9 W\9FKPU4KAE4O9

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Q\9FkP5Z985PU-RD58PNEA9RKDUAO
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GSM 400
 _UD8KA59R5DCz-zUq9CD4z7zkP8zDU9PU49AUKPUkACAU89D798KA9D5zqzUPE9T,H9L::9-2-8AC9BP-9T,H9V::x9/89KP-9NAAU9DN-A56A49
8KP898KA9PUPEDq9-2-8AC-9DRA5P8zUq9zU98KA9V::9H=–9NPU4-9P5A9UDB9NAkDCzUq9PN-DE38Ax9JKA29P5A9ED-zUq98KAz59k3-8DCA5-9
P-9CD-89D798KAC9CD6A498D98KA9+T9-2-8AC-x9
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-3 GSM

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 VJ,/9-8PU4P54z–A498KA9T,H9-2-8AC9DRA5P8zUq9zU98KA9NPU49P5D3U49VQ:9PU49V’:9H=–9kPEEA49T,H9V::x9
 JKA9BKDEA9zU75P-853k835A9BzEE95ACPzU9-PCA9KDBA6A59-D78BP5A9UAA4-98D9NA9kKPUqA4x9
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Table 2.1.2 : Key milestones of the GSM system and its derivatives

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2.1.2 Mobile Services

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Fig. 2.1.1 : GSM Mobile services

 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-4 GSM

1. Bearer services
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 'z77A5AU894P8P95P8A-97D596DzkA9PU494P8P98KP89kPU9NA9PkKzA6A49P5A9Ez-8A49NAEDBx9
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 JAEA9-A56zkA-9zUkE34A9AUk52R8A496DzkA985PU-Cz--zDU”9CA--PqA9-A56zkA-”9PU49NP-zk94P8P9kDCC3UzkP8zDU9Bz8K98A5CzUPE-x9
 JKA9T,H9BP-9NP-zkPEE294A-zqUA498D9R5D6z4A9KzqK9W3PEz8294zqz8PE96DzkA985PU-Cz--zDU”9D77A5zUq9P89EAP-898KA9NPU4Bz48K99
 QxW9µ=–9D79PUPEDq9RKDUA9-2-8AC-x9
JKA96P5zD3-98AEA-A56zkA-9P5A9]9
OY/N T]K[GKTPJNTC]NK[NN
 /89z-9CPU4P8D5297D59PEE9-A56zkA9R5D6z4A5-98D9zCREACAU89VCA5qAUk29U3CNA59-A56zkAx9
 JKz-9U3CNA59z-98KA9kDCCDU9U3CNA598KP89kPU9NA93-A498K5D3qKD389kD3U852x99
 _zµA9RDEzkA9FW::O9D59PCN3EPUkA9U3CNA59PU498Kz-9U3CNA59z-975AA9D79kKP5qAx9
 JKz-9kDUUAk8zDU9KP-98KA9KzqKA-89R5zD5z829PU49BzEE9P38DCP8zkPEE29NA9-A893R9Bz8K9kED-A-89ACA5qAUk29kAU8A5x99
OYY/N .AE[HN]K,,IGKN,K[OYPK,NO.D./NN
 ,H,9PEEDB-985PU-Cz--zDU9D798AY89CA--PqA-93R98D9W[:9kKP5Pk8A5-x9
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-5 GSM

 ,H,93-A-93U3-A49kPRPkz829zU98KA9-zqUPEzUq9kKPUUAE-9zU-8AP49D79-8PU4P5494P8P9kKPUUAE-x9
 /89z-9RD--zNEA98D9-AU49D595AkAz6A9,H,9435zUq96DzkA9D594P8P985PU-Cz--zDUx9
 ,H,9kPU9NA93-A497D594z-REP2zUq95DP49kDU4z8zDU-”9AjCPzE9KAP4A5-9D59-8Dkµ9W3D8A-9A8kx9
 ,H,9P5A9PE-D93-A497D593R4P8zUq9CDNzEA9RKDUA9-D78BP5A9D597D59zCREACAU8P8zDU9D79R3-K9-A56zkA-x9
OYYY/N TTAITPKjNDK,,IGKN.K[OYPKNOTD./N
VUKPUkA49 CA--PqA9 -A56zkA9 FVH,O9 PEEDB-9 85PU-Cz--zDU9 D79 EP5qA59 CA--PqA-”9 7D5CP88A49 8AY8”9 PUzCP8A49 Rzk835A-”9 -CPEE9
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OYO/N DCFHY]KjYINDK,,IGKN,K[OYPKNODD./NN
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OO/N B[ECyNvNKIUNN
 /U98Kz-9-A56zkA”97PY94P8P9z-985PU-Cz88A49P-94zqz8PE94P8P9D6A598KA9PUPEDq98AEARKDUA9UA8BD5µ93-zUq9CD4AC-x9

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 /893-A-9/JRjJ9-8PU4P54-9JxV9PU49JxQ:97D5985PU-Cz--zDUx9

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 SPY94P8P9PU497PY9-zqUPEzUq9z-985PU-Cz88A496zP985PU-RP5AU89NAP5A59-A56zkAx9
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4. Supplementary services
 ,3RREACAU8P529-A56zkA-9D77A596P5zD3-9AUKPUkACAU8-9D798KA9-8PU4P5498AEARKDU29-A56zkA-9PU49CP296P52975DC9R5D6z4A598D9
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-A56zkA-x9
bl kn

 JKA-A9 -A56zkA-9 zUkE34A9 7PkzEz8zA-9 -3kK9 P-9 kPEE9 7D5BP54zUq”9 kPEEA59 z4AU8z7zkP8zDU”9 kPEE9 BPz8zUq”9 C3E8zjRP5829 kDU6A5-P8zDU-”9
PU49NP55zUq9D79D38qDzUq9FzU8A5UP8zDUPEO9kPEE-”9PCDUq9D8KA5-x9,DCA9-3RREACAU8P529-A56zkA-9P5A9]9
at
Pu ch

o H3E8zRP5829,A56zkA9D59kDU7A5AUkzUq99
o ;PEE9\Pz8zUq9
Te

o ;PEE9=DE49
o ;PEE9SD5BP54zUq9
o ;PEE9XP55zUq9
o X3CNA59/4AU8z7zkP8zDU9
o _46zkA9D79;KP5qA9F_D;O9
o ;ED-A49R-A59T5D3R-9F;RT-O9
o RU-853k835A49-3RREACAU8P529-A56zkA-94P8P9FR,,'O9]9JKz-9PEEDB-9DRA5P8D5j4A7zUA49zU4z6z43PE9-A56zkA-x9
Table 2.1.3 : GSM services

.K[OYPKNIIHKGE[JN .K[OYPKN
JAEA9-A56zkA-9 JAEARKDU29
VCA5qAUk29kPEE9
,KD589CA--PqA9-A56zkA-9
az4AD8AY89PkkA--9
JAEA8AY”9SPY9
=PE795P8A9-RAAkK9kD4A59
VUKPUkA4973EE95P8A99
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-6 GSM

.K[OYPKNIIHKGE[JN .K[OYPKN
XAP5A59-A56zkA-9 ,2UkK5DUD3-94P8P9
_-2UkK5DUD3-94P8P9
,2UkK5DUD3-9RPkµA894P8P9
,3RREACAU8P529-A56zkA-9 ;PEE97D5BP54zUq99
;PEE9NP55zUq9
;PEEzUq9EzUA9z4AU8z7zkP8zDU9
;DUUAk8A49EzUA9z4AU8z7zkP8zDU9
;PEE9BPz8zUq99
;PEE9KDE49
H3E8zRP5829kDCC3UzkP8zDU9

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;ED-A493-A59q5D3R9
_46zkA9D79kKP5qA9

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TRA5P8D594A8A5CzUA49kPEE9NP55zUq9
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2.1.3 GSM System Architecture
(MU - Dec. 12, May 13)
ic ow

Q. Draw a neat diagram of GSM system architecture and explain with different types of interfaces. (Dec. 12, 10 Marks)
n
Q. What is the use of HLR and VLR registers in Mobile computing? (May 13, 5 Marks)
bl kn

 Szqx9+xWx+9-KDB-98KA9-zCREz7zA496zAB9D798KA9T,H9-2-8AC9P5kKz8Ak835Ax99
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Pu ch

JKA9T,H9UA8BD5µ9P5kKz8Ak835A9kPU9NA9q5D3RA49zU8D98K5AA9CPzU9-3N9-2-8AC-9]9
Wx9 ^P4zD9-3N-2-8AC9F^,,O9
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+x9 XA8BD5µ9PU49-Bz8kKzUq9-3N-2-8AC9FX,,O9
Qx9 TRA5P8zDU9-3N-2-8AC9FT,,O9

1. Radio subsystem
^P4zD9-3N-2-8AC9kDCR5z-A-9PEE95P4zD9AU8z8zA-x9VU8z8zA-9D79^,,9P5A9AYREPzUA49NAEDBx9
(i) Base station subsystem (BSS)
 _9T,H9UA8BD5µ9kDCR5z-A-9CPU29X,,-x9
 X,,9kDU8PzU-9DUA9D59CD5A95P4zD9kAEE-”9APkK9DUA9z-9kDU85DEEA49N29P9NP-A985PU-kAz6A59-8P8zDU9FXJ,Ox9
 TUA9D59CD5A9XJ,-9zU9835U9P5A9kDU85DEEA49N29PU9AEACAU89kPEEA49XP-A9-8P8zDU9kDU85DEEA59FX,;Ox9JK3-98KA5A9P5A98BD9CPzU9
P5kKz8Ak835PE9AEACAU8-9zU9APkK9X,,9VM.9PU49V.IWN9
 V..NqCTPHYET,9P5A98D9]9
o HPzU8PzU95P4zD9kDUUAk8zDU98D9H,9
o ;D4zUqZ4AkD4zUq9D796DzkA9
o ^P8A9P4PR8P8zDU98DZ75DC98KA9Bz5AEA--9UA8BD5µ9RP589
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-7 GSM

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Fig. 2.1.2 : GSM system architecture

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(ii) Base transceiver station (BTS)

 _9XJ,9FPE-D9kPEEA49NP-A9-8P8zDUO9kDCR5z-A-9PEE95P4zD9AW3zRCAU8-”9zxAx9PU8AUUP-”9-zqUPE9R5DkA--zUq”9PCREz7zA5-9A8kx9
 XJ,9kPU97D5C9P9-zUqEA95P4zD9kAEE9D59-A6A5PE9kAEE-9N293-zUq9-Ak8D5z–A49PU8AUUP-x9
 XJ,9z-9kDUUAk8A498D9H,96zP98KA9X!NYTHK[qIPKNPU498D98KA9X,;96zP98KA9Y"#$NYTHK[qIPKx9
 KCTPHYET,NEqNVM.9P5A9]9
o VUkD4zUq”9AUk52R8zUq”9C3E8zREAYzUq”9CD43EP8zUq”9PU497AA4zUq98KA9^S9-zqUPE-98D98KA9PU8AUUP9
o J5PU-kD4zUq9PU495P8A9P4PR8P8zDU9
o JzCA9PU4975AW3AUk29-2UkK5DUz–P8zDU9
o aDzkA98K5D3qK973EEj9D59KPE7j5P8A9-A56zkA-9
o 'AkD4zUq”94Ak52R8zUq”9PU49AW3PEz–zUq95AkAz6A49-zqUPE-9
o ^PU4DC9PkkA--94A8Ak8zDU9
o RREzUµ9kKPUUAE9CAP-35ACAU8-9
(iii) Base station controller (BSC)
 JKA9X,;9CPUPqA-98KA95P4zD95A-D35kA-97D59DUA9D59CD5A9XJ,-x9N
 KCTPHYET,NEqNV.I9P5A9]9
o =PU4EA-95P4zD9kKPUUAE9-A83R”975AW3AUk29KDRRzUq”9PU49KPU4D6A5-x9
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-8 GSM

o _--zqU-9PU495AEAP-A-975AW3AUkzA-9PU498zCA9-ED8-97D598KA9H,x9
o =PU4EA-9zU8A59kAEE9KPU4D6A5x9
o ;DU85DE-98KA9RDBA5985PU-Cz--zDU9D798KA9X,,9PU49H,9zU9z8-9P5APx9
 YjjYHYETIFNqCTPHYET,9zUkE34A9]9
o “A57D5CzUq985P77zk9kDUkAU85P8zDU98D95A43kA98KA9U3CNA59D79EzUA-975DC98KA9H,;9
o ^APEEDkP8zDU9D7975AW3AUkzA-9PCDUq9XJ,-9
o JzCA9PU4975AW3AUk29-2UkK5DUz–P8zDU9
o “DBA59CPUPqACAU89
o JzCAj4AEP29CAP-35ACAU8-9D795AkAz6A49-zqUPE-975DC98KA9H,9
(iv) Mobile station (MS)
 JKA9H,9kDCR5z-A-9PEE93-A59KP54BP5A9PU49-D78BP5A9UAA4A497D59kDCC3UzkP8zDU9Bz8K9P9T,H9UA8BD5µx9

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H,9kDU-z-8-9D798BD9AEACAU8-9CDNzEA9AW3zRCAU89FHVO9PU49,/Hx9
 HDNzEA9AW3zRCAU89FHVO9z-98KA9KP54BP5A98KP89z-98KA9CDNzEA9KPU4-A8x99
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 ,/H9-8D5A-9PEE93-A59-RAkz7zk94P8P95AEA6PU898D9T,Hx9
n
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bl kn

 _EE98KA94P8P9EzµA9,H,”9kDU8Pk89U3CNA5-9P5A9PE-D9-8D5A49zU9,/H9kP54x9

at

R-A59-RAkz7zk973Uk8zDU-9EzµA9kKP5qzUq”9P38KAU8zkP8zDU9P5A9PE-D9NP-A49DU98KA9,/Hx9
Pu ch

 \z8KD389,/H9DUE29ACA5qAUk29kPEE-9P5A9RD--zNEAx9

Te

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 YNUK[,ETIFNZjKTHYqYPIHYETNQC]NK[NOUZQ/[NUZQNXTNFEPbYTGN\KJYTGNOUX\/[9PU9ICHAKTHYPIHYETNbKJN\#9PU498KA9ZTHK[TIHYETIFN
DENYFKN.CN,P[YNK[NZjKTHYHJNOZD.Z/x99999
 JKA9CDNzEA9-8P8zDU9PE-D9-8D5A-98KA942UPCzk9zU7D5CP8zDU9BKzEA9EDqqA49DU8D98KA9T,H9-2-8AC9-3kK9P-9PYyAK[NbKJN\%#PU49P9
MK]yE[I[JNDENYFKN.CN,P[YNK[NZjKTHYHJNOMD.Z/”9PU498KA9REPIHYETNY[KINZjKTHYqYPIHYETNORYZ/x!
2. Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS)
 JKA9X,,9kDUUAk8-98KA95P4zD9UA8BD5µ9Bz8K98KA9-8PU4P549R3NEzk9CDNzEA9UA8BD5µ-x9
 JKA9X,,9zUkE34A-98KA9CPzU9-Bz8kKzUq973Uk8zDU-9D79T,H”9zCRD58PU894P8PNP-A-9F-3kK9P-9=_^”9a_^O95AW3z5A498D9CPUPqA9
3-A59R5D7zEA9PU493-A59CDNzEz82x9
 JKA9X,,9kDU8PzU-98KA97DEEDBzUq973Uk8zDUPE9AEACAU8-x9
(i) Mobile service switching center (MSC)
 H,;9z-98KA9KAP589D798KA9T,H9P5kKz8Ak835Ax99
 JKA29P5A9KzqKjRA57D5CPUkA94zqz8PE9/,'X9-Bz8kKA-x9
 VPkK9H,;9kDU85DE-9DUA9D59CD5A9X,,-x9
 H,;9-A8-93R98KA9kDUUAk8zDU-98D9D8KA59H,;-9PU498D98KA9X,;-96zP98KA9YNYTHK[qIPKx99
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-9 GSM

The MSC performs following functions

o ,Bz8kKzUq9D79kPEE-9NA8BAAU98KA9CDNzEA9PU49D8KA597zYA49D59CDNzEA9UA8BD5µ93-A5-9
o HPUPqACAU89D79CDNzEA9-A56zkA-9
o ^Aqz-85P8zDU9
o _38KAU8zkP8zDU9
o _DkP8zDU93R4P8zUq9
o =PU4D6A5-9
o ;PEE95D38zUq98D9P95DPCzUq9-3N-k5zNA59
o JDEE98zkµA8zUq9
o XA8BD5µ9zU8A57PkzUq9
o ;DCCDU9kKPUUAE9-zqUPEzUq9
 H,;-9P5A9kDUUAk8A49Bz8K9APkK9D8KA59PU49PE-D98D98KA9TP8ABP29H,;-9FTH,;Ox9

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 BIHKxIJND.I9z-95A-RDU-zNEA97D59kDCC3UzkP8zDU9Bz8K98KA9AY8A5UPE97zYA49UA8BD5µ-9-3kK9P-9“,JX9PU49/,'Xx9

g
 H,;9kPU9PE-D9kDUUAk898D9R3NEzk94P8P9UA8BD5µ-9F“'XO9-3kK9P-9Yx+Q9N293-zUq9P44z8zDUPE9zU8A5BD5µzUq973Uk8zDU-9F/\SOx!
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(ii) Home Location Register (HLR)
 JKA9=_^95Aqz-8A59z-98KA9kAU85PE94P8PNP-A98KP89-8D5A-9PU49CPUPqA-98KA9RA5CPUAU89zU7D5CP8zDU9D798KA9-3N-k5zNA5x9
ic ow

 \KAU9PU9zU4z6z43PE9N32-9P9-3N-k5zR8zDU9zU98KA97D5C9D79,/H”9PEE98KA9zU7D5CP8zDU9PND3898Kz-9-3N-k5zR8zDU9z-95Aqz-8A5A49zU9
8KA9=_^9D798KP89DRA5P8D5x9
n
 =_^9kDU8PzU-98KA97DEEDBzUq9-8P8zk9PU4942UPCzk9zU7D5CP8zDUx9
bl kn

OI/N .HIHYPNYTqE[]IHYETN
o
at

HDNzEA9-3N-k5zNA59/,'X9U3CNA59FH,/,'XO99
Pu ch

o /U8A5UP8zDUPE9CDNzEA9-3N-k5zNA59z4AU8z829F/H,/O9
o
Te

_z-89D79-A56zkA-98D9BKzkK93-A59KP-9-3N-k5zNA49-3kK9P-9kPEE97D5BP54zUq”95DPCzUq95A-85zk8zDU”9T“^,9A8kx9
 _EE98KA-A93-A5j-RAkz7zk9zU7D5CP8zDU9z-9AU8A5A49DUkA97D59APkK93-A59zU9P9-zUqEA9=_^9P898KA98zCA9D79-3N-k5zR8zDUx9
 =_^9PE-D9CPzU8PzU-9-DCA942UPCzk9zU7D5CP8zDU98KP89z-93-A497D59EDkP8zUq98KA93-A5x9
ON/N FJTI]YPNYTqE[]IHYETN
o JKA9k355AU89EDkP8zDU9P5AP9F__O9D79H,9
o JKA9CDNzEA9-3N-k5zNA595DPCzUq9U3CNA59FH,^XO9
o ;355AU89a_^9PU49H,;9
 _-9 -DDU9 P-9 H,9 EAP6A-9 z8-9 k355AU89 __”9 8KA9 a_^9 8KP89 z-9 k355AU8E29 5A-RDU-zNEA9 7D59 8KA9 H,9 zU7D5C-9 =_^9 PND389 z8-9 UAB9
EDkP8zDUx9
(iii) Visitor Location Register (VLR)
 JKA9a_^9z-9P--DkzP8A498D9APkK9H,;x9
 /89z-9P94P8PNP-A9kDU8PzUzUq95AkD54-9D79PEE9CDNzEA9-8P8zDU-9k355AU8E295Aqz-8A5A49Bz8K98KA9P88PkKA49H,;x9
 \KAU9P9CDNzEA9-8P8zDU95DPC-9zU8D9P9UAB9H,;9P5AP”98KA9a_^9kDUUAk8A498D98KP89H,;9BzEE95AW3A-894P8P9PND3898KA9CDNzEA9
-8P8zDU975DC98KA9=_^x99
 _P8A59z798KA9CDNzEA9-8P8zDU9CPµA-9P9kPEE”98KA9a_^9UAA49UD89kDU8Pk89=_^9APkK98zCA9-zUkA98KA9a_^9KP-9PEE98KA9zU7D5CP8zDU9
UAA4A498D9-A893R98KA9kPEEx99
 JKA9a_^9P6Dz4-98KA975AW3AU89=_^9PkkA--Z3R4P8A-”9P-9PEE98KA93-A59zU7D5CP8zDU95AW3z5A49z-9P6PzEPNEA9zU9a_^x9
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-10 GSM

3. Operation Sub System (OSS)

 JKA9T,,9z-98KA973Uk8zDUPE9AU8z829BKzkK9z-93-A498D9CDUz8D59PU49kDU85DE98KA9D6A5PEE9T,H9UA8BD5µx99
 /89z-9PE-D93-A498D9kDU85DE98KA985P77zk9EDP49D798KA9X,,x9
 T,,9kDU8PzU-98KA97DEEDBzUq9AU8z8zA-x9
(i) Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC)
 JKA9DRA5P8zDU-9PU49CPzU8AUPUkA9kAU8A59FTH;O9z-9kDUUAk8A498D9PEE9AW3zRCAU89zU98KA9-Bz8kKzUq9-2-8AC9PU498D98KA9X,;x9
 JKA9TH;9CDUz8D5-9PU49kDU85DE-9PEE9D8KA59UA8BD5µ9AU8z8zA-96zP98KA9!"#$%&'()*&x9
 =A5A9P5A9-DCA9D798KA9TH;973Uk8zDU-9]9
o _4CzUz-85P8zDU9PU49kDCCA5kzPE9DRA5P8zDU9F-3N-k5zR8zDU”9AU498A5CzUPE-”9kKP5qzUq9PU49-8P8z-8zk-Ox9
o ,Ak35z829HPUPqACAU8x9
o XA8BD5µ9kDU7zq35P8zDU”9TRA5P8zDU9PU49“A57D5CPUkA9HPUPqACAU8x9

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(ii) Authentication Center (AUC)

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JKA9_38KAU8zkP8zDU9;AU8A59z-9P9R5D8Ak8A494P8PNP-A98KP89-8D5A-9P9kDR29D798KA9-Ak5A89µA29-8D5A49zU9APkK9-3N-k5zNA5b-9,/H9
kP54”9BKzkK9z-93-A497D59P38KAU8zkP8zDU9PU49kzRKA5zUq9D798KA95P4zD9kKPUUAEx9
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bl kn

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3-A59P38KAU8zkP8zDU9zU98KA9=_^x99
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Pu ch

(iii) Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

 JKA9VW3zRCAU89/4AU8z829^Aqz-8A59FV/^O9z-9P94P8PNP-A98KP89kDU8PzU-9P9Ez-89D79PEE96PEz49CDNzEA9AW3zRCAU8-9DU98KA9UA8BD5µx9
Te

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 JKA9V/^9KP-9P9NEPkµ9Ez-89D79-8DEAU9CDNzEA94A6zkA-x9
 /79P9RP58zk3EP59CDNzEA9z-9-8DEAU9D59z-9UD8982RA9PRR5D6A498KAU9kD55A-RDU4zUq9/HV/9z-9CP5µA49P-9zU6PEz49zU98KA9V/^x9

2.1.4 GSM Radio Interfaces (MU - Dec. 15)

Q. Explain the Um interface of GSM. (Dec. 15, 5 Marks)

'z77A5AU89AEACAU8-9D79T,H9UA8BD5µ9kDCC3UzkP8A98D9APkK9D8KA593-zUq9BAEE94A7zUA49zU8A57PkA9NA8BAAU98KACx9
X]NZTHK[qIPKNRN
 JKA!X!NYTHK[qIPK!z-98KA!IY[NYTHK[qIPK!7D598KA!B.D!CDNzEA98AEARKDUA9-8PU4P54xN
 /89z-98KA!YTHK[qIPK!NA8BAAU98KA9CDNzEA9-8P8zDU9FH,O9PU498KA9XP-A985PU-kAz6A59-8P8zDU9FXJ,Ox9N
 /89z-9kPEEA4!X]!NAkP3-A9z89z-98KA9CDNzEA9PUPEDq98D98KA9R!YTHK[qIPK!D79/,'Xx!!
 X]Nz-!jKqYTKj!zU98KA!B.D!:VxYY9PU49:QxYY9-A5zA-9D79-RAkz7zkP8zDU-xN
 JKA9T,H9Pz59zU8A57PkA9z-9NP-A49DU9JzCA9'z6z-zDU9H3E8zREA9_kkA--9FJ'H_O9Bz8K9S5AW3AUk29'z6z-zDU9'3REAY9FS''Ox9N
 J'H_9 PEEDB-9 C3E8zREA9 3-A5-9 8D9 -KP5A9 P9 kDCCDU9 ^S9 kKPUUAE9 DU9 P9 8zCAj-KP5zUq9 NP-z-”9 BKzEA9 S''9 AUPNEA-9 4z77A5AU89
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-11 GSM

 HD-89D798KA9zCREACAU8P8zDU-93-A9P975AW3AUk29NPU49D79L::9H=–x9JKA9D8KA594A5z6P8z6A9D79T,H9z-9kPEEA49'zqz8PE9kAEE3EP59
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-12 GSM

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2.1.5 GSM Protocols and Signaling Architecture

(MU - May 14)

Q. Explain the GSM protocol architecture. (May 14, 10 Marks)

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The MS to BTS Protocols

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2.1.6(b) Registration and Location Update

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 ^Aqz-85P8zDU98PµA-9REPkA9z798KA9_DkP8zDU9_5AP9/4AU8z829F__/O9U3CNA595AkAz6A49N298KA9H,975DC98KA9XJ,9z-94z77A5AU898KPU9
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-16 GSM

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Fig. 2.1.5 : Registration and location update

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-17 GSM

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2.1.6(c) Mobile Terminated Call (MTC)

e
(MU - May 14, Dec. 15)

g
Q. Describe the call initiation and call termination procedure in GSM systems.
io led (May 14, 10 Marks)
Q. Explain Mobile Call termination in GSM, detailing the need and the use of MSRN, IMSI, TMSI nos.
(Dec. 15, 10 Marks)
ic ow

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at

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Pu ch

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Te

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-18 GSM

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9
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Fig. 2.1.7 : Message flow for MTC

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-19 GSM

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2.1.6(d) Mobile Originated Call (MOC) (MU - May 16, Dec. 16)

Q. Explain how Mobile Originated Call (MOC) work. (May 16, Dec. 16, 10 Marks)

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Fig. 2.1.8 : Mobile originated call

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-20 GSM

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Fig. 2.1.9 : Message flow for MOC


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2.1.7 Handover in GSM

(MU - May 15, May 16)
Q. Explain various types of handoffs in GSM network. (May 15, 5 Marks)
Q. What are the different types of handover in GSM ?Explain in detail intra-MSC handover ? (May 16, 10 Marks)

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-21 GSM

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Fig. 2.1.10 : Handover scenario in GSM

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at
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85P77zk9EDP49zU98KA9kAEE9D598D9zCR5D6A98KA9W3PEz829D798KA9kDUUAk8zDU9N29kKPUqzUq98KA9kP55zA5975AW3AUk29F-kAUP5zD9WOx9
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Te

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8KA9UAB9kAEE9PU495AEAP-A-9DE49DUA9F-kAUP5zD9+Ox9
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-22 GSM

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CAP-35ACAU8-9D798KA9W[9-85DUqA-89kP55zA5-985PU-Cz88zUq98KA9X;;=x9
at
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2.1.8 GSM Security (MU - May 12, Dec. 14, May 15, Dec. 16)
Te

Q. What are the functions of Authentication and Encryption in GSM ? (May 12, 10 Marks)
Q. Describe how data encryption is done is GSM system, with diagram explaining the role of SIM, A3, A5 and A8
algorithm. (Dec. 14, 10 Marks)
Q. Write a short note on Privacy and authentication in GSM. (May 15, 10 Marks)
Q. Explain in detail how Subscriber Authentication is done GSM. (Dec. 16, 10 Marks)

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-A56zkA-9D77A5A49N29T,H9P5A9AYREPzUA49P-97DEEDB-x9
1. Access control and authentication

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2. Confidentiality

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-23 GSM

3. Anonymity
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Authentication
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 _38KAU8zkP8zDU9R5DkA--93-A-9kKPEEAUqAj5A-RDU-A9CA8KD4x99
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Fig. 2.1.12 : Authentication in GSM

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-24 GSM

3. The MS computes the 32-bit signed response (SRES) based on the random number (RAND) with the
authentication algorithm (A3) using the individual subscriber authentication key (Ki).
4. MS sends this SRES to the MSC.
5. Similarly, access control also calculates the signed response called SRES.
6. Now MSC compares the values of signed response received by AC and MS. If the values are same then the
subscriber is accepted, otherwise subscriber is rejected.
Encryption

To ensure privacy, all messages containing user-related information are encrypted in GSM over the air interface.
 Once authentication is done, MS and BSS can initiate encryption.
 Steps involved in Encryption process are described in Fig. 2.1.13.

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Fig. 2.1.13 : Data encryption in GSM

 The SIM and access control (AC) generate the 64 bit cipher key Kc by using the authentication key Ki and 128 bit
random number RAND and applying algorithm A8.
 The MS and BTS can now encrypt and decrypt data using algorithm A5 and the cipher key Kc.
 The Kc which is 64 bit is not very strong but just enough to provide protection against simple eavesdropping.
 In certain implementations it so happen that 10 out of 64 bits are always set to 0, so that the real length of the key
now is only 54. Hence the encryption is much weaker.

2.2 General Packet Radio System (GPRS)

(MU - May 12, Dec. 12, Dec. 13, Dec. 14)

Q. How much of the original GSM network does GPRS need? Which elements of the network perform the data transfer?

(May 12, 5 Marks)

Q. Short note on GPRS. (Dec. 12, 5 Marks)

 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-25 GSM

Q. Which components are new in GPRS as compared to GSM ? What is their purpose? (Dec. 13, 10 Marks)

Q. What are the modifications require to an existing GSM network to be upgraded to GPRS ? Explain with the help of
diagram. (Dec. 14, 10 Marks)

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Table 2.1.3 : GPRS data rates

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Key Features of GPRS

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9
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-26 GSM

2.2.1 Architecture
(MU - May 12, May 13, Dec. 13, Dec. 14, May 15, May 16, Dec. 16)
Q. Draw and explain architecture of GPRS network. (May 12, 5 Marks)
Q. Draw a neat diagram of GPRS system architecture and explain with different types of interfaces. (May 13, 10 Marks)
Q. Which components are new in GPRS as compared to GSM ? What is their purpose ? (Dec. 13, 10 Marks)
Q. What are the modifications required by an existing GSM network to be upgraded to GPRS ? Explain with the help of
diagram. (Dec. 14, May 16, Dec. 16, 10 Marks)
Q. Explain GPRS architecture in detail. Compare it with GSM architecture. (May 15, 10 Marks)

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Fig. 2.2.1 : GPRS Network architecture

Fig. 2.2.2 : Upgrading GSM to GPRS Diagram

 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-27 GSM

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1. GPRS Support Nodes (GSNs)
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3. Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)

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4. Packet Control Unit (PCU)
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-28 GSM

6. Charging Gateway (CG)

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11. GPRS Interfaces

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-29 GSM

(x) Gs interface : Between SGSN and MSC/VLR is used to perform paging request of circuit switched GSM call for
combined attachment procedure.
(xi) Gd interface : Between SMS-Gateway (SMS-GMSC) and SGSN is used to exchange short message service (SMS)
messages.
(xii) GPRS Tunneling protocol (GTP) : All GSNs forming a GPRS backbone network are connected over IP. Within this
backbone the GSNs encapsulate and transmit PDN packets by using GPRS Tunneling Protocol (GTP).

2.2.2 GPRS Protocol Stack

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Fig. 2.2.3 : GPRS protocol architecture

The following various protocols are involved in GPRS :

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1. GPRS tunneling protocol (GTP)

It is responsible for all the data transfer between GSNs.
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2. TCP/UDP
 Depending on the requirement, GTP can use either TCP or UDP as the transport layer protocol.
 UDP is used in case non-reliable data transfer is required (IP packet transfer).
 TCP is used in case reliable data transfer is required (X.25 packet transfer).
3. Subnetwork dependent convergence protocol (SNDCP)
 It is used between the SGSN and the MS to adapt to the characteristics of the underlying networks.
 User data packet is tunneled between the MS and the GGSN on top of SNDCP and GTP.
4. Logical link control
 It is used to provide reliable data transfer between the MS and the SGSN.
 It comprises ARQ and FEC mechanism for PTP (Point-To-Point) services.
5. Base station subsystem GPRS protocol (BSSGP)
 This protocol is used to convey routing and QoS-related information between the BSS and SGSN.
 It works on the top of a frame relay (FR).
6. Radio link protocol (RLC)
It is responsible for providing a reliable link between the MS and the BSS.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-30 GSM

7. Medium access control (MAC)

 It is responsible for controlling the medium access and the signaling procedure for the radio channel.
 Performs mapping of the LLC frames onto the GSM physical channels.

2.2.3 Comparison of GPRS Architecture with GSM Architecture

 The existing GSM nodes are upgraded with GPRS functionality.
 The GSM network only provides circuit switched services and thus two new network nodes GSN (GPRS Support Nodes)
nodes were defined to support packet switched services. They are GGSN and SGSN.
 GPRS uses GSM’s BSS but with enhanced functionality to support GPRS. The GSMs BSS now is used for both circuit
switched and packet switched network elements to ensure backward compatibility.
 Additional PCU (Packet control Unit) unit has been added to BSC to segregate voice and data packets.
 Circuit switched data are sent to A interface on the MSC and packet switched data are sent to the SGSN into the GPRS
backbone.

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Advantages of GPRS
 Very flexible.
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 Suitable for bursty Internet traffic and fully packet oriented.

 Better quality of data services measured in terms of reliability, response time.
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 No connection is required to be set up prior to data transfer.

 All GPRS services can be used in parallel to the conventional GSM services.
 Users of GPRS benefit from shorter access times and higher data rates.
 GPRS packet transmission offers a more user friendly billing than that offered by circuit switched services.
Disadvantages of GPRS
 The real available data rate depends on the current load of the cell as GPRS only uses idle time slots.
 Additional network elements are required to implement GPRS.
 GPRS exhibits a large jitter as compared to fixed networks.
Application of GPRS
1. Communications : E-mail, fax, unified messaging and intranet/Internet access etc.
2. Value-added services : Information services and games etc.
3. E-commerce : Retail, ticket purchasing, banking and financial trading etc.
4. Location-based applications : Navigation, traffic conditions, airline/rail schedules and location finder etc.
5. Vertical applications : Freight delivery, fleet management and sales-force automation.
6. Advertising : Advertising may be location sensitive. For example, a user entering a mall can receive advertisements
specific to the stores in that mall.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-31 GSM

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2.3 UMTS Terrestrial Radio Active Network (UTRAN)

2.3.1 UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) Core Network
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2.3.2 UMTS System Architecture

(MU - May 12, May 15)

Q. Write a short note on UMTS architecture and its domain. (May 12, 5 Marks)
Q. Explain UMTS architecture. (May 15, 5 Marks)

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Fig. 2.3.1 : Main components of the UMTS reference architecture

 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-32 GSM

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-33 GSM

Fig. 2.3.2 : UMTS domain and interfaces

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 JKA9gE]KNTKHxE[bNjE]IYT9kDU8PzU-9PEE973Uk8zDU-95AEP8A498D98KA9KDCA9UA8BD5µ9D79P93-A597D59AYPCREA”93-A594P8P9EDDµj
3R”93-A59R5D7zEAx9
 /798KA9-A56zUq9UA8BD5µ9kPUUD894z5Ak8E29kDU8Pk898KA9KDCA9UA8BD5µ98KAU9H[IT,YHNTKHxE[bNjE]IYT9CP29NA93-A4x9
UMTS radio interface
 JKA9RHJ,94A7zUA-9P9UAB95P4zD9zU8A57PkA9#$%NA8BAAU98KA93-A59AW3zRCAU89PU498KA9RJ^_9UA8BD5µx9
 JKA9RHJ,93-A-94z5Ak89-AW3AUkA9F',O9;'H_98AkKUDEDq2x9
 /U9',j;'H_9APkK93-A59z-9-ARP5P8A493-zUq9P9-RAkzPE9kD4A9kPEEA49kKzRRzUq9-AW3AUkAx999
 /89C3E8zREzA-9P9-85APC9D79Nz8-9Bz8K9P9kKzRRzUq9-AW3AUkA98D9-R5AP4-98KA9-zqUPEx9
 JD9-ARP5P8A94z77A5AU893-A5-98KA9kD4A-98KA9kD4A-98KP89P5A93-A497D59-R5AP4zUq9-KD3E49NA9D58KDqDUPEx9
 _EE9-zqUPE-93-A98KA9-PCA975AW3AUk29NPU4x9RHJ,93-A-98KA9kDU-8PU89kKzRRzUq95P8A9D79Qx’V9HkKzR-Z-x99
 'z77A5AU894P8P95P8A-9kPU9NA9PkKzA6A49N293-zUq94z77A5AU89-R5AP4zUq97Pk8D5-x9,R5AP4zUq97Pk8D59z-94A7zUA49P-98KA9U3CNA59D79
kKzR-9RA59Nz8x9
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-34 GSM

 Szqx9+xQxQ9-KDB-9NP-zk9z4AP9D79-R5AP4zUq9PU49-ARP5P8zDU9D793-A594P8P93-zUq9D58KDqDUPE9-R5AP4zUq9kD4A-x9
 JKA97z5-89-8AR9z-9-R5AP4zUq98KA93-A594P8P93-zUq9D58KDqDUPE9-R5AP4zUq9kD4A-x9

g e
Fig. 2.3.3 : Spreading and scrambling of user data
io led
 RHJ,93-A-9D58KDqDUPE96P5zPNEA9-R5AP4zUq97Pk8D59FTa,SO9kD4A-x9
Working of OVSF
ic ow

 T58KDqDUPE9kD4A-9P5A9qAUA5P8A49N294D3NEzUq9P9kKzRRzUq9-AW3AUkA9c9Bz8K9PU49Bz8KD3897EzRRzUq98KA9-zqU9D798KA9kKzRx99

n
SD59 AYPCREA9 z79 P9 kKzRRzUq9 -AW3AUkA9 z-9 c9 8KA9 UAY89 -A89 D79 D58KDqDUPE9 kD4A-9 BD3E49 NA9 Fc”cO9 PU49 Fc”jcO9 P-9 -KDBU9 zU99
bl kn

Szqx9+xQxV9FPOx9
at
Pu ch
Te

Fig. 2.3.4 (a) : Generation of orthogonal codes

Fig. 2.3.4 (b) : Generation of orthogonal codes

 XDB9 kKzRRzUq9 -AW3AUkA9 cc9 z-9 4D3NEA49 Bz8KD389 7EzRRzUq9 8KA9 -zqU-9 PU49 Bz8K9 7EzRRzUq9 8KA9 -zqU-x9 \A9 qA89 8BD9 CD5A9 -A8-9
Fc”c”c”cO9PU49Fc”c”jc”jcO9FSzqx9+xQxV9FNOOx!
 JKA9BKDEA9R5DkA--9D79qAUA5P8zUq9Ta,S9kD4A-9z-9-KDBU9zU9Szqx9+xQxQ9P--3CzUq98KA9-8P58zUq9kKzRRzUq9-AW3AUkA9P-9Wx9
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-35 GSM

g e
Fig. 2.3.5 : OVSF code tree used for orthogonal spreading

io led
'D3NEzUq98KA9kKzRRzUq9-AW3AUkA9PE-D95A-3E8-9zU9-R5AP4zUq98KA9Nz898BzkA9P-9C3kK9P-9NA7D5Ax9JKA9-R5AP4zUq97Pk8D59,SmU9
NAkDCA-9,Sm+Ux9
 JBD9kD4A-9P5A9D58KDqDUPE9P-9EDUq9P-9DUA9kD4A9z-9UD898KA9RP589D79PUD8KA59kD4Ax9JK3-9D58KDqDUPEz829kPU9NA9q3P5PU8AA49z79
ic ow

DUA9kD4A9z-9UD89qAUA5P8A4975DC98KA9D8KA59kD4Ax9
 JK3-9z79P9-AU4A593-A-98KA9kD4A9FW”nWO9Bz8K9-R5AP4zUq97Pk8D59P-9+”9z89z-9UD89PEEDBA498D93-A9PU29D798KA9kD4A-9EDkP8A499zU98KA9
n
-3N985AA9qAUA5P8A49D389D79FW”nWOx9
bl kn

Supporting different data rates


at

RHJ,93-A-9kDU-8PU89kKzRRzUq95P8A9D79Qx’VHkKzRZ-x9
Pu ch

 'z77A5AU894P8P95P8A-9P5A9PkKzA6A49N296P52zUq9-R5AP4zUq97Pk8D5x99
 /798KA9kKzRRzUq95P8A9z-9kDU-8PU89PU49z79BA94D3NEA98KA9-R5AP4zUq97Pk8D598Kz-9BzEE95A-3E89zU9-R5AP4zUq98KA9Nz898BzkA9P-9C3kK9
Te

P-9NA7D5Ax9JK3-”9z894z6z4A-98KA94P8P95P8A9N298BDx9!
 JK3-”9N293-zUq94z77A5AU89-R5AP4zUq97Pk8D5-9BA9kPU9PkKzA6A94z77A5AU894P8P95P8A-x!
Spreading and scrambling of user data
 _-9 -KDBU9 zU9 Szqx9 +xQxQ9 APkK9 3-A59 -R5AP4-9 z8-9 4P8P9 -85APC9 3-zUq9 Ta,S9 kD4Ax9 _78A59 -R5AP4zUq”9 PEE9 kKzR9 -85APC-9 P5A9
-3CCA493R9PU49-k5PCNEA4x9,k5PCNEzUq9z-9UD8KzUq9N389cT^zUq9kKzR-9NP-A49DU9P9kD4Ax9
 /U98KA9S''9CD4A”98KA9-k5PCNEzUq9kD4A9z-93UzW3A97D59APkK9-AU4A5x9JK3-”9KA5A9-k5PCNEzUq9kD4A9z-93-A498D9-ARP5P8A-9PEE9
-AU4A5-9zU9P9kAEEx9
 _78A59-k5PCNEzUq98KA9-zqUPE-9D794z77A5AU89-AU4A5-9P5A9W3P–zjD58KDqDUPE-x9
 SD59J''98KA9-k5PCNEzUq9kD4A9z-9kAEE9-RAkz7zk9zxAx9PEE98KA9-8P8zDU-9zU9P9kAEE93-A98KA9-PCA9-k5PCNEzUq9kD4Ax9
 JKA9-k5PCNEA49kKzR-9P5A98KAU9CD43EP8A493-zUq9l“,U9PU498KAU985PU-Cz88A4x!

2.3.2(a) UTRA – FDD (W-CDMA)

MU - May 13, May 15)

Q. Explain UTRA FDD in detail. (May 13, May 15, 5 Marks)

 JKA9S''9CD4A97D59RJ^_93-A-9Bz4ANPU49;'H_9F\j;'H_O9Bz8K94z5Ak89-AW3AUkA9-R5AP4zUqx9
 /U9S''”93REzUµ9PU494DBUEzUµ93-A-94z77A5AU8975AW3AUkzA-x9
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-36 GSM

Features of W-CDMA
 1920-1980 MHz uplink
 2110-2170 MHz downlink
 Uses constant chipping rate of 3.840 Mchip/s
 Provides soft handover
 Uses QPSK for modulation
 Requires complex power control (1500 power control cycles/s)
 Spreading : Up Link : 4-256;Down Link:4-512
UTRA-FDD Frame structure
 Fig. 2.3.6 shows UTRA-FDD frame structure.
 A radio frame contains 15 time slots. The duration of each frame is 10 msec.

e
 A radio frame consists of 38,400 chips.

g
 Each time slot is of 666.6 µs and consists of 2,560 chips.
io led
 Each W-CDMA channel occupies 4.4 to 5 MHz bandwidth.
 Time slots in W-CDMA are not used for user separation but to support periodic functions. In contrast to GSM where
time slots are used to separate users.
ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te

FBI : Feedback Information

TPC : Transmit Power Control
TFCI : Transport Format Combination Indicator
DPCCH : Dedicated Physical Control Channel
DPDCH : Dedicated Physical Data Channel
DPCH : Dedicated Physical Channel

Fig. 2.3.6 : UTRA –FDD (W-CDMA) frame structure

Similar to GSM, UMTS also defines many logical and physical channels and their mapping.
Physical Channels in UMTS
 UMTS supports three physical channels which are used for data transport.
o Dedicated Physical Data Channel (DPDCH)
o Dedicated Physical Control Channel (DPCCH)
o Dedicated Physical Channel (DPCH)
 And additionally a Random Access Channel (RACH) to control the media access in uplink.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-37 GSM

1. Dedicated Physical Data Channel (DPDCH)

 JKz-9kKPUUAE9z-93-A497D5985PU-7A55zUq93-A594P8P9PU49-zqUPEzUq94P8Px9
 JKA9-R5AP4zUq97Pk8D59D798Kz-9kKPUUAE9kPU96P529NA8BAAU9V9PU49+Q[x9JKz-94z5Ak8E29-3RRD58-94z77A5AU894P8P95P8A-x9
 JPNEA9+xQxW94A-k5zNA-94z77A5AU89-R5AP4zUq97Pk8D5-9PU49kD55A-RDU4zUq94P8P95P8A9-3RRD58A49N29'“';=x9
Table 2.3.1 : Spreading and corresponding data rates supported by DPDCH

.y[KIjYTGNqIPHE[N FIHIN[IHKNObNYH,_,/N
V9 L[:9
’9 V’:9
W[9 +V:9
Q+9 W+:9

e
[V9 [:9

g
io led W+’9 Q:9
+Q[9 WQ9

 JK3-”9CPYzC3C94P8P95P8A9-3RRD58A49z-9L[:9µNz8Z-9Bz8K9-R5AP4zUq97Pk8D59Vx9
ic ow

 JKA9 R5DNEAC9 D79 3-zUq9 T,aS9 z-9 8KP89 DUE29 kA58PzU9 C3E8zREzA-9 D79 8KA9 NP-zk9 4P8P9 5P8A9 FzxAx9 WQ9 µNz8Z-O9 kPU9 NA9 3-A4x99
SD59 AYPCREA”9 +Q:9 µNz8Z-9 4P8P9 5P8A9 z-9 5AW3z5A49 8KAU9 8KA9 4A6zkA9 KP-9 8D9 kKDD-A9 V’:9 µNz8Z-”9 BKzkK9 BP-8A-9 8KA9
n
NPU4Bz48Kx9
bl kn

 /U9 APkK9 kDUUAk8zDU9 zU9 EP2A5W”9 z89 kPU9 KP6A9 NA8BAAU9 –A5D9 PU49 -zY9 '“';=-x9 JKz-9 5A-3E8-9 zU9 P9 8KAD5A8zkPE9 CPYzC3C9
4P8P95P8A9D79Q”"V:9µNz8Z-9FL[:99[9m9Q”"V:Ox9
at
Pu ch

 JPNEA9+xQx+9-KDB-982RzkPE93-A594P8P95P8A-98DqA8KA59Bz8K98KA95AW3z5A494P8P95P8A-9DU98KA9RK2-zkPE9kKPUUAEx9
Table 2.3.2 : UTRA-FDD uplink data rates
Te

X,K[NjIHIN[IHKNcbNYH_,dN W+x+9F6DzkAO9 [V9 WVV9 Q’V9

FUFIgN [:9 +V:9 V’:9 L[:9

FUIIgN WQ9 WQ9 WQ9 WQ9

.y[KIjYTGN [V9 W[9 ’9 V9

2. Dedicated Physical Control Channel (DPCCH)

 /U9APkK9kDUUAk8zDU”9EP2A59W9UAA4-9AYPk8E29DUA9'“;;=x9
 JKz-9kKPUUAE9kDU6A2-9kDU85DE94P8P97D598KA9RK2-zkPE9EP2A5x9
 /893-A-9kDU-8PU89-R5AP4zUq97Pk8D59+Q[x9
 JKA9kKPUUAE9kDU8PzU-97DEEDBzUq97D3597zAE4-x9
OY/N UYFEHNR9JKA9RzED8Nz-N3-A4N7D59kKPUUAE9A-8zCP8zDUx99
OYY/N M[IT,yE[HNqE[]IHNPE]NYTIHYETNYjKTHYqYK[9OMKIZ/NR99JS;/9-RAkz7zA-98KA9kKPUUAE985PU-RD58A49Bz8KzU98KA9'“';=-x9
OYYY/N KKKjNIPbNYTqE[]IHYETNqYKFjNOKVZ/NRN/89-3RRD58-9-zqUPEzUqN7D59P9-D789KPU4D6A5x9
OYO/N M[IT,]YHNyExK[NPETH[EFNOMUI/NR9J“;9z-93-A497D59kDU85DEEzUq98KA985PU-Cz--zDU9RDBA59D79P9-AU4A5x9“DBA59kDU85DE9z-9
RA57D5CA49zU9APkK9-ED8”98K3-9WQ::9RDBA59kDU85DE9k2kEA-9P5A9P6PzEPNEA9RA59-AkDU4x9JzqK89RDBA59kDU85DE9z-9UAkA--P529
8D9Cz8zqP8A9UAP5j7P5jA77Ak8-x9,zY94z77A5AU89'“;;=9N35-8-9KP6A9NAAU94A7zUA49BKzkK94z77A59zU98KA9-z–A9D798KA97zAE4-x9
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-38 GSM

3. Dedicated Physical Channel (DPCH)

 JKz-9z-94DBUEzUµ9kKPUUAEx99
 /89C3E8zREAYA-9kDU85DE9PU493-A594P8Px99
 ,R5AP4zUq9 7Pk8D5-9 NA8BAAU9 V9 8D9 QW+9 P5A9 P6PzEPNEAx9 JKA9 P6PzEPNEA9 4P8P9 5P8A-9 7D59 4P8P9 kKPUUAE-9 F'“';=O9 Bz8KzU9 P9
'“;=9P5A9[9F-R5AP4zUq97Pk8D59m9QW+O”9+V”9QW”9L:”9+W:”9VQ+”9LW+9PU49W’"+9F-R5AP4zUq97Pk8D59mVOx9
4. Physical Random Access Channel (RACH)
 /89z-93-A498D9kDU85DE9CA4z3C9PkkA--9DU98KA93REzUµx99RJ^_9nS''94A7zUA-9WQ95PU4DC9PkkA--9-ED8-9Bz8KzU9+:C-x99
 \z8KzU9APkK9PkkA--9-ED89W[94z77A5AU89PkkA--9R5APCNEA-9kPU9NA93-A497D595PU4DC9PkkA--x99
 R-zUq9-ED88A49_EDKP”9R-A59VW3zRCAU89FRVO9kPU9PkkA--9PU9PkkA--9-ED89N29-AU4zUq9P9R5APCNEAx99
 RV9 -8P58-9 Bz8K9 8KA9 EDBA-89 P6PzEPNEA9 RDBA59 8D9 P6Dz49 zU8A57A5zUq9 Bz8K9 D8KA59 -8P8zDU-x9 /79 UD9 RD-z8z6A9 5A-RDU-A9 z-9
5AkAz6A49 8KAU9 RV9 85zA-9 7D59 PUD8KA59 -ED89 Bz8K9 PUD8KA59 R5APCNEA9 Bz8K9 8KA9 UAY89 KzqKA59 RDBA59 EA6AEx9 JKz-9 z-9 kPEEA49

e
RDBA595PCRzUqx99


g
JKA9U3CNA59D79P6PzEPNEA9-ED8-9kPU9NA94A7zUA49RA59kAEE9PU49z-985PU-Cz88A496zP9P9N5DP4kP-89kKPUUAE98D9PEE9R-A5-x9
Steps for searching a cell
io led
_9RV9KP-98D9RA57D5C97DEEDBzUq9-8AR-9435zUq98KA9-AP5kK97D59P9kAEE9P78A59P9RDBA59DUx9
rWN U[Y]I[JN,JTPA[ETYLIHYETN
ic ow

_9RV9KP-98D9-2UkK5DUz–A9Bz8K98KA9KAER9D79P9+Q[9kKzR9R5zCP529-2UkK5DUz–P8zDU9kD4Ax9JKz-9kD4A9z-9-PCA97D59PEE98KA9kAEE-9
n
PU49KAER-98D9-2UkK5DUz–A9Bz8K98KA98zCA9-ED89-853k835Ax9
bl kn

VWN .KPETjI[JN,JTPA[ETYLIHYETN
'35zUq9 8Kz-9 -AkDU49 RKP-A”9 8KA9 RV9 5AkAz6A-9 P9 -AkDU4P529 -2UkK5DUz–P8zDU9 kD4A9 BKzkK9 4A7zUA-9 P9 q5D3R9 D79 -k5PCNEzUq9
at
Pu ch

kD4A-93-A49zU98Kz-9kAEEx9JKA9RV9z-9UDB9-2UkK5DUz–A49Bz8K98KA975PCA9-853k835Ax9
vWN ZjKTHYqYPIHYETNEqNHAKN,P[I]NFYTGNPEjKN
Te

JKA9RV985zA-9PEE9-k5PCNEzUq9kD4A-9Bz8KzU98KA9q5D3R9D79kD4A-98D97zU498KA95zqK89kD4A9Bz8K98KA9KAER9D79P9kD55AEP8D5x9

2.3.2(b) UTRA - TDD (TD-CDMA)

MU - May 13, May 15)

Q. Explain UTRA TDD mode in detail. (May 13, May 15, 5 Marks)

Features of UTRA-TDD
 RJ^_jJ''9-ARP5P8A-93R9EzUµ9PU494DBU9EzUµ9zU98zCA94DCPzUx9JKA9S5PCA9-853k835A9D79J''9z-9-zCzEP598D9S''x9
 WQ9-ED8-9Bz8K9+”Q[:9kKzR-9RA59-ED897D5C9P95P4zD975PCA9Bz8K9435P8zDU9D79W:C-x9JKA9kKzRRzUq95P8A9z-9PE-D9Qx’V9HkKzRZ-x9
 JKA9J''975PCA9-853k835A9kPU9NA9,J]]KH[YPIF9D59P,J]]KH[YPIFx9
 /U9-2CCA85zkPE975PCA9-853k835A9U3CNA59D793REzUµ9PU494DBUEzUµ9-ED8-9z-9-PCAx9
 /U9P-2CCA85zkPE975PCA9-853k835A9PU29P5Nz85P529kDCNzUP8zDU9z-93-A4x9
 JKA9-2-8AC9kPU9kKPUqA9-R5AP4zUq97Pk8D59NA8BAAU9W98D9W[98D9PkKzA6A94A-z5A494P8P95P8Ax9
 JK3-93-zUq98KA985P77zk9N35-89-KDBU9zU9Szqx99+xQx"94P8P95P8A-9D79[[+V”99QQW+”9W[Q[”99’+’9PU49VWV9µNz8Z-9kPU9NA9PkKzA6A497D59
-R5AP4zUq97Pk8D5-9W”+”V”[”’”9PU49W[95A-RAk8z6AE2x9
 “DBA59kDU85DE9z-9AP-2943A98D98zqK89-2UkK5DUz–P8zDU9PU493-A9D79D58KDqDUPE9kD4A-x9_9-zCREA9RDBA59kDU85DE9-kKACA9Bz8K9
W::j’::9RDBA59kDU85DE9k2kEA-Z-9z-9-377zkzAU8x9
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-39 GSM

Fig. 2.3.7 : UTRA – TDD (TD- CDMA) frame structure

UTRA - TDD Frame format

 RJ^_j9J''975PCA9-853k835A9z-9-KDBU9zU9Szqx9+xQx"x9
 /89zUkE34A-97DEEDBzUq9N35-8-x9
Data Fields

e


g
Szqx9+xQx"9-KDB-9P9N35-89D7982RA+9BKzkK9kDCR5z-A-98BD9jIHI97zAE4-9APkK9D79W”W:V9kKzR-x99

io led
,R5AP4zUq9z-9PRREzA498D98KA-A94P8P97zAE4-9DUE2x9
Midample

ic ow

Hz4PCREA9z-93-A497D5985PzUzUq9PU49kKPUUAE9A-8zCP8zDUx9
Guard period (GP)
n
 _-9J''93-A-98KA9-PCA9-k5PCNEzUq9kD4A-97D59PEE9-8P8zDU-j98KA9-8P8zDU-9C3-89NA98zqK8E29-2UkK5DUz–A49PU498KA9-R5AP4zUq9
bl kn

kD4A-9P5A9P6PzEPNEA9DUE29DUkA9RA59-ED8x99
 JD9EDD-AU98KA98zqK89-2UkK5DUz–P8zDU9Ez88EA9Nz8”9P9q3P549RA5zD49KP-9NAAU9zU85D43kA49P898KA9AU49D79APkK9-ED8x9
at
Pu ch

Table 2.3.3 : Comparison of UTRA-FDD and UTRA-TDD

Te

UI[I]KHK[N XM`YfKFFN XM`YfMFFN

/4AP9 R-A-9Bz4ANPU49;'H_9F\j;'H_O9Bz8K94z5Ak89 R-A-9JzCA94DCPzU9;'H_99

-AW3AUkA9-R5AP4zUqx9

,ARP5P8zDU9D79 ,ARP5P8A-93R9PU494DBUEzUµ9zU975AW3AUk29 ,ARP5P8A-93R9PU494DBU9EzUµ9zU98zCA94DCPzUx9

kKPUUAE-9 4DCPzU9

,2UkK5DUz–P8zDU9 ,2UkK5DUz–P8zDU9z-9UD895AW3z5A49zU98zCA94DCPzU9 JzqK89-2UkK5DUz–P8zDU9z-9UAA4A49zU98zCA9

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 2-40 GSM

2.3.3 Improvement on Core Network

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Review Questions
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Q. 1 Explain mobile terminated and mobile originated call in GSM.

Q. 2 Explain various security services offered by GSM.

Q. 3 Explain how the location update occurs in GSM.

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Mobile Networking
3
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Unit III
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Syllabus

3.1 Mobile Networking : Medium Access Protocol, Internet Protocol and Transport layer
3.2 Medium Access Control : Motivation for specialized MAC, Introduction to multiple Access techniques (MACA)
3.3 Mobile IP: IP Packet Delivery, Agent Advertisement and Discovery, Registration, Tunneling and Encapsulation,
Reverse Tunneling, Routing (DSDV,DSR)

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3.4 Mobile TCP : Traditional TCP, Classical TCP Improvements like Indirect TCP, Snooping TCP & Mobile TCP, Fast
Retransmit/ Fast Recovery, Transmission/Timeout Freezing, Selective Retransmission.

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3.1 Mobile Networking

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3.1.1 Medium Access Protocols
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3.1.2 Internet Protocols

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-2 Mobile Networking

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3.2 Medium Access Control

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3.2.1 Motivation for Specialized MAC

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MU – May 18
Te

Q. Explain the need of specialized MAC in wireless communication. (May 18, 10 Marks)

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-3 Mobile Networking

3.2.1(a) Hidden Station Problem and Exposed Station Problem

(MU – May 12, Dec. 12, Dec. 13, May 15, May 16, May 17, Dec. 17)

Q. What is Hidden and Exposed terminal problem? Discuss solutions to these problems. (May 12, Dec. 13, 10 Marks)
Q. What do you mean by Exposed terminal problem ? (Dec. 12, 5 Marks)
Q. What do you mean by Hidden terminal problem? (Dec. 12, May 16, 5 Marks)
Q. Explain hidden station and exposed station problems in WLAN. (May 15, May 16, 5 Marks)
Q. What is hidden and exposed terminal problems? Discuss solution to these problems. (May 17, 5 Marks)
Q. Why do hidden terminal and exposed terminal problems arise? How would you propose to solve it?
(Dec. 17, 10 Marks)

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1. Hidden Station (or Terminal) Problem

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-4 Mobile Networking

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2. Exposed Station Problem
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Fig. 3.2.2 : Exposed Station (or Terminal) Problem

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3.2.2 Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (MACA)

(MU - May 16, May 17, Dec. 17)

Q. Explain in short how Hidden station problem is avoided in WLAN. (May 16, 5 Marks)
Q. What is hidden and exposed terminal problems? Discuss solution to these problems. (May 17, 5 Marks)
Q. Why do hidden terminal and exposed terminal problems arise? How would you propose to solve it?
(Dec. 17, 10 Marks)

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-5 Mobile Networking

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-6 Mobile Networking

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3.3 Mobile IP
3.3.1 Mobile IP : Basic Concept
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3.3.1(b) Goals/Requirements of Mobile IP

.MU – Dec. 18.

Q. What is the goal of Mobile IP? (Dec. 18, 5 Marks)

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-7 Mobile Networking

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Q. List the entities of mobile IP and describe data transfer from a mobile node to a fixed node and vice versa.
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(May 12, Dec. 16, 10 Marks)

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-8 Mobile Networking

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Fig. 3.3.1 : An example mobile IP network

Note : Tunnel for a packet sent to the MN always starts at HA and ends at either FA or MN depending upon the mode
of COA. If the COA is foreign agent COA, then the tunnel ends at FA. If the COA is co-located, then the tunnel
ends at MN.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-9 Mobile Networking

3.3.2 IP Packet Delivery

(MU – May 12, Dec. 13, Dec. 16, Dec. 18.)

Q. List the entities of mobile IP and describe data transfer from a mobile node to a fixed node and vice versa.
(May 12, Dec. 16, 10 Marks)
Q. Explain the IP Packet Delivery with respect to mobile IP. (Dec. 13, 5 Marks)
Q. How is packet delivery achieved to and from mobile node? (Dec. 18, 5 Marks)

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BLvJx8xVx UN(A OL’1(PA I/A /(zPA RjA PN(A 49A 2IPNA IP/A B)IDIzL'A -–A LHH)(//A L/A PN(A /(zH()A LzHA PN(A 79>/A -–A LHH)(//A L/A PN(A
)(’(I3()“A
BLvJxGxVx UN(A Q6A )(/OBz/IR'(A FB)A PN(A FB)(IDzA z(P2B)1A L’P/A L/A LA H(FLS'PA )BSP()A LzHA FB)2L)H/A PN(A OL’1(PA PBA PN(A )BSP()A
)(/OBz/IR'(AFB)APN(A79A0UN(A)BSP()AI/A'B’LP(HAIzA79>/ANB?(Az(P2B)1+“A
BLvJxIxVx UN(A)BSP()A)(/OBz/IR'(AFB)A79APN(zAFB)2L)H/APN(AOL’1(PAPBA79“A
hN6x WKLKxL5Kf3Lv5xL54ExD47UHvxpHxL4xLPvxDHx
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H(/PIzLPIBzALHH)(//“A
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)(/OBz/IR'(AFB)APN(ANB?(Az(P2B)1ABFA49“A
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-10 Mobile Networking

BLvJxIxVx UN(A=6ABFA49A)(L'IV(/APNLPAPN(A49AI/AzBPAIzAPN(ANB?(Az(P2B)1“A-PAPN(zA(z’LO/S'LP(APN(A)(’(I3(HAOL’1(PALzHA
FB)2L)H/AIPAPBAPN(A7G6A2IPNA/BS)’(ALHH)(//AL/A=6>/A-–ALHH)(//ALzHAPN(AH(/PIzLPIBzALHH)(//AL/A7G6“A
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hy6x WKLKxL5Kf3Lv5xL54ExDHxL4xKxE47UHvxpHxx
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H(/PIzLPIBz“A
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PSzz('APN(AOL’1(PAPB2L)H/A7G6ABFAPN(A79“A
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A ;B?(A LHHIPIBzL'A ?(’NLzI/?/A L)(A z((H(HA FB)A ?BRI'(A -–A PBA 2B)1“A UN(A FB''B2IzDA /(’PIBzA HI/’S//(/A LRBSPA PN(/(A
(zNLz’(?(zP/“A

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3.3.3 Agent Advertisement and Discovery

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io led .MU - May 18.

Q. Explain agent advertisement and discovery registration in mobile networks. (May 18, 5 Marks)

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/(PPIzDASOAHLPLD)L?AFB)2L)HIzDAF)B?AIP/ANB?(Az(P2B)1APBAPN(A’S))(zPA'B’LPIBz“AA

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o CN(PN()AIPANL/A’NLzD(HAIP/AOB/IPIBz“A
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H(/’)IR(/AP2BA?(//LD(/[A!"#$%&!'(#)%*+#,#$%ALzHA!"#$%&-./*0*%1%*.$“A

3.3.3(a) Agent Advertisement

(MU – Dec. 15, Dec. 17)

Q. Explain Agent advertisement in Mobile IP. (Dec. 15, 5 Marks)

Q. How the agent could be discovered using Mobile IP? Give the overlay of agent advertisement packet which includes
mobility extension. (Dec. 17, 10 Marks)

 =B2AHB(/ALA?BRI'(AzBH(A?L1(ABSPAPNLPAIPANL/A’NLzD(HAz(P2B)1A)(’(zP'j!AUNI/AI/AL’NI(3(HARjA?(//LD(/AF)B?ANB?(A
LD(zP/ALzHAFB)(IDzALD(zP/“A
 =B?(ALD(zP/ALzHAFB)(IDzALD(zP/ALH3()PI/(APN(I)AO)(/(z’(ALzHA/()3I’(/AS/IzDA?(//LD(/A’L''(HA1"#$%&1'(#)%*+#,#$%“AA
 6D(zPALH3()PI/(?(zPA?(//LD(/AL)(AO()IBHI’L''jAR)BLH’L/PALzHA’BzPLIzAPN(AFB''B2IzDAH(PLI'/A
o *I/PABFA7G6/AL3LI'LR'(AFB)APN(A49“A
o ;O(’IL'A F(LPS)(/A LzHA /()3I’(/A O)B3IH(HA RjA Q6A /S’NA L/A HIFF()(zPA PjO(/A BFA (z’LO/S'LPIBzA L3LI'LR'(“A QB)A (:L?O'(5A
?IzI?L'A(z’LO/S'LPIBzAB)AD(z()I’A(z’LO/S'LPIBz“A
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-11 Mobile Networking

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/NB2zAIzAQID“AY“Y“Y“AA

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Fig. 3.3.3 : Agent advertisement message
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/NB2zAIzAQID“AY“Y“Y“AA
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o -vDU3L5KLU4fxHULvLUEvxVxA;O(’IFI(/APN(A?L:I?S?A'IF(PI?(AIzA/(’BzH/ALAzBH(A’LzA)(‘S(/PAHS)IzDA)(DI/P)LPIBz“x
 UN(AFB''B2IzDARIP/A/O(’IFjAPN(A’NL)L’P()I/PI’/ABFALzALD(zPA[A
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o Wx7ULxVAUNI/ARIPAI/A/(PAIFAPN(ALD(zPAI/A’S))(zP'jAPBBARS/jAPBAL’’(OPAz(2A)(DI/P)LPIBz“A
o Ox7ULxVAUNI/ARIPAI/A/(PAIFAPN(ALD(zPABFF()/A/()3I’(/AL/ALANB?(ALD(zP“A
o 0x7ULxVAUNI/ARIPAI/A/(PAIFAPN(ALD(zPABFF()/A/()3I’(/AL/AFB)(IDzALD(zPABzAPN(A'Iz1A2N()(APN(ALH3()PI/(?(zPANL/AR((zA
/(zP“A
o DxKfyxXx7ULxVx4ALzHAgARIP/A/O(’IFjAPN(A?(PNBHABFA(z’LO/S'LPIBzAS/(HAFB)APN(APSzz('“A4AFB)A?IzI?L'A(z’LO/S'LPIBzA
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o 5x7ULxVAUNI/AI/A)(/()3(HALzHA/(PAPBAV()B“AA
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-12 Mobile Networking

3.3.3(b) Agent Solicitation

(MU – Dec. 15, Dec. 17)

Q. Explain Agent advertisement in Mobile IP. (Dec. 15, 5 Marks)

Q. How the agent could be discovered using Mobile IP? Give the overlay of agent advertisement packet which includes
mobility extension. (Dec. 17, 10 Marks)

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o CN(zAzBALD(zPALH3()PI/(?(zP/AL)(AO)(/(zPAB)A
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z(P2B)1“A


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’Ba'B’LP(HA7G6“AA
 9B2APN(Az(:PA/P(OAI/5APN(A49ANL/APBA)(DI/P()A2IPNAPN(A=6AIFAPN(A49AI/AIzALAFB)(IDzAz(P2B)1“A
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3.3.4 Registration
(MU – Dec. 13)
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Q. Explain registration with respect to mobile IP. (Dec. 13, 5 Marks)

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
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PN(A?BRI'(AzBH(“AA
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 UN(A49A/(zH/AIP/A)(DI/P)LPIBzA)(‘S(/PAPBAPN(AQ6A0’BzPLIzIzDA7G6+“AA
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-13 Mobile Networking

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Fig. 3.3.4 : Registration procedure of mobile node via FA (COA at FA)

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LH3()PI/(?(zP“A
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Fig. 3.3.5 : Registration procedure of mobile node via HA (Co- located COA)
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-14 Mobile Networking

1. Registration request message

Fig. 3.3.6 : Registration request message

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o #zJvxVx-PAI/A/(PAPBAXAFB)A)(DI/P)LPIBzA)(‘S(/P“x
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=6AIzANB?(Az(P2B)1“x
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)(O'I(/“x
2. Registration reply message
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Fig. 3.3.7 : Registration reply message

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 #zJvxVx-PAI/A/(PAPBAY“x
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”:L?O'(A’BH(/AL)(A[A
 X(DI/P)LPIBzA/S’’(//FS'A
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 X(DI/P)LPIBzAH(zI(HARjAQ6A
o 7BH(AhA_<iA LH?IzI/P)LPI3('jAO)BNIRIP(HA
o 7BH(AhA__iA Iz/SFFI’I(zPA)(/BS)’(/A
o 7BH(AhA_`iA ?BRI'(AzBH(AFLI'(HALSPN(zPI’LPIBzA
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-15 Mobile Networking

o 7BH(AhA_jiA NB?(ALD(zPAFLI'(HALSPN(zPI’LPIBzA
o 7BH(AhA_ciAA )(‘S(/P(HA'IF(PI?(APBBA'BzDA
 X(DI/P)LPIBzAH(zI(HARjA=6x
o 7BH(AhAXWciA LH?IzI/P)LPI3('jAO)BNIRIP(HA
o 7BH(AhAXYXiA ?BRI'(AzBH(AFLI'(HALSPN(zPI’LPIBzA
o 7BH(AhAXYYiA )(DI/P)LPIBzAIH(zPIFI’LPIBzA?I/?LP’NA
o 7BH(AhAXY<iA PBBA?LzjA/I?S'PLz(BS/A?BRI'IPjARIzHIzD/A
Extensions
A -PA’BzPLIz/APN(AOL)L?(P()/AFB)ALSPN(zPI’LPIBzALzHA?LjAL'/BA’BzPLIzABPN()AIzFB)?LPIBzAL/A)(‘SI)(H“AA

3.3.5 Tunnelling and Encapsulation

(MU – May 12, Dec. 13, May 14, May 15, Dec. 15, May 16, May 17, Dec. 17)

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Q. Explain how tunnelling works for mobile IP using IP-in-IP, minimal and generic routing encapsulation respectively.

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Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of these three methods. (May 12, 10 Marks)
Q. Explain encapsulation with respect to mobile IP. (Dec. 13, 5 Marks)
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Q. Describe tunnelling and encapsulation in Mobile IP. (May 14, 5 Marks)
Q. Why is Mobile IP packet required to be forwarded through a tunnel ? (May 15, 5 Marks)
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Q. Why is mobile IP packet required to be forwarded through tunnel? Explain minimal and generic technique of
encapsulation of mobile IP. (May 15, Dec. 15, May 16, May 17, 10 Marks)
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Q. Discuss how tunnelling work for mobile IP using IP-In-IP encapsulation. (Dec. 17, 5 Marks)
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What is tunneling ?
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Pu ch

 CN(zALA?BRI'(AzBH(A?B3(/ABSPAF)B?ANB?(Az(P2B)15APN(A=6A/(zH/AOL’1(PAPBA7G6ABFAPN(A49A3ILALAPSzz('“AA
 6APSzz('A(/PLR'I/N(/ALA3I)PSL'AOIO(AFB)AHLPLAOL’1(P“A
Te

 -zA4BRI'(A-–5APN(A/PL)PABFAPN(APSzz('AI/APN(ANB?(ALD(zP5A2NI’NAHB(/APN(A(z’LO/S'LPIBz“AUN(A(zHABFAPN(APSzz('AH(O(zH/A
BzA2NLPA/B)PABFA’L)(ABFALHH)(//AI/AR(IzDAS/(HA2NI’NAH(’LO/S'LP(/AHLPLAOL’1(P“AA
 -FAFB)(IDzALD(zPA7G6AI/AS/(HAPN(zAQ6AL’P/AL/APN(APSzz('A(zHAOBIzPALzHAIFA’Ba'B’LP(HA7G6AI/AS/(HAPN(zA49AL’P/AL/APN(A
PSzz('A(zHAOBIzP“A
 -FALA79A2LzP/APBA/(zHAHLPLAOL’1(PAPBA49A0’S))(zP'jAzBPAIzANB?(Az(P2B)1+APN(AHLPLAOL’1(PAI/AFI)/PA(z’LO/S'LP(HALPA=6A
LzHA/(zPA3ILALAPSzz('ALzHAPN(zAH(’LO/S'LP(HALPAQ6ALzHAFIzL''jAFB)2L)H(HAPBAPN(A49“A
 UN(A(z’LO/S'LPIBzAO)B’(//AI/A/NB2zAIzAPN(AQID“AY“Y“j“A

Fig. 3.3.8 : IP encapsulation

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o WvNKJ3gHKLU4fxI/APN(A)(3()/(AO)B’(//ABFA(z’LO/S'LPIBz5APNLPAI/A)(?B3IzDAPN(AOL’1(PAF)B?APN(AHLPLAOL)PABFALzBPN()A
OL’1(P“A
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-16 Mobile Networking

 UN(AHI/LH3LzPLD(/ABFA(z’LO/S'LPIBzAL)(A[A
o –L’1(PA/IV(AI/A'L)D()APNLzAPN(AB)IDIzL'AOL’1(P“A
o ”z’LO/S'LPIBzA’LzAR(AHBz(ABz'jA2N(zAPN()(AI/ALzA(zPIPjALPAPN(APSzz('A(zHAPNLPAH(’LO/S'LP(/APN(A-–AHLPLD)L?“A
o 6FP()ALA79>/A-–AHLPLD)L?/AL)(A’LOPS)(H5AHLPLD)L?/APSzz('(HAPBAPN(AQ6AFB)AH('I3()jAPBAPN(A49“AUN(APSzz('IzDA’LzA
R(AHBz(ARjABz(ABFAPN)((A(z’LO/S'LPIBzAP(’NzI‘S(/“AUN(/(AL)(AHI/’S//(HAR('B2“A
Why Tunneling is required?
CNjAHB(/APN(A4BRI'(A-–AOL’1(PA)(‘SI)(HAPBAR(AFB)2L)H(HAPN)BSDNALAPSzz('A!A

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Fig. 3.3.9 : Mobile IP

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7Bz/IH()ALA/IPSLPIBzA2N(zALA7B))(/OBzH(zPA9BH(A079+A2LzP/APBA/(zHALzA-–AOL’1(PAPBALA4BRI'(A9BH(A049+“A6''APN(A79A
1zB2/ALRBSPAPNI/A49AI/5AIP/A-–ALHH)(//“A
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
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 UN(AIzP()z(P5A)BSP(/APNI/AOL’1(PAPBAPN(A=B?(A)BSP()ABFAPN(A49AL'/BA’L''(HAL/A=B?(A6D(zPA0=6+“A

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UN(A=6AzB2A1zB2IzDAPNLPAPN(A49AI/AzBPAIzAIP/ANB?(Az(P2B)1A(z’LO/S'LP(/ALzHAPSzz('/APN(AOL’1(PAPBAPN(A7G6“A
 UN(A7L)(aBFaLHH)(//A07G6+AH(FIz(/APN(A’S))(zPA'B’LPIBzABFAPN(A49AF)B?ALzA-–AOBIzPABFA3I(2“A
 ;Iz’(AIzP()z(PA)BSP(/AL)(A’)(LP(HARL/(HABzAPN(AN(LH()A’BzP(zP/ABFALzA-–AOL’1(P5APBA)BSP(AIPAF)B?A=6APBA7G65A2(Az((HALA
z(2AN(LH()AFB)APN(AOL’1(PAPBAR(AP)Lz/?IPP(H“A
 UN(Az(2AN(LH()ABzAPBOABFAPN(AB)IDIzL'AN(LH()AI/A?LH(A0QID“AY“Y“Xd+“A9B2APNI/A2I''A(zLR'(AS/APBA/(PALAz(2AHI)(’PA)BSP(A
A0LAPSzz('+APBAPN(A49AF)B?APN(A=6AL/AIPAI/A)BL?IzD“A

Fig. 3.3.10 : Encapsulation

UNS/APSzz(''IzDAI/APN(AO)B’(//ABFA’)(LPIzDALAPSzz('ARjAPN(A=6APBAPN(A7G6APBA)BSP(AOL’1(P/APBAPN(A4BRI'(A9BH(AL/AIPA
)BL?/“A-PA(/PLR'I/N(/ALAOIO(A0LAHLPLA/P)(L?AR(P2((zAP2BA’Bzz(’P(HA(zH/+A2N()(IzAPN(AHLPLAI/AIz/()P(HALzHA?B3(/AIzAQ-QGA
B)H()“
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-17 Mobile Networking

3.3.5(a) IP-in-IP Encapsulation (MU - May 16, Dec. 17)

Q. Explain IP-in-IP technique of encapsulation of mobile IP. (May 16, 5 Marks)

Q. Discuss how tunneling work for mobile IP using IP-In-IP encapsulation. (Dec. 17, 5 Marks)

 -–aIza-–A(z’LO/S'LPIBzAI/AH(FIz(HAIzAXQ7AWddY“A-PAI/APN(A/I?O'(/PALOO)BL’NALzHA?S/PAL'2Lj/AR(A/SOOB)P(H“AA
 -zAPNI/APjO(ABFA(z’LO/S'LPIBz5APN(A(zPI)(A-–AHLPLD)L?A/(zPARjAPN(AIzP()z(PANB/PAI/AIz/()P(HAIzALAz(2A-–AHLPLD)L?AL/APN(A
OLj'BLH“AA
 6/A/NB2zAIzAPN(AQID“AY“Y“XXAAPN(A=6A(z’LO/S'LP(/APN(A)(’(I3(HA-–AHLPLD)L?A2IPNIzALzBPN()A-–AHLPLD)L?“A

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Fig. 3.3.11 : IP-in-IP encapsulation
bl kn

A UN(A3L)IBS/AFI('H/AIzAPN(ABSP()AN(LH()AL)(A[A
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89x /v59xhYv53U4f6xVAk()/IBzAFI('HAH(zBP(/APN(A3()/IBzAzS?R()ALzHA/(PAPBA^AFB)A-–3^“A
G9x kOMxhkfLv5fvLxPvKyv5xHvfDLP6xVx-=*AIzHI’LP(/APN(A'(zDPNABFAPN(ABSP()AN(LH()“A
Te

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PN(APSzz('A(zHOBIzP“A
Q9x kOUUfUkOxVxUNI/AH(zBP(/APN(APjO(ABFAO)BPB’B'AS/(HAIzAPN(A-–AOLj'BLH“A
R9x kOxNPvNS3gExVAUNI/AI/AS/(HAFB)A())B)AH(P(’PIBzA?(’NLzI/?“AA
A UN(AFI('H/ABFAIzz()AN(LH()AL)(AL'?B/PA/L?(AL/APN(ABSP()AN(LH()APN(ABz'jAHIFF()(z’(/AL)(A[A
 UN(ALHH)(//AFI('H/A’Bz/I/PABFAPN(ALHH)(//ABFAPN(AB)IDIzL'A/(zH()ALzHA)(’(I3()“A
 UN(A UU*A 3L'S(A BFA PN(A Izz()A N(LH()A I/A H(’)(?(zP(HA RjA X“A UNI/A ?(Lz/A PNLPA PN(A 2NB'(A PSzz('A ’Bz/IH()(HA LA /IzD'(A NBOA
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A UN(AU7–8\V–AOLj'BLHA’BzPLIz/APN(AL’PSL'AS/()AHLPLAPBAR(AP)Lz/?IPP(H“A
2y/KfLKDvx
A -PAI/A/I?O'(APBAI?O'(?(zPALzHAIPAI/ALAH(FLS'PA(z’LO/S'LPIBzA?(’NLzI/?“A
WU3Ky/KfLKDvx
A 4B/PABFAPN(ABSP()AN(LH()AFI('H/AL)(A/L?(AL/AIzz()AN(LH()A/BAPNI/A?(PNBHAIz’)(L/(/A)(HSzHLz’j“A
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-18 Mobile Networking

3.3.5(b) Minimal Encapsulation

(MU – May 12, May 15, May 17)

Q. Explain minimal encapsulation. Also discuss merits and demerits. (May 12, 5 Marks)
Q. Explain minimal techniques of encapsulation of Mobile IP packet. (May 15, May 17, 5 Marks)

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Fig. 3.3.12 : Minimal encapsulation

 4IzI?L'A(z’LO/S'LPIBzAI/AH(FIz(HAIzAXQ7AWdd^“A-PAIz3B'3(/AF(2()AFI('H/AIzA-–AOL’1(P“A-PA’LzAR(AS/(HAIFAPN(A=65A495ALzHAQ6A
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L''ALD)((APBAS/(“AQID“AY“Y“XWA/NB2/APN(A?IzI?L'A(z’LO/S'LPIBz“AA
 UN(ABSP()AN(LH()AFI('H/AL)(AL'?B/PA/L?(AL/AFB)A-–A(z’LO/S'LPIBziAPN(ABz'jAHIFF()(z’(AI/AIzAPN(A#zJvAFI('H“A-PAI/A/(PAPBA<<“A

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-–ALHH)(//A’LzAR(AB?IPP(H“A
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 WU3Ky/KfLKDvxVx-PAHB(/AzBPA/SOOB)PAF)LD?(zPLPIBzAPBAH(L'A2IPNAPSzz('A2IPNA/?L''()AOLPNA?L:I?S?AP)Lz/?I//IBzASzIP/A
04U\+“x

3.3.5(c) Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE)

MU – May 12, Dec. 15)
Q. Explain Generic encapsulation. Also discuss merits and demerits. (May 12, 5 Marks)
Q. Explain Generic technique of encapsulation of mobile IP. (Dec. 15, 10 Marks)

 gX”AI/AH(FIz(HAIzAXQ7AX`dX“A
 -PAI/ALAD(z()I’A(z’LO/S'LPIBzA?(’NLzI/?AH(3('BO(HAR(FB)(APN(AH(3('BO?(zPABFA?BRI'(A-–“A
 gX”AL''B2/APN(A(z’LO/S'LPIBzABFAOL’1(P/ABFABz(AO)BPB’B'A/SIP(AIzPBAPN(AOLj'BLHAOB)PIBzABFALAOL’1(PABFALzBPN()AO)BPB’B'A
/SIP(“AA
 QID“AY“Y“XYA/NB2/APN(AD(z()I’A)BSPIzDA(z’LO/S'LPIBz“AUN(AgX”AN(LH()AI/AO)(O(zH(HAPBAPN(AOL’1(PABFABz(AO)BPB’B'A/SIP(A
2IPNAPN(AB)IDIzL'AN(LH()ALzHAHLPL“A
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-19 Mobile Networking

Fig. 3.3.13 : Generic routing encapsulation

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I9x -x7ULxVx-FA/(P5AIPAIzHI’LP(/APNLPAPN(ABFF/(PALzHA)BSPIzDAFI('H/AL)(AO)(/(zPALzHA’BzPLIz/A3L'IHAIzFB)?LPIBz“x

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Fig. 3.3.14 : Generic routing encapsulation

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8G9x TLL3vLxVx-PA)(O)(/(zP/APN(ABFF/(PAIzARjP(/AFB)APN(AFI)/PA/BS)’(A)BSPIzDA(zP)jA0O)(/(zPABz'jA2N(zAXARIPAI/A/(P+“x
8I9x ZvzxVx7BzPLIz/ALA1(jAPNLPA’LzAR(AS/(HAFB)ALSPN(zPI’LPIBzA0O)(/(zPABz'jA2N(zAlARIPAI/A/(P+“x
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Advantage
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 -PAL''B2/A?B)(APNLzABz(A'(3('ABFA(z’LO/S'LPIBz“A
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-20 Mobile Networking

3.3.5(d) Optimization
.MU – May 18.

Q. What is triangular routing problem? How do you optimize mobile IP for avoiding triangular routing ?
Q. Why and how can optimization in Mobile IP be achieved. (May 18, 5 Marks)

Triangular routing

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 UN(AP)ILzD'(AI/A?LH(ABFAPN(APN)((A/(D?(zP/5A79APBA=65A=6APBA7G68495ALzHA49ARL’1APBA79“A0X(F()AQID“AY“Y“X<+A

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Fig. 3.3.15 : Triangular Routing

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Route optimization to avoid triangular routing

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G9x WUfyUfDxgJyKLvx
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-21 Mobile Networking

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?(//LD(/AIzABOPI?IVLPIBzAO)BPB’B'“A

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Fig. 3.3.16 : Optimized mobile IP working

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
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
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 79AHB(/z>PA1zB2ALRBSPAPN(A’S))(zPA'B’LPIBzABFA495AIPA/PI''APSzz('/AIP/AOL’1(P/AFB)A49APBAPN(AB'HAFB)(IDzALD(zPAQ6!"#“A

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UN(AQ6!"#AzBPI’(/AOL’1(P/AH(/PIz(HAPBA49ARSPAL'/BA1zB2/A49A’S))(zP'jAzBPAIzA’S))(zPAQ6“A
 Q6!"#A?IDNPAzB2AFB)2L)HAPN(/(AOL’1(P/APBAPN(Az(2A7G6ABFA49A2NI’NAI/Az(2AFB)(IDzALD(zP“A
 UNS/APN(AOL’1(P/APNLPAL)(AIzAP)Lz/IPAL)(AzBPA'B/P“AUNI/AR(NL3IB)AI/ALzBPN()ABOPI?IVLPIBzAPBARL/I’A?BRI'(A-–ALzHAO)B3IH(/A
/?BBPNANLzHB3()“A
 Q6!"#A/(zH/ARIzHIzDA2L)zIzDA?(//LD(APBA79“A79APN(zA)(‘S(/P/ALARIzHIzDASOHLP(“A
 UN(A=6A/(zH/ALzASOHLP(APBAIzFB)?APN(A79ALRBSPAPN(Az(2A'B’LPIBz5A2NI’NAI/AL’1zB2'(HD(H“A9B25A79A’LzA/(zHAHLPLA
HI)(’P'jAPBAQ6$%&5ALzHAL3BIHAP)ILzDS'L)ARIzHIzD“A
 =B2(3()5APN(ABOPI?IVLPIBzA2I''AzBPA2B)1AIFAPN(A49AHB(/AzBPA2LzPAPBA)(3(L'AIP/A’S))(zPA'B’LPIBzAPBAPN(A79AR(’LS/(ABFA
/(’S)IPj“A

3.3.6 Reverse Tunnelling

 UN()(A?LjAR(ALA/IPSLPIBzA2N()(AIPAI/AzBPAF(L/IR'(AB)AH(/I)(HAPBANL3(APN(A?BRI'(AzBH(A049+A/(zHAOL’1(P/AHI)(’P'jAPBAPN(A
IzP()z(P2B)1A3ILAQ6“A
 -zAPNLPA’L/(5ALzABOPIBzL'AF(LPS)(A’L''(HA5v/v53vxLgffvHUfDAI/AS/(HAIFAIPAI/A/SOOB)P(HARjA?BRI'(AzBH(5ANB?(ALD(zPALzHA
FB)(IDzALD(zP“AA
 6/A/NB2zAIzAQID“AY“Y“X`A5ALA)(3()/(APSzz('AI/A/(PSOAR(P2((zA49ALzHA=6A0-FA7G6AI/A’Ba'B’LP(H+5AB)AR(P2((zAQ6ALzHA=6A
0IFAQ6AL’P/AL/A7G6+A
 6''AP)Lz/?I//IBzAF)B?A49AL)(AzB2APSzz('(HARL’1APBAPN(ANB?(Az(P2B)1A2N()(A=6AP)Lz/?IP/APN(?AB3()APN(A-zP()z(P“AA
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-22 Mobile Networking

g e
Fig. 3.3.17 : Reverse tunneling
io led
A X(3()/(APSzz('IzDAI/AS/(HAIzAFB''B2IzDA/’(zL)IB“A
1. Ingress Filtering/Firewalls
ic ow

 -FA PN(A z(P2B)1A 2N()(A ?BRI'(A zBH(A 'B’LP(HA NL/A I?O'(?(zP(HA ’()PLIzA /(’S)IPjA ?(L/S)(/A PNLPA O)BNIRIP/A PN(A zBH(A
F)B?A/(zHIzDAOL’1(P/AS/IzDAIP/AzB)?L'A-–ALHH)(//“A
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 CIPNALA)(3()/(APSzz('APN(AOL’1(PAI/AFI)/PA(z’LO/S'LP(HARjAQ6ALzHA/(zPAPBAPN(A=6“A
bl kn

2. Multi-cast
at
Pu ch

A X(3()/(APSzz('IzDAI/A)(‘SI)(HAFB)A?S'PI’L/PIzDA2N()(APN(AzBH(/AIzA?S'PI’L/PAD)BSOAL)(AIzAPN(ANB?(Az(P2B)15AL/ALzA49A
IzALAFB)(IDzAz(P2B)1A’LzzBPAP)Lz/?IPA?S'PI’L/PAOL’1(P/AHI)(’P'jAIzAPNI/A’L/(5AL/APN(AFB)(IDzAz(P2B)1A?IDNPAzBPAO)B3IH(A
PN(AP(’NzI’L'AIzF)L/P)S’PS)(AFB)A?S'PI’L/PA’B??SzI’LPIBz“A
Te

3. TTL (time to live)

 CN(zALzA49AI/AIzANB?(Az(P2B)15ALzHAIFAA49AzBH(A?B3(/APBALAFB)(IDzAz(P2B)15AIP/AUU*A?IDNPAR(APBBA'B2AFB)APN(A
OL’1(P/APBA)(L’NAPN(A/L?(AzBH(AL/AR(FB)(“AA
 6A)(3()/(APSzz('AI/Az((H(HAPNLPA)(O)(/(zP/ABz(ANBOAP)Lz/?I//IBz“A
Problems with reverse tunneling
 X(3()/(APSzz('IzDA?LjA’LS/(ALAP)ILzDS'L)A)BSPIzDAO)BR'(?AIzAPN(A)(3()/(AHI)(’PIBz“A6''AOL’1(P/AF)B?A49APBA79AzB2ADBA
PN)BSDNAPN(A=6“AUN(A79A?IDNPAzBPAR(ALR'(APBAH(’LO/S'LP(APN(AOL’1(PAL/APN(A79A’BS'HAR(ALAzBzA4BRI'(A-–AH(3I’(5A/BAPN(A
XQ7AYdW^AHB(/AzBPABFF()A/B'SPIBzAPBAPNI/A)(3()/(AP)ILzDS'L)A)BSPIzD“A
 X(3()/(A PSzz('IzDA ?LjA )LI/(A /B?(A /(’S)IPjA I//S(/“A QB)A (:L?O'(5A LA PSzz('A 2NI’NA /PL)P/A IzA PN(A O)I3LP(A z(P2B)1A BFA LA
’B?OLzjALzHA)(L’NIzDABSPAIzPBAPN(AIzP()z(PA’BS'HAR(ANIUL’1(HALzHALRS/(HAFB)A/(zHIzDAOL’1(P/APN)BSDNAFI)(2L''“A
 X(3()/(APSzz('IzDA?LjAL'/BAIzP)BHS’(APN(AOB//IRI'IPjABFAH(zIL'aBFa/()3I’(ALPPL’1“A

3.3.7 Limitations of Mobile IP

1. Frequent Mobility
A 4BRI'(A-–A2L/AH(/IDz(HAPBANLzH'(A?BRI'IPjABFAH(3I’(/5ARSPABz'jA)('LPI3('jAIzF)(‘S(zPA?BRI'IPj“AUNI/AI/AHS(APBAPN(A2B)1A
Iz3B'3(HA2IPNA(L’NA’NLzD(“AUNI/AB3()N(LHAI/zZPALARIDAH(L'A2N(zAjBSA?B3(ALA’B?OSP()ABz’(ALA2((15ALAHLjAB)A(3(zALzA
NBS)“A -PA ’LzA R(A LzA I//S(A FB)A Y)(L'aPI?(ZA ?BRI'IPjA /S’NA L/A )BL?IzDA IzA LA 2I)('(//A z(P2B)15A 2N()(A NLzHaBFFA FSz’PIBz/A
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-23 Mobile Networking

BO()LPIzDALPAPN(AHLPLA'Iz1A'Lj()A?LjAR(A?B)(A/SIPLR'(“A4BRI'(A-–A2L/AH(/IDz(HASzH()APN(A/O(’IFI’AL//S?OPIBzAPNLPAPN(A
LPPL’N?(zPAOBIzPA2BS'HAzBPA’NLzD(A?B)(APNLzABz’(AO()A/(’BzH“A
2. Issue with DHCP
A 4BRI'(A-–AI/AIzP(zH(HAPBAR(AS/(HA2IPNAH(3I’(/APNLPA?LIzPLIzALA/PLPI’A-–A’BzFIDS)LPIBz“A;Iz’(APN(AH(3I’(Az((H/APBAR(ALR'(A
PBAL'2Lj/A1zB2APN(AIH(zPIPjABFAIP/ANB?(Az(P2B)1ALzHAzB)?L'A-–ALHH)(//5AIPAI/A?S’NA?B)(AHIFFI’S'PAPBAS/(AIPA2IPNALAH(3I’(A
PNLPABRPLIz/ALzA-–ALHH)(//AHjzL?I’L''j5AS/IzDA/B?(PNIzDA'I1(AV=7–“A
3. Security Issue
A QI)(2L''/5A’LS/(/AHIFFI’S'PjAFB)A?BRI'(A-–AR(’LS/(APN(jAR'B’1AL''A’'L//(/ABFAIz’B?IzDAOL’1(P/APNLPAHBAzBPA?((PA/O(’IFI(HA
’)IP()IL“A ”zP()O)I/(A FI)(2L''/A L)(A PjOI’L''jA ’BzFIDS)(HA PBA R'B’1A OL’1(P/A F)B?A (zP()IzDA 3ILA PN(A IzP()z(P“A -zA ?LzjA ’L/(/A
LSPN(zPI’LPIBzA2IPNAQ6AI/AO)BR'(?LPI’AL/APN(AQ6APjOI’L''jAR('BzD/APBALzBPN()AB)DLzIVLPIBzAB)Az(P2B)1“A
4. QoS Issue

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 UN(A mB;A /B'SPIBzA FB)A ?BRI'(A -–A /NBS'HA /LPI/FjA )(‘SI)(?(zP/A /S’NA L/A /’L'LRI'IPj5A ’Bz/()3LPIBzA BFA 2I)('(//A

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RLzH2IHPN5A'B2AO)B’(//IzDAB3()N(LH5ALSPNB)IVLPIBzALzHAL’’BSzPIzDA(P’“AA

io led
CN(zANLzHB3()AB’’S)/AIzA?BRI'(A-–A(z3I)Bz?(zP5A/B?(ALOO'I’LPIBz/A/S’NAL/A2(RAR)B2/()ALzHAFI'(AP)Lz/F()AS/IzDA
U7–A’Bzz(’PIBzA2I''AFL’(AHI/’Bzz(’PIBzAB)ALAH(D)LHLPIBzABFAPN(AO()FB)?Lz’(“AAA
 6zBPN()AO)BR'(?AI/A2IPNAPN(APSzz('ARL/(HA’B??SzI’LPIBz“A-zAPSzz('ARL/(HA’B??SzI’LPIBz/AHIFF()(zPAHLPLAF'B2/A
ic ow

LHH)(//(HAPBAPN(A/L?(A-–ALHH)(//AL)(AP)(LP(HAIzAPN(A/L?(A?Lzz()“AUNS/APSzz('IzDA?L1(/AIPANL)HAPBADI3(ALAF'B2ABFA
OL’1(P/ALA/O(’IL'AP)(LP?(zPAz((H(HAFB)AmB;“A
n
bl kn

3.3.8 Mobile IP and IPv6

at


Pu ch

kJ/Kx VA UN(A z(P2B)1A 'Lj()A O)BPB’B'A IzA PN(A U7–8-–A O)BPB’B'A /SIP(A I/A ’S))(zP'jA -–3^“A -–3^A O)B3IH(/A PN(A NB/PaPBaNB/PA
’B??SzI’LPIBzA R(P2((zA /j/P(?/A IzA PN(A -zP()z(P“A -–3^A NL/A /B?(A H(FI’I(z’I(/A PNLPA ?L1(A IPA Sz/SIPLR'(A FB)A PN(A FL/PA
Te

D)B2IzDA-zP()z(P5AIz’'SHIzDAPN(AFB''B2IzD[A
o V(/OIP(AL''A/NB)PAP()?A/B'SPIBz/5A/S’NAL/A/SRz(PPIzD5A’'L//'(//ALHH)(//IzD5ALzHA96U5ALHH)(//AH(O'(PIBzAI/A/PI''ALA'BzDA
P()?AO)BR'(?AIzA-zP()z(P“A
o UN(A -zP()z(PA ?S/PA L’’B??BHLP(A )(L'A PI?(A LSHIBA LzHA 3IH(BA P)Lz/?I//IBz“A UNI/A PjO(A BFA P)Lz/?I//IBzA )(‘SI)(/A
?IzI?S?AH('LjA/P)LP(DI(/ALzHA)(/()3LPIBzABFA)(/BS)’(/AzBPAO)B3IH(HARjA-–3^AH(/IDz“A
o UN(A-zP()z(PA?S/PAL’’B??BHLP(A(z’)jOPIBzALzHALSPN(zPI’LPIBzABFAHLPLAFB)A/B?(ALOO'I’LPIBz/“A9BA(z’)jOPIBzAB)A
LSPN(zPI’LPIBzAI/AO)B3IH(HARjA-–3^“A
 kJ/Qx Vx UBA B3()’B?(A PN(/(A O)BR'(?/5A -–3_A L'/BA 1zB2zA L/A -–zDA 0-zP()z(PA –)BPB’B'A z(:PA D(z()LPIBz+A 2L/A O)BOB/(H“A -zA
-–3_5APN(A-zP()z(PAO)BPB’B'A2L/A(:P(z/I3('jA?BHIFI(HAPBAL’’B??BHLP(APN(AD)B2PNALzHAz(2AH(?LzH/ABFAPN(A-zP()z(P“AA
o UN(AFB)?LPALzHAPN(A'(zDPNABFAPN(A-–ALHH)(//(/A2()(A’NLzD(HAL'BzDA2IPNAPN(AOL’1(PAFB)?LPA
o X('LP(HAO)BPB’B'/A/S’NAL/A-74–A2()(AL'/BA?BHIFI(H“AA
o GPN()A O)BPB’B'/A IzA PN(A z(P2B)1A 'Lj()5A /S’NA L/A 6X–5A X6X–5A -g4–A 2()(A (IPN()A H('(P(HA B)A Iz’'SH(HA IzA -74–3_A
O)BPB’B'“AXBSPIzDAO)BPB’B'/A/S’NAL/AX-–ALzHAG;–QA2()(A/'IDNP'jA?BHIFI(HAPBAL’’B??BHLP(APN(/(A’NLzD(/“A
UN(AFL/PA/O)(LHIzDAS/(ABFA-zP()z(PALzHAz(2A/()3I’(/A/S’NAL/A?BRI'(A-–5A-–AP('(ONBzj5ALzHA-–a’LOLR'(A?BRI'(AP('(ONBzj5A
?LjA)(‘SI)(APN(APBPL'A)(O'L’(?(zPABFA-–3^ARjA-–3_“A
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-24 Mobile Networking

Advantages of IPv6
 *L)D()ALHH)(//A/OL’(a6zA-–3_ALHH)(//AI/AXWjARIPA'BzD“A7B?OL)(HA2IPNAPN(AYWARIPA'BzDA-–3^ALHH)(//5APNI/AI/ANSD(AIz’)(L/(A
IzALHH)(//A/OL’(“A
 K(PP()A =(LH()A FB)?LPa-–3_A S/(/A LA z(2A N(LH()A FB)?LPA IzA 2NI’NA BOPIBz/A L)(A /(OL)LP(HA F)B?A PN(A RL/(A N(LH()A LzHA
Iz/()P(HA2N(zAz((H(H5AR(P2((zAPN(ARL/(AN(LH()ALzHAPN(ASOO()A'Lj()AHLPL“AUNI/A/I?O'IFI(/ALzHA/O((H/ASOAPN(A)BSPIzDA
O)B’(//AR(’LS/(A?B/PABFAPN(ABOPIBz/AHBAzBPAz((HAPBAR(A’N(’1(HARjA)BSP()/“A
 9(2AGOPIBz/a-–3_ANL/Az(2ABOPIBz/APBAL''B2AFB)ALHHIPIBzL'AFSz’PIBzL'IPI(/“A
 6''B2Lz’(A FB)A (:P(z/IBza-–3_A I/A H(/IDz(HA PBA L''B2A PN(A (:P(z/IBzA BFA O)BPB’B'A IFA )(‘SI)(HA RjA z(2A P(’NzB'BDI(/A B)A
LOO'I’LPIBz/“A
 ;SOOB)PAFB)A)(/BS)’(AL''B’LPIBza-zA-–3_5APN(A%56#7.87+#)(*0#AFI('HANL/AR((zA)(?B3(H5ARSPA?(’NLzI/?A’L''(HA9/.:&/1;#/&
NL/AR((zALHH(HAPBA(zLR'(APN(A/BS)’(APBA)(‘S(/PA/O(’IL'ANLzH'IzDABFAOL’1(P“AUNI/A?(’NLzI/?A’LzAR(AS/(HAPBA/SOOB)PA
P)LFFI’A/S’NAL/A)(L'aPI?(ALSHIBALzHA3IH(B“A


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;SOOB)PAFB)A?B)(A/(’S)IPjaUN(A(z’)jOPIBzALzHALSPN(zPI’LPIBzABOPIBz/AIzA-–3_AO)B3IH(A’BzFIH(zPIL'IPjALzHAIzP(D)IPjABFA

g
PN(AOL’1(P“A
Features of Ipv6 to support mobility
io led
 9BA/O(’IL'A?(’NLzI/?/AL)(Az((H(HAFB)A/(’S)IzDA?BRI'(A-–A)(DI/P)LPIBz“A-zA(3()jA-O3_AzBH(AKyy5v33xKgL4xN4fLUDg5KLU4fA
I“(“APN(A?(’NLzI/?AFB)AL’‘SI)IzDALA7G6AI/AIzRSI'P“A
ic ow

 HvUDP745xyU3N4/v5zA?(’NLzI/?AI/AL'/BA?LzHLPB)jAFB)A(3()jA-O3_AzBH(“A;BA/O(’IL'AFB)(IDzALD(zP/AL)(AzBA'BzD()Az((H(HA
PBALH3()PI/(A/()3I’(/“A
n

bl kn

7B?RIzIzDA PN(A F(LPS)(/A BFA LHH)(//A LSPBA ’BzFIDS)LPIBzA LzHA z(IDNRB)A HI/’B3()jA (zLR'(/A (3()jA -O3_A ?BRI'(A zBH(A PBA
’)(LP(ALzHABRPLIzALAPBOB'BDI’L''jA’B))(’PALHH)(//AB)APN(A’S))(zPAOBIzPABFALPPL’N?(zP“A

at

”3()jA-O3_AzBH(A’LzA/(zHARIzHIzDASOHLP(/APBALzBPN()AzBH(5A/BAPN(A49A’LzA/(zHAIP/A7G6AHI)(’P'jAPBAPN(A79ALzHA=6“AUN(A
Pu ch

Q6AI/AzBA'BzD()Az((H(H“AUN(A79AAAO)B’(//(/APN(ARIzHIzDASOHLP(/ALzHA?L1(/A’B))(/OBzHIzDA(zP)I(/AIzAIP/A)BSPIzDA’L’N(“A
 UN(A49AI/AzB2ALR'(APBA[A
Te

o V(’LO/S'LP(/APN(AOL’1(P/A
o UBAH(P(’PA2N(zAIPAz((H/ALAz(2A7G6ALzHA
o UBAH(P()?Iz(A2N(zAPBA/(zHARIzHIzDASOHLP(/APBAPN(A=6ALzHA79A
 6A34LLxPKfy4/v5xI/AOB//IR'(A2IPNA-O3_“AUN(A49A/(zH/AIP/Az(2A7G6APBAPN(AB'HA)BSP()A/()3IzDAPN(A49ALPAPN(AB'HA7G65ALzHA
PN(AB'HA)BSP()A’LzA(z’LO/S'LP(AL''AIz’B?IzDAOL’1(P/AFB)APN(A49ALzHAFB)2L)H/APN(?APBAz(2A7G6“A

3.4 Routing
 XBSPIzDA IzA 2I)('(//A LHaNB’A z(P2B)1/A I/A HIFF()(zPA LzHA ’B?O'I’LP(HA PNLzA 2I)(HA z(P2B)1/A B)A 2I)('(//A z(P2B)1/A 2IPNA
IzF)L/P)S’PS)(“AUNI/AHIFF()(z’(A’LzAR(A(:O'LIz(HARjA(:L?O'(A/NB2zAIzAQID“AY“^“X“A
 QID“AY“^“XA/NB2/APN(Az(P2B)1APBOB'BDjALPAP2BAHIFF()(zPAPI?(AP(ALzHAP)*AA
 ;(3(zAzBH(/AL)(A’Bzz(’P(HAH(O(zHIzDASOBzAPN(A’S))(zPAP)Lz/?I//IBzA’NL)L’P()I/PI’/AR(P2((zAPN(?“AA
 6PAPI?(AP!AzBH(A9^A’LzA)(’(I3(A9XAB3()ALADBBHA'Iz15ARSPA9XA)(’(I3(/A9^A3ILALA2(L1A'Iz1“A*Iz1/A?LjAzBPANL3(APN(A/L?(A
’NL)L’P()I/PI’/AIzARBPNAHI)(’PIBz/“AA
 UN(A /IPSLPIBzA ?LjA ’NLzD(A LPA PI?(A P)A 9XA ’LzzBPA )(’(I3(A 9^A LzjA 'BzD()5A 9^A ’LzA )(’(I3(A 9XA 3ILA LA 2(L1A 'Iz1“A 9(P2B)1A
PBOB'BDjAI/AF)(‘S(zP'jA’NLzD(HAIzALHaNB’Az(P2B)1/“AA
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-25 Mobile Networking

Fig. 3.4.1 : Ad-hoc network example

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A UN(A?LIzAHIFF()(z’(AR(P2((zALHaNB’ALzHA2I)(HAz(P2B)1/AHS(APBAPNI/A)BSPIzDAIzALHaNB’Az(P2B)1/AL)(AHIFF()(zPAL)(AL/A
FB''B2/A[A

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1. Asymmetric links
io led
 *Iz1/AL)(AzBPA/j??(P)I’AIzARBPNAHI)(’PIBz/AL/A2(ANL3(A/((z“A9BH(A9WA’LzA)(’(I3(A9XARSPA9XA’LzzBPA)(’(I3(A/IDzL'/A
F)B?A9W“AA
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 UNS/A)BSPIzDAIzFB)?LPIBzA’B''(’P(HAFB)ABz(AHI)(’PIBzAI/AzBPAS/(FS'AFB)ABPN()AHI)(’PIBz“A
 =B2(3()A?LzjA)BSPIzDAL'DB)IPN?/AFB)A2I)(HAz(P2B)1/A)('jABzALA/j??(P)I’A/’(zL)IB“A
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2. Redundant links
bl kn

 CI)(HAz(P2B)1ANL3(A)(HSzHLzPA'Iz1APBA/S)3I3(A'Iz1AFLI'S)(5ARSPAPNI/A)(HSzHLz’jAI/A'I?IP(H“A
at


Pu ch

-zALHaNB’Az(P2B)1/APN()(A?IDNPAR(A?LzjA)(HSzHLzPA'Iz1/ASOAPBANIDNA’B?O'(:IPj“A
 XBSPIzDA L'DB)IPN?/A IzA 2I)(HA z(P2B)1A ’LzA NLzH'(A SOA PBA /B?(A )(HSzHLz’j5A RSPA LA 'L)D(A )(HSzHLz’jA ’LzA ’LS/(A LA
Te

'L)D(A’B?OSPLPIBzL'AB3()N(LHAFB)A)BSPIzDAPLR'(ASOHLP(/“A
3. Interference
 -zA LHaNB’A z(P2B)1/A 'Iz1/A ’B?(/A LzHA DBA H(O(zHIzDA BzA PN(A P)Lz/?I//IBzA ’NL)L’P()I/PI’/5A Bz(A P)Lz/?I//IBzA ?LjA
IzP()F()(A2IPNABPN()5ALzHAzBH(/A?IDNPAB3()N(L)APN(AP)Lz/?I//IBz/ABFABPN()AzBH(/“AA
 -zP()F()(z’(A’NLz’(/AIzA2I)('(//ALHaNB’Az(P2B)1/AL)(A3()jANIDN“A
4. Dynamic topology
 UNI/AI/APN(AD)(LP(/PAO)BR'(?AIzA)BSPIzDAFB)ALHaNB’Az(P2B)1/“A
 4BRI'(A zBH(/A ?B3(/A B)A ?(HIS?A ’NL)L’P()I/PI’/A ?IDNPA ’NLzD(A F)(‘S(zP'j“A UNI/A )(/S'P/A F)(‘S(zPA ’NLzD(/A IzA
PBOB'BDjA L/A /NB2zA IzA QID“A Y“^“XA 0LPA PI?(hP)+“A VS(A PBA ’NLzD(A IzA PBOB'BDj5A IzA LHaNB’A z(P2B)1/A PN(A )BSPIzDA PLR'(/A
NL3(APBAR(ASOHLP(HAF)(‘S(zP'j“A
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1. Table-Driven routing protocols (Proactive)
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 4LzjABFAPN(/(A)BSPIzDAO)BPB’B'/A’B?(AF)B?APN(A'Iz1a/PLP(A)BSPIzD“AA
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-26 Mobile Networking

Examples of proactive routing protocols

 Destination Sequence Distance Vector (DSDV)
 Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR)
 Fisheye State Routing (FSR)
 Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP)
Advantage
 These protocols can give good real time traffic QoS.
 Route availability reduces delay (no route acquisition delay)
Disadvantage
 The proactive protocols are not suitable for larger networks, as they need to maintain node entries for each and every
node in the routing table of every node. This causes more overhead in the routing table leading to consumption of

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more bandwidth.

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 Possibly inefficient (due to unnecessary signaling message overhead)
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 Redundant routes may exist
 Some computed routes may not be needed
2. On Demand routing protocols (Reactive)
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 These protocols are also called reactive protocols since they don’t maintain routing information or routing activity at
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the network nodes if there is no communication.
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 If a node wants to send a packet to another node then this protocol searches for the route in an on-demand manner
and establishes the connection in order to transmit and receive the packets.
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 The route discovery usually occurs by flooding the route request packets throughout the network.
Examples of Reactive routing protocols
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 Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)

 Ad-hoc On demand Distance Vector (AODV)
Advantage
 Eliminates periodic route advertisements
 May reduce power and bandwidth requirements.
Disadvantage
 Adds route-acquisition delay
 May cause more signaling if route expiration times are too short

3.4.1 Destination Sequence Distance Vector Routing (DSDV)

DSDV is a proactive table driven mobile ad-hoc network routing protocol. It is an enhancement of distance vector
routing (Bellman Ford algorithm).
Problems with Distance Vector
 In Distance vector routing each node exchanges its routing table periodically with its neighbors.
 Each node uses its local information for creating its routing table.
 However, the local information may be old and invalid. This is because changes at one node in the network propagate
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-27 Mobile Networking

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DSDV now adds two things to the distance vector algorithm.
1. Sequence numbers
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2. Damping

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-28 Mobile Networking

Advantages of DSDV
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Disadvantages of DSDV
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PBOB'BDjALPA(L’NAzBH(“AA
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 ;O(’IL'A’L)(A/NBS'HAR(APL1(zAPBA)(HS’(APN(AzS?R()ABFA’BzP)B'A?(//LD(/“A

3.4.2 Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)

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
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H(/PIzLPIBzAzBH(ALzHAH(OB/IP/APN(ALHH)(//(/ABFAPN(AIzP()?(HILP(AzBH(/ABFAPN(A)BSP(AIzAPN(AOL’1(P/“A
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1. Route Discovery

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1zB2zA)BSP(“A

Fig. 3.4.2 : Route Discovery example

 -FAzBH(A6ANL/AIzANI/AXBSP(A7L’N(ALA)BSP(APBAPN(AH(/PIzLPIBzA”5APNI/A)BSP(AI/AI??(HILP('jAS/(H“A-FAzBP5APN(AXBSP(A
VI/’B3()jAO)BPB’B'AI/A/PL)P(HA[A
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L')(LHjA'I/P(HAIzAPN(AXBSP(AX(’B)H5AUN(zAzBH(AKAHI/’L)H/APN(A)(‘S(/PsA
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-29 Mobile Networking

2. Route Maintenance
 -zAV;XA(3()jAzBH(AI/A)(/OBz/IR'(AFB)A’BzFI)?IzDAPNLPAPN(Az(:PANBOAIzAPN(A;BS)’(AXBSP(A)(’(I3(/APN(AOL’1(P“A6'/BA(L’NA
OL’1(PAI/ABz'jAFB)2L)H(HABz’(ARjALAzBH(A0NBOaRjaNBOA)BSPIzD+“AA
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LzBPN()A)BSP(APBAPN(APL)D(P“AA
 -FAPN()(AI/AzBA)BSP(AIzAPN(A’L’N(5ALAXBSP(AX(‘S(/PAOL’1(PAI/AR)BLH’L/P(H“A

Fig. 3.4.3 : Route maintenance example

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Optimization to route discovery
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Pu ch

DSR Advantages

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 X(HS’(/AB3()N(LHABFA)BSP(A?LIzP(zLz’(A
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DSR Disadvantages
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 Q'BBHABFA)BSP(A)(‘S(/P/A?LjAOBP(zPIL''jA)(L’NAL''AzBH(/AIzAPN(Az(P2B)1“A
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-30 Mobile Networking

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-31 Mobile Networking

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Fig. 3.4.4 : DSR route discovery, Step1 to Step7

3.5 Mobile TCP

MU – May 12, Dec. 12, Dec. 13, May 14, May 15)

Q. Explain snooping TCP and mobile TCP with their merits and demerits. (May 12, Dec. 13, 10 Marks)
Q. Discuss Mobile Transport Layer. (Dec. 12, 5 Marks)
Q. Explain merits and demerits of snooping TCP and indirect TCP? (May 14, 5 Marks)
Q. Explain the functioning of I-TCP and SNOOP -TCP, giving advantages and disadvantages of both.(May 15, 10 Marks)

3.5.1 Traditional TCP

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 UN(AP)LHIPIBzL'AU7–AHB(/AzBPA’Bz/IH()AO)BO()PI(/ABFA2I)('(//Az(P2B)1A/S’NAL/A'I?IP(HARLzH2IHPN5A'BzDA'LP(z’j5ANIDNARIPA
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-32 Mobile Networking

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1. Congestion Control
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 UN(A)(’(I3()A’BzPIzS(/APBAL’1zB2'(HD(AL''AIza/(‘S(z’(AOL’1(P/ASOAPBAPN(A?I//IzDABz(“AAAA

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 UN(A )(’(I3()A zBPI’(/A PN(A ?I//IzDA L’1zB2'(HD(?(zPA BFA PN(A 'B/PA OL’1(PA LzHA L//S?(/A LA OL’1(PA I/A 'B/PA HS(A PBA

g
’BzD(/PIBz“A

io led
X(P)Lz/?IPPIzDAPN(A'B/PAOL’1(PALzHA’BzPIzSIzDAPBA/(zHAOL’1(P/ALPAFS''A/(zHIzDA)LP(A2BS'HABz'jAIz’)(L/(A’BzD(/PIBz“A
 UBA)(HS’(A’BzD(/PIBz5APN(AP)Lz/?I//IBzA)LP(AI/A/'B2(HAHB2zA’Bz/IH()LR'jARjAU7–“A
 6''A BPN()A U7–A ’Bzz(’PIBz/A 2IPNA PN(A /L?(A O)BR'(?A FB''B2A PN(A /L?(A O)B’(//“A KjA HBIzDA PNI/5A PN(A ’BzD(/PIBzA I/A
ic ow

)(/B'3(HA/BBz“A
 UNI/AR(NL3IB)ABFAU7–AHS)IzDA’BzD(/PIBzAI/A’L''(HA3H4,U3LK5L“AA
n

bl kn

U7–A(z/S)(/APNLPA(3(zASzH()AN(L3jA'BLHAPN(AL3LI'LR'(ARLzH2IHPNA2I''AR(A/NL)(HA(‘SL''j“AA
2. Slow start
at


Pu ch

UN(AR(NL3IB)ABFAU7–ALFP()AH(P(’PIBzABFA’BzD(/PIBzAI/A’L''(HA/'B2A/PL)P“AA
 -PAI/AS/(HAPBA)(/B'3(A’BzD(/PIBzA‘SI’1'j“A
Te

Slow-start working
 ;(zH()A’L'’S'LP(/ALA’BzD(/PIBzA2IzHB2AFB)APN(A)(’(I3()“AUN(A/PL)PA/IV(ABFA2IzHB2AI/ABz(A/(D?(zPA0U7–AOL’1(P+“A
 UN(A /(zH()A /(zH/A Bz(A OL’1(PA LzHA 2LIP/A FB)A LzA L’1zB2'(HD(?(zP“A -FA PNI/A L’1zB2'(HD(?(zPA L))I3(/5A PN(A /(zH()A
Iz’)(L/(/APN(A’BzD(/PIBzA2IzHB2ARjABz(“A6zHAzB2A/(zH/AP2BAOL’1(P/A0’BzD(/PIBzA2IzHB2AhAW+“AA
 6FP()A L))I3L'A BFA P2BA ’B))(/OBzHIzDA L’1zB2'(HD(?(zP/5A PN(A /(zH()A LHH/A WA IzA PN(A ’BzD(/PIBzA 2IzHB25A Bz(A FB)A (L’NA
L’1zB2'(HD(?(zP“A
 UNI/A/’N(?(AHBSR'(/APN(A’BzD(/PIBzA2IzHB2A(3()jAPI?(APN(AL’1zB2'(HD(?(zPAL))I3(/“AUNI/AI/A’L''(HAL/ALzAvFJ4fvfLUKHx
UfN5vK3v^xLzHAIPA’BzPIzS(/API''ALA’()PLIzA3L'S(A’L''(HAL/AN4fDv3LU4fxLP5v3P4Hy“A
 Gz’(A ’BzD(/PIBzA 2IzHB2A ’)B//(/A PN(A ’BzD(/PIBzA PN)(/NB'H5A FS)PN()A Iz’)(L/(A IzA P)Lz/?I//IBzA )LP(A I/A 'Iz(L)A I“(“A
’BzD(/PIBzA2IzHB2AI/AIz’)(L/(HARjABz(A(L’NAPI?(APN(AL’1zB2'(HD(?(zPAI/A)(’(I3(H“A
 UNI/A'Iz(L)AIz’)(L/(A’BzPIzS(/API''APN(A/(zH()AH(P(’P/APN(AOL’1(PA'B//“A
 Gz’(APN(AOL’1(PA'B//AI/AH(P(’P(HiAPN(A/(zH()A/(P/APN(A’BzD(/PIBzAPN)(/NB'HAPBANL'FABFAIP/A’S))(zPA’BzD(/PIBzA2IzHB2A
LzHA’BzD(/PIBzA2IzHB2AI/A/(PAPBABz(“AUN(ALRB3(A/P(O/AL)(A)(O(LP(HALDLIz“A
3. Fast retransmit/fast recovery
 UN(A/(zH()AH(P(’P/APN(A'B//ABFAOL’1(P/AIzAP2BA2Lj/“A
A 0I+A -FALAPI?(aBSPAB’’S)/ALPAPN(A)(’(I3()5AIzAPNLPA’L/(APN(A/(zH()AL’PI3LP(/AzB)?L'A/'B2A/PL)P“A
A 0II+A -FAPN(A/(zH()A)(’(I3(/A’BzPIzSBS/AL’1zB2'(HD(?(zP/AFB)APN(A/L?(AOL’1(PA0VSO'I’LP(AL’1zB2'(HD(?(zP/+“A
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-33 Mobile Networking

 -FA PNI/A I/A PN(A ’L/(5A PN(zA PN(A /(zH()A ’LzA H(HS’(A P2BA PNIzD/A aA Bz(A I/A PNLPA PN(A )(’(I3()A DBPA L''A OL’1(P/A SOA PBA PN(A
L’1zB2'(HD(?(zPA IzA /(‘S(z’(A LzHA /(’BzHA I/A PNLPA PN(A )(’(I3()A I/A ’BzPIzSBS/'jA )(’(I3IzDA /B?(PNIzDA F)B?A PN(A
/(zH()“AAUN()(FB)(5APN(AOL’1(P/A?S/PANL3(AR((zA'B/PAHS(APBA/I?O'(AP)Lz/?I//IBzA())B)ALzHAzBPAHS(APBAz(P2B)1A
’BzD(/PIBz“A
 UN(A/(zH()A’LzAzB2A)(P)Lz/?IPAPN(A?I//IzDAOL’1(P0/+AR(FB)(APN(API?()A(:OI)(/“AUNI/AR(NL3IB)AI/A’L''(HAL/ALALK3Lx
5vL5Kf3EUL“AA
 UN(A )(’(IOPA BFA LzA L’1zB2'(HD(?(zP/A /NB2A PNLPA PN()(A I/A zBA ’BzD(/PIBzA PBA US/PIFjA LA /'B2A /PL)P“A UN(A /(zH()A ’LzA
’BzPIzS(A2IPNAPN(A’S))(zPA’BzD(/PIBzA2IzHB2“AUN(A/(zH()AO()FB)?/ALAFL/PA)(’B3()jAF)B?APN(AOL’1(PA'B//“A
 UNI/A?(’NLzI/?AI?O)B3(/APN(A(FFI’I(z’jABFAU7–AH)L?LPI’L''j“A
4. Implication on mobility
UN()(AL)(A?LzjAO)BR'(?/APNLPAH(D)LH(APN(AO()FB)?Lz’(ABFAU7–“A
Transmission errors

e
A U7–AL//S?(/A’BzD(/PIBzAIFAOL’1(P/AL)(AH)BOO(H“AUNI/AI/AzBPAL'2Lj/AP)S(AFB)A2I)('(//Az(P2B)1/5A2N()(ABFP(z5AOL’1(PA'B//A

g
I/AHS(APBAP)Lz/?I//IBzA())B)/“AA
io led
Mobility (i.e. handoff)
A 4BRI'IPjA 0I“(“A NLzHBFF+A IP/('FA ’LzA ’LS/(A OL’1(PA 'B//5A IFA (“D“A LA ?BRI'(A zBH(A )BL?/A F)B?A Bz(A L’’(//A OBIzPA 0(“D“A FB)(IDzA
ic ow

LD(zPAIzA4BRI'(A-–+APBALzBPN()A2NI'(APN()(AL)(A/PI''AOL’1(P/AIzAP)Lz/IPAPBAPN(A2)BzDAL’’(//AOBIzPALzHAFB)2L)HIzDAI/AzBPA
OB//IR'(“A
n
High delay
bl kn

A CI)('(//Az(P2B)1/ANL3(ALA’Bz/IH()LR'jA'BzD()A'LP(z’jA0H('Lj+APNLzA2I)(HAz(P2B)1“A
Battery powered devices
at
Pu ch

4BRI'(A H(3I’(/A L)(A RLPP()jA OB2()(HA LzHA N(z’(A OB2()A I/A LA /’L)’(A /BS)’(“A –)BPB’B'A H(/IDz(HA FB)A ?BRI'(A B)A 2I)('(//A
z(P2B)1/A/NBS'HAR(AOB2()A(FFI’I(zP“AAA
Te

Limited Bandwidth
 63LI'LR'(ARLzH2IHPNA2IPNIzALA’(''A?LjA’NLzD(AH)L?LPI’L''j“AUNI/A'(LH/APBAHIFFI’S'PI(/AIzADSL)LzP((IzDAmB;AOL)L?(P()/A
/S’NAL/AH('LjARBSzH/ALzHARLzH2IHPNADSL)LzP((/“A
 BH4,x 3LK5LA I/A PN(A ?(’NLzI/?A BFA P)LHIPIBzL'A U7–A FB)A 2I)(HA z(P2B)1A PBA H(L'A ’BzD(/PIBz“A -zA PNLP5A U7–A L//S?(/A OL’1(PA
'B//(/AHS(APBA’BzD(/PIBz“A=B2(3()5AIzA2I)('(//Az(P2B)1APN()(A’BS'HAR(A/B?(ABPN()A)(L/Bz/APNLPA’LS/(AOL’1(PA'B//A/S’NA
L/AK”X5ALzHAF)(‘S(zPAHI/’Bzz(’PIBz/ARjANLzHBFF“AAAA
 -FA2(AS/(AP)LHIPIBzL'AU7–AIzA2I)('(//A(z3I)Bz?(zP5AIPAH)L/PI’L''jA)(HS’(/APN(A’BzD(/PIBzA2IzHB2A/IV(ALzHAHBSR'(/APN(A
P)Lz/?I//IBzA PI?(BSPA 3L'S(“A UNI/A Szz(’(//L)jA ’BzD(/PIBzA ’BzP)B'A )(HS’(/A PN(A SPI'IVLPIBzA )LP(A BFA PN(A RLzH2IHPN5A
)(HS’(/APN(Az(P2B)1AO()FB)?Lz’(A/(3()('j“A
 ;()IL'A PI?(aBSPA LPA U7–A /(zH()A H(D)LH(/A B3()L''A PN)BSDNOSPA ?B)(A PNLzA 'B//(/A HS(A PBA RIPA ())B)/A B)A /?L''A ’BzD(/PIBzA
2IzHB2AHB“A
 =(z’(A2(A)(‘SI)(HAPBA’NLzD(AU7–AFB)A?BRI'(A(z3I)Bz?(zP“AUN()(AL)(A'L)D(AzS?R()ABFAH(3I’(/ALzHALOO'I’LPIBz/APNLPA
L)(AS/IzDA’S))(zPAU7–iAIPAI/AzBPAOB//IR'(APBA’NLzD(AU7–A’B?O'(P('jAUS/PAPBA/SOOB)PA?BRI'(AS/()/AB)A2I)('(//A'Iz1/“A
 UN()(FB)(ALzjA(zNLz’(?(zPAPBAU7–ANL/APBAR(A’B?OLPIR'(A2IPNAPN(A/PLzHL)HAU7–“AA

3.5.2 Classical TCP improvements

 -zA?BHIFI(HAU7–5AFB''B2IzDA’NL)L’P()I/PI’/AL)(AH(/I)(HA[A
X“A -?O)B3(APN(AU7–AO()FB)?Lz’(AFB)A?BRI'(A(zPIPI(/“A
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-34 Mobile Networking

W“A 4LIzP(zLz’(ABFA(zHaPBa(zHAU7–A/(?LzPI’/“A
Y“A 4IzI?IV(APN(AO)BR'(?A’LS/(HARjA'(zDPNjAHI/’Bzz(’PIBz/AB)ARjAF)(‘S(zPAHI/’Bzz(’PIBz/“A
^“A 6HUS/PA2IPNAHjzL?I’L''jA’NLzDIzDARLzH2IHPNAB3()APN(AL')(LHjA/PL)3(HA2I)('(//A'Iz1“A
<“A 4L1(A/S)(APNLPAPN(ANLzHBFFA?LzLD(?(zPAI/A(FFI’I(zP“A
 UN(A FB''B2IzDA /(’PIBz/A O)(/(zPA /B?(A ’'L//I’L'A /B'SPIBz/A PNLPA ’LzA R(A S/(HA PBA ?BHIFjA /PLzHL)HA U7–A PBA I?O)B3(A PN(A
O()FB)?Lz’(ABFA2I)('(//A(z3I)Bz?(zP“A

3.5.2(a) Indirect TCP (I-TCP)

MU - May 13, May 14, May 15, Dec. 15, May 17, May 18)

Q. Explain I-TCP in detail. (May 13, 10 Marks)

Q. Explain merits and demerits of indirect TCP ? (May 14, 5 Marks)
Q. Explain functioning of I-TCP and Snooping TCP. Giving advantages and disadvantages of both.
(May 15, May 17, 10 Marks)

e
Q. Explain the functioning of Mobile TCP. (Dec. 15, 5 Marks)

g
Q. Explain any two TCP for Mobile communication. (May 18, 5 Marks)
io led
 UN()(AL)(AP2BAFL’P/[ABz(AI/APNLPAU7–AO()FB)?/AOBB)'jAPBD(PN()A2IPNA2I)('(//A'Iz1/ALzHA/(’BzHAI/APNLPAU7–A2IPNIzAPN(A
FI:(HAz(P2B)1A’LzzBPAR(A’NLzD(H“A
ic ow

 QID“AY“<“XA/NB2/ALzA(:L?O'(A2IPNALA?BRI'(ANB/PA’Bzz(’P(HA3ILALA2I)('(//A'Iz1ALzHALzAL’’(//AOBIzPAPBAPN(A2I)(HAIzP()z(PA
2N()(APN(A’B))(/OBzH(zPAzBH(A)(/IH(/“AUN(A’B))(/OBzH(zPAzBH(A’BS'HAL'/BAS/(A2I)('(//AL’’(//“A
n
 -aU7–A/(OL)LP(/ALAU7–A’Bzz(’PIBzAIzPBAP2BAOL)P/A[ALAFI:(HALzHALA2I)('(//AOL)P“A
bl kn

o 0UFvyxJK5LxU3AR(P2((zAPN(A?BRI'(A/SOOB)PA)BSP()A0L’’(//AOBIzP+ALzHAPN(AFI:(HANB/PAB3()APN(AFI:(HAz(P2B)1“A
o
at

_U5vHv33xJK5LAI/AR(P2((zAPN(A4=A04BRI'(ANB/P+ALzHAIP/AL’’(//AOBIzPAB3()APN(A2I)('(//A?(HIS?“A
Pu ch

 ;PLzHL)HAU7–AI/AS/(HAR(P2((zAPN(AFI:(HA’B?OSP()ALzHAPN(AL’’(//AOBIzP“AA
 6ADBBHAOBIzPAFB)A/(D?(zPIzDAPN(A’Bzz(’PIBzAR(P2((zA?BRI'(ANB/PALzHA’B))(/OBzH(zPANB/PAI/ALPAPN(AFB)(IDzALD(zPABFA
Te

?BRI'(A-–“A
 UN(A FB)(IDzA LD(zPA I/A )(/OBz/IR'(A FB)A ’BzP)B''IzDA PN(A S/()A ?BRI'IPj“A 6zHA HS)IzDA NLzHB3()5A FB)(IDzA LD(zPA P)Lz/F()/A PN(A
’Bzz(’PIBzAPBAPN(Az(2AFB)(IDzALD(zP“A
 UN(AFB)(IDzALD(zPAL’P/AL/ALAO)B:jALzHA)('Lj/AL''AHLPLAIzARBPNAHI)(’PIBz/“AA

Fig. 3.5.1 : Indirect TCP

UN()(A?LjAR(AFB''B2IzDA/’(zL)IB/“A
1. Correspondent host sends a packet to mobile host
 ;Iz’(APN(A’B))(/OBzH(zPAzBH(AI/ALAFI:(HAzBH(5AIPA/(zH/ALAU7–AOL’1(PA3ILALA/PLzHL)HAU7–“A
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-35 Mobile Networking

 6zAL’’(//AOBIzPA)(’(I3(/APNLPAOL’1(PALzHA/(zH/ALzAL’1zB2'(HD(?(zPAPBALAFI:(HANB/PAFB)APN(A)(’(I3(HAOL’1(P“A
 UN(AL’’(//AOBIzPARSFF()/APN(AOL’1(PALzHAFB)2L)H/APNI/AOL’1(PAPBALA?BRI'(ANB/PAS/IzDA2I)('(//AU7–“A
 -FAPN()(AI/ALzjAP)Lz/?I//IBzA())B)ABzA2I)('(//A'Iz1APN(zAL’’(//AOBIzPA)(P)Lz/?IP/APNLPAOL’1(PAIz/P(LHABFAFI:(HANB/PA
)(P)Lz/?IPPIzDAIP“A0UNI/AI/AL'/BA’L''(HA'B’L'A)(P)Lz/?I//IBz+“AA
 Gz’(APN(AL’1zB2'(HD(?(zPAI/A)(’(I3(HAFB)APN(AOL’1(PAFB)?APN(A?BRI'(ANB/PiAPN(AL’’(//AOBIzPAPN(zA)(?B3(/APNLPA
OL’1(PAF)B?AIP/ARSFF()“A
 UNS/APN(AL’’(//AOBIzPAL’P/AL/ALAO)B:j“A
2. Mobile host transmits a packet to a fixed host
 4BRI'(ANB/PA/(zH/ALAU7–AOL’1(PALzHAL’’(//AOBIzPA)(’(I3(/APNLPAOL’1(PALzHA/(zH/ALzAL’1zB2'(HD(?(zPAPBA?BRI'(A
NB/P“A
 -FALAOL’1(PAI/A'B/PALPA2I)('(//A'Iz1APN(zAPN(A?BRI'(ANB/PAzBPI’(/APNI/A(3(zPA?S’NAFL/P()ALzHA)(P)Lz/?IP/APN(AOL’1(P“A
 UN(AL’’(//AOBIzPAPN(zAP)Lz/?IP/APNLPAOL’1(PAPBAPN(AFI:(HANB/PA3ILA/PLzHL)HAU7–A’Bzz(’PIBz“A

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 -FALAOL’1(PAI/A'B/PAIzA2I)(HAz(P2B)1APN(zAQ6ANLzH'(/APN(A)(P)Lz/?I//IBz/“A

g
 6FP()A)(’(I3IzDAPN(AL’1zB2'(HD(?(zPAPN(AOL’1(PAI/A)(?B3(HAF)B?APN(ARSFF()“A
io led
3. The mobile host moves to a new location and handover takes place
 CN(zA?BRI'(ANB/PA?B3(/APBALAz(2A'B’LPIBz5AIPA)(DI/P()/A2IPNAz(2AFB)(IDzALD(zP“A6FP()A)(DI/P)LPIBzAPN(Az(2AFB)(IDzA
ic ow

LD(zPAIzFB)?/APN(AB'HAFB)(IDzALD(zPALRBSPAIP/A’S))(zPA'B’LPIBz“A
 UN(A B'HA FB)(IDzA LD(zPA FB)2L)H/A L''A PN(A RSFF()(HA OL’1(P/A PBA z(2A FB)(IDzA LD(zPA L/A PN(A OL’1(PA IzA PN(A RSFF()A NL3(A
n
L')(LHjAR((zAL’1zB2'(HD(H“A
bl kn

 CIPNAPN(ARSFF()(HAHLPLAPN(A/B’1(P/ABFAPN(AL’’(//AOBIzPA?S/PAL'/BA?ID)LP(APBAPN(Az(2AFB)(IDzALD(zP“AUNI/AI/A/NB2zA
IzAQID“AY“<“W“A
at
Pu ch
Te

Fig. 3.5.2 : Socket migration after handover of a mobile host

 UN(A/B’1(PA)(F'(’P/APN(A’S))(zPA/PLP(ABFAPN(AU7–A’Bzz(’PIBzAI“(“A/(‘S(z’(AzS?R()5ALHH)(//(/5AOB)PAzS?R()/A(P’“A
 UN(ANLzHB3()AI/AP)Lz/OL)(zPAPBAPN(A’B))(/OBzH(zPANB/PALzHAzBAz(2A’Bzz(’PIBzAI/A(/PLR'I/N(HAFB)APN(A?BRI'(ANB/P“A
Advantages of I-TCP
 -aU7–AHB(/AzBPA)(‘SI)(ALzjA’NLzD(/AIzAPN(A/PLzHL)HAU7–AS/(HAFB)A2I)(HAz(P2B)1/“A
 VS(APBAPN(AOL)PIPIBzIzDAP)Lz/?I//IBzA())B)/ABzAPN(A2I)('(//A'Iz1A’LzzBPAO)BOLDLP(AIzPBAPN(AFI:(HAz(P2B)1“A
 -PAI/A/I?O'(APBA’BzP)B'5A?BRI'(AU7–AI/AS/(HABz'jAFB)ABz(ANBOAR(P2((z5A(“D“5ALAFB)(IDzALD(zPALzHA?BRI'(ANB/P“A
 6A3()jAFL/PA)(P)Lz/?I//IBzABFAOL’1(P/AI/AOB//IR'(5APN(A/NB)PAH('LjABzAPN(A?BRI'(ANBOAI/A1zB2z“A
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-36 Mobile Networking

 VS(APBAPN(A/(D?(zPLPIBzABFAPN(AU7–A’Bzz(’PIBz5APN(A?BRI'(ANB/PALzHA’B))(/OBzH(zPANB/PA’LzAS/(AHIFF()(zPAP)Lz/OB)PA
'Lj()AO)BPB’B'/“A
 VIFF()(zPA/B'SPIBz/APBABOPI?IV(APN(AP)Lz/F()AB3()APN(A2I)('(//A'Iz1A’LzAR(AP(/P(HAB)A’L))I(HABSPA2IPNBSPAOSPPIzDABFAPN(A
-zP()z(PALPA)I/1“A
Disadvantages of I-TCP
 -PA'B//(/A(zHaPBa(zHA/(?LzPI’/iALzAL’1zB2'(HD(?(zPA/(zPARjAL’’(//AOBIzPAPBALA/(zH()AHB(/AzB2AzBA'BzD()A?(LzAPNLPALA
)(’(I3()A )(L''jA DBPA LA OL’1(P“A -FA LA FB)(IDzA LD(zPA ’)L/N(/A R(FB)(A /(zHIzDA L’1zB2'(HD(HA OL’1(PA PBA LA ?BRI'(A NB/PiA PN(A
/(zH()ANL/AzBA2LjAPBAFIzHABSPA2N(PN()AOL’1(P/ANL3(AR((zA)(’(I3(HAB)AzBP“A
 =IDN()A NLzHB3()A 'LP(z’jA I/A ?B)(A O)BR'(?LPI’“A 6''A OL’1(P/A /(zPA RjA ’B))(/OBzH(zPA NB/PA L)(A RSFF()(HA RjA PN(A FB)(IDzA
LD(zP“A-FALA?BRI'(ANB/PA’NLzD(/AIP/A'B’LPIBz5AB'HAFB)(IDzALD(zPANL/APBAFB)2L)HAPN(ARSFF()(HAOL’1(P/APBAPN(Az(2AFB)(IDzA
LD(zPAL/APN(jANL3(AL')(LHjAR((zAL’1zB2'(HD(HARjAPN(AB'HAL’’(//AOBIzP“A
 UN(AFB)(IDzALD(zPA?S/PAR(ALAP)S/P(HA(zPIPjAR(’LS/(AU7–A’Bzz(’PIBzA(zH/ALPAPNI/AOBIzP“A

e
3.5.2(b) Snooping TCP (S-TCP)

g
io led (MU – May 12, Dec. 13, May 14, May 15, May 17, May 18)

Q. Explain snooping TCP with its merits and demerits. (May 12, Dec. 13, May 14, 5 Marks)
Q. Explain the functioning of SNOOP -TCP, give advantages and disadvantages. (May 15, 10 Marks)
Q. Explain functioning of I-TCP and Snooping TCP. Giving advantages and disadvantages of both.
ic ow

(May 15, May 17, 10 Marks)

n
Q. Explain any two TCP for Mobile communication. (May 18, 5 Marks)
bl kn

 ;zBBOIzDAU7–A2B)1/A’B?O'(P('jAP)Lz/OL)(zP'jALzHA'(L3(/APN(AU7–A(zHaPBa(zHA’Bzz(’PIBzAIzPL’P“AA

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-PAB3()’B?(/APN(A/B?(AH)L2RL’1/ABFAPN(A-aU7–“A
Pu ch
Te

Fig. 3.5.3 : Snooping TCP

A ;zBBOIzDAU7–A2B)1/AL/AFB''B2/A[A
1. Correspondent host sends a packet to mobile host
 7B))(/OBzH(zPANB/PA/(zH/ALAOL’1(PAPBA?BRI'(ANB/PA3ILA2I)(HAU7–A’Bzz(’PIBz“AUN(AL’’(//AOBIzPARSFF()/APN(AOL’1(PA
/(zPARjA’B))(/OBzH(zPANB/P“A
o 6’’(//AOBIzPAL'/BA/zBBO/ABzAPN(AOL’1(PAIzARBPNAHI)(’PIBz/APBA)(B)DLzIV(AL’1zB2'(HD(?(zP/“AA
o Gz’(A PN(A ?BRI'(A NB/PA )(’(I3(/A PN(A OL’1(P5A IPA /(zH/A LzA L’1zB2'(HD(?(zPA LzHA PNI/A L’1zB2'(HD(?(zPA L'/BA
OL//(/APN)BSDNAPN(AL’’(//AOBIzP“A
o -FAPN(AL’’(//AOBIzPAHB(/z>PA)(’(I3(ALzjAL’1zB2'(HD(?(zPAF)B?ALA?BRI'(ANB/PA2IPNIzA’()PLIzAL?BSzPABFAPI?(5A
PN(zA IPA )(P)Lz/?IP/A PN(A OL’1(PA F)B?A IP/A RSFF()5A O()FB)?IzDA LA ?S’NA FL/P()A )(P)Lz/?I//IBzA ’B?OL)(HA PBA PN(A
FI:(HANB/P“A
o UN(API?(aBSPAFB)AL’1zB2'(HD(?(zP/A’LzAR(A?S’NA/NB)P()5AR(’LS/(AIPA)(F'(’P/ABz'jAPN(AH('LjABFABz(ANBOAO'S/A
O)B’(//IzDAPI?(“A
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-37 Mobile Networking

o -PA I/A L'/BA OB//IR'(A PNLPA ?BRI'(A NB/PA /(zH/A HSO'I’LP(A L’1zB2'(HD(?(zP/A FB)A PN(A /L?(A OL’1(PA PBA IzHI’LP(A LA
OL’1(PA 'B//iA PN(A FB)(IDzA LD(zPA ’LzA FI'P()A PN(/(A HSO'I’LP(A L’1zB2'(HD(?(zP/A /B5A PNLPA Szz(’(//L)jA
)(P)Lz/?I//IBz/AF)B?APN(A’B))(/OBzH(zPANB/PA’LzAR(AL3BIH(H“A
2. Mobile host transmits a packet to a correspondent host
 CN(zA LA ?BRI'(A NB/PA /(zH/A LA OL’1(PA PBA ’B))(/OBzH(zPA NB/P5A PN(A FB)(IDzA LD(zPA 1((O/A A P)L’1A BFA PN(A /(‘S(z’(A
zS?R()/ABFAPN(/(AOL’1(P/“AA
 CN(zA LA FB)(IDzA LD(zPA H(P(’P/A LA DLOA IzA PN(A /(‘S(z’(A zS?R()/5A I“(“A OL’1(PA 'B//5A IPA /(zH/A LA z(DLPI3(A
L’1zB2'(HD(?(zPA0967l+APBAPN(A?BRI'(ANB/P“A
 Gz’(APN(A?BRI'(ANB/PA)(’(I3(/APN(A967l5AIPA’LzA)(P)Lz/?IPAPN(A?I//IzDAOL’1(PAI??(HILP('j“A
 X(B)H()IzDABFAPN(AOL’1(P/AI/AHBz(ALSPB?LPI’L''jALPAPN(A’B))(/OBzH(zPAzBH(ARjAU7–“A
A 9BP(A PNLPA PBA ?LIzPLIzA (zHaPBa(zHA /(?LzPI’/A BFA U7–5A FB)(IDzA LD(zPA ?S/PA zBPA L’1zB2'(HD(A HLPLA IP/('FA PBA PN(A
’B))(/OBzH(zPANB/PA0Iz/P(LHAQ6AFB)2L)H/APN(A67lA)(’(I3(HAF)B?APN(A4=+“AUNI/A(z/S)(/APN(A’B))(/OBzH(zPANB/PAPNLPA

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PN(A ?BRI'(A NB/PA NL/A L’PSL''jA )(’(I3(HA PN(A HLPL“A 9B2A IFA FB)(IDzA LD(zPA ’)L/N(/5A PN(A PI?(aBSPA ?(’NLzI/?A BFA

g
’B))(/OBzH(zPANB/PA/PI''A2B)1/ALzHAP)IDD()/ALA)(P)Lz/?I//IBzABFALA'B/PAOL’1(P“A
Advantages of Snooping-TCP
io led
 UN(A(zHaPBa(zHA/(?LzPI’/AL)(AO)(/()3(H“A
 7B))(/OBzH(zPANB/PAz((HAzBPAPBAR(A’NLzD(HiA?B/PABFAPN(A(zNLz’(?(zP/AL)(AHBz(AIzAPN(AFB)(IDzALD(zP“A
ic ow

 -PAHB(/z>PAz((HANLzHB3()ABFAPN(A/PLP(AL/A/BBzAL/APN(A?BRI'(ANB/PA?B3(/APBALzBPN()AFB)(IDzALD(zP“A6//S?(APN()(A?IDNPA
n
/PI''AR(AHLPLAIzAPN(ARSFF()AzBPAP)Lz/F())(HAPBAPN(Az(2AFB)(IDzALD(zP“A6''APNLPANLOO(z/AI/ALAPI?(aBSPALPAPN(A’B))(/OBzH(zPA
bl kn

NB/PALzHAPN(A)(P)Lz/?I//IBzABFAPN(AOL’1(P/APBAPN(Az(2AFB)(IDzALD(zP“A
 -PAHB(/z>PA?LPP()AIFAPN(Az(2AFB)(IDzALD(zPAS/(/APN(A(zNLz’(?(zPAB)AzBP“A-FAzBP5A/zBBOIzDAU7–ALSPB?LPI’L''jAFL''/ARL’1A
at

PBAPN(A/PLzHL)HA/B'SPIBz“A
Pu ch

Disadvantages of snooping TCP


Te

\/IzDA 967lA R(P2((zA FB)(IDzA LD(zPA LzHA PN(A ?BRI'(A NB/PA L//S?(/A LHHIPIBzL'A ?(’NLzI/?/A BzA ?BRI'(A NB/P“A UNI/A
LOO)BL’NAI/AzBA'BzD()AP)Lz/OL)(zPAFB)AL)RIP)L)jA?BRI'(ANB/P/“A
 ;zBBOIzDA U7–A HB(/A zBPA I/B'LP(A PN(A R(NL3IB)A BFA PN(A 2I)('(//A 'Iz1A F)B?A 2I)(HA 'Iz1A L/A IzA ’L/(A BFA -aU7–“A -FA PN(A H('LjA IzA
2I)('(//A'Iz1AI/A3()jANIDNAL/A’B?OL)(HAPBA2I)(HA'Iz15APN(API?()/ABFAPN(AL’’(//AOBIzPALzHAPN(A’B))(/OBzH(zPANB/PA2BS'HA
L'?B/PA R(A /L?(“A UNS/5A PN(A H('LjA BzA 2I)('(//A 'Iz1A LSPB?LPI’L''jA P)IDD()/A PI?(aBSPA IzA ’B))(/OBzH(zPA NB/PA LzHA ’LS/(/A
)(P)Lz/?I//IBz/“AUNS/APN(A(FF(’PI3(z(//ABFA;aU7–A’B?O'(P('jAH(O(zH/ABzAPN(A‘SL'IPjABFA2I)('(//A'Iz1“A
 -FAS/()ALOO'I(/A(zHaPBa(zHA(z’)jOPIBz5A;aU7–AFLI'/“AK(’LS/(AU7–AN(LH()A2BS'HAR(A(z’)jOP(HALzHAN(z’(A/zBBOIzDABzAPN(A
/(‘S(z’(AzS?R()/AI/A?(LzIzD'(//“AA

3.5.2(c) Mobile TCP (M-TCP)

MU – May 12, Dec. 13, May 13, Dec. 17, May 18)

Q. Explain M-TCP in detail. (May 13, 5 Marks)

Q. Explain mobile TCP with its merits and demerits. (May 12, Dec. 13, 5 Marks)
Q. Write a short note on M-TCP. (Dec. 17, 5 Marks)
Q. Explain any two TCP for Mobile communication. (May 18, 5 Marks)

 UN(AB’’S))(z’(ABFA'(zDPNjALzH8B)AF)(‘S(zPAHI/’Bzz(’PIBzAI/APN(A?LUB)AO)BR'(?AIzA2I)('(//Az(P2B)1/“A4a-7–AH(L'/A2IPNA
PN(A'(zDPNjALzH8B)AF)(‘S(zPAHI/’Bzz(’PIBz/“AA
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-38 Mobile Networking

 4aU7–ALI?/A[A
o UBAI?O)B3(AB3()L''APN)BSDNOSPA
o UBA'B2()APN(AH('LjA
o UBA?LIzPLIzA(zHaPBa(zHA/(?LzPI’/ABFAU7–AA
o UBAO)B3IH(ALA?B)(A(FFI’I(zPANLzHB3()A
 UN(A’Bzz(’PIBzAI/A/O'IPASOAIzPBAWAOL)P/ARjA4aU7–A/I?I'L)APBA-aU7–“A
 UN(A’B))(/OBzH(zPANB/PALzHA/SO()3I/B)jANB/PA’B??SzI’LP(A3ILAPN(ASz?BHIFI(HA/PLzHL)HAU7–“A
 UN(A’B??SzI’LPIBzAR(P2((zA/SO()3I/B)jANB/PA0;=+ALzHA?BRI'(ANB/PA04=+AI/AHBz(ARjAPN(A?BHIFI(HA/O(’IL'AU7–“A
 QB)AP)Lz/F())IzDAHLPLAR(P2((zARBPNAOL)P/5APN(A/SO()3I/B)jANB/PAI/AS/(H“A
 ;=AHB(/AzBPAO()FB)?A’L’NIzDAB)A)(P)Lz/?I//IBzABFAAHLPLAL/ALA)('LPI3('jA'B2ARIPA())B)A)LP(AI/AL//S?(HARjA4aU7–ABzAPN(A
2I)('(//A'Iz1“ACN(z(3()ALAOL’1(PAI/A'B/PABzAPN(A2I)('(//A'Iz15APN(AB)IDIzL'A/(zH()A?S/PA)(P)Lz/?IPAIP“AU7–A(zHaPBa(zHA
/(?LzPI’/AL)(APNS/A?LIzPLIz(H“AQB)AFLI)A/NL)IzDAB3()APN(A2I)('(//A'Iz15A4aU7–Az((H/ALARLzH2IHPNA?LzLD()“A

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Working of M-TCP

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 –L’1(P/AL)(A/(zPAPBAPN(A?BRI'(ANB/PARjALA’B))(/OBzH(zPANB/P“A
io led
 -FALzjAOL’1(PAI/A'B/PABzAPN(A2I)('(//A'Iz15APN(zAPN(AB)IDIzL'A/(zH()A)(P)Lz/?IP/APN(AOL’1(P“AUNS/5A(zHaPBa(zHA/(?LzPI’/A
L)(A?LIzPLIz(H“A

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6''APN(AOL’1(P/A/(zPAPBA4=AL)(A?BzIPB)(HARjAPN(A;=ALzHAL)(AL’1zB2'(HD(HARjAPN(A4=A3ILA67lAOL’1(P/“A
 6FP()ALA/(PAL?BSzPABFAPI?(5AIFAPN(A;=A/PI''AHB(/AzBPA)(’(I3(ALzjA67l5AIPAL//S?(/APNLPAPN(A4=AI/AHI/’Bzz(’P(H“A
n
 ;=A/(P/A/(zH()>/A2IzHB2A/IV(APBAV()BALzHAPNS/A’NB1(/APN(A/(zH()“AGz’(APN(A2IzHB2A/IV(AI/A/(PAPBAV()B5APN(A/(zH()AI/A
bl kn

FB)’(HA PBA DBA IzPBA LA O()/I/P(zPA ?BH(“A -zA PN(A O()/I/P(zPA ?BH(5A IzH(O(zH(zPA BFA PN(A )(’(I3()>/A O()IBHA BFA HI/’Bzz(’P(HA
/PLP(5APN(A/PLP(ABFAPN(A/(zH()A2I''AzBPA’NLzD(“A
at
Pu ch

 Gz’(APN(A;=AH(P(’P/APN(A’Bzz(’PI3IPjALDLIz5APN(A/(zH()>/A2IzHB2A/IV(AI/ALDLIzA/(PAPBAPN(AB'HA3L'S(5A(zLR'IzDAPN(A/(zH()A
PBA/(zHALPAFS''A/O((H“A
Te

Fig. 3.5.4 : Mobile TCP (M-TCP)

Advantages of M-TCP
 ”zHaPBa(zHA/(?LzPI’/AL)(A?LIzPLIz(H“A;=AIP/('FAHB(/z>PA/(zHALzjA67l5AIPABz'jAFB)2L)H/A67l/APNLPA2()(A)(’(I3(HAF)B?A
PN(A4=“A
 -PAL3BIH/ASzz(’(//L)jA)(P)Lz/?I//IBz/5AIFAPN(A4=AI/AHI/’Bzz(’P(H“AA
 -PAI/AzBPAz(’(//L)jAPBAFB)2L)HAL''AHLPLAPBALAz(2A;=AR(’LS/(A;=AHB(/AzBPARSFF()ALzjAHLPL“A
Disadvantages of M-TCP
 *B//(/ABzA2I)('(//A'Iz1AL)(AO)BOLDLP(HAPBAPN(A2I)(HA'Iz1“AUNI/AI/AR(’LS/(A;=AHB(/AzBPAL’PAL/ALAO)B:jALzHAHB(/AzBPARSFF()A
PN(AOL’1(P/ALzHAI/AzBPA)(/OBz/IR'(AFB)A'B’L'A)(P)Lz/?I//IBz“A
 -PA)(‘SI)(/Az(2Az(P2B)1A('(?(zP/A'I1(ARLzH2IHPNA?LzLD()“A
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-39 Mobile Networking

3.5.3 Fast Retransmit/Fast Recovery

 UNI/A/’N(?(AI?O)B3(/APN(AO()FB)?Lz’(AHS)IzDANLzHB3()“AA
 4B3IzDAPBALAz(2AQ6A’LzA’LS/(AOL’1(PA'B//AB)API?(ABSPALPA?BRI'(ANB/PAB)A’B))(/OBzH(zPANB/P“A-zA/S’NA’L/(A/PLzHL)HAU7–A
L//S?(/A’BzD(/PIBzALzHADB(/AIzPBA/'B2A/PL)PA?BH(AL'PNBSDNAPN()(AI/AzBA’BzD(/PIBzA0=()(AOL’1(PA'B//AI/A’LS/(HAHS(APBA
NLzHB3()+“AA
 6A NB/PA ’LzA S/(A FL/PA )(P)Lz/?IP8FL/PA )(’B3()jA LFP()A IPA )(’(I3(/A HSO'I’LP(A L’1zB2'(HD(?(zP/“A UN(A IH(LA N()(A I/A PBA
LSPB?LPI’L''jAFB)’(APN(AFL/PA)(P)Lz/?IPAR(NL3IB)ABzAPN(A?BRI'(ANB/PALzHA’B))(/OBzH(zPANB/P“A
Correspondent host enters in fast retransmit mode
 6/A/BBzAL/A?BRI'(ANB/PA)(DI/P()/ALPALAz(2AFB)(IDzALD(zP5AIPA/PL)P/A/(zHIzDAHSO'I’LP(AL’1zB2'(HD(?(zP/A0PN)((AHSO'I’LP(A
67l/+APBAPN(A’B))(/OBzH(zPANB/P“A
 GzA)(’(I3IzDAPN(/(AHSO'I’LP(/APN(A’B))(/OBzH(zPANB/PA’BzPIzS(/APBA/(zHA2IPNAPN(A/L?(A)LP(AIPAHIHAR(FB)(APN(A?BRI'(A
NB/PA?B3(HAPBAz(2AFB)(IDzALD(zP“A

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 UNS/APN(A’B))(/OBzH(zPANB/PADB(/AIzPBAFL/PAP)Lz/?IPA?BH(ALzHAzBPAPBAPN(A/'B2A/PL)P“A

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Mobile host enters in fast retransmit mode
io led
 4BRI'(ANB/PA?LjAL'/BA(zP()AIzA/'B2A/PL)PALFP()A?B3IzDAPBALAz(2AFB)(IDzALD(zP“AA
 UBAL3BIHAPNI/5ALFP()ANLzHB3()ALA?BRI'(ANB/PALSPB?LPI’L''jAL’PI3LP(/AFL/PA)(P)Lz/?IPA?BH(“A
ic ow

 UN(A?BRI'(ANB/PA)(P)Lz/?IP/AL''ASzL’1zB2'(HD(HAOL’1(PAS/IzDAPN(A’S))(zPA’BzD(/PIBzA2IzHB2A/IV(A2IPNBSPADBIzDAIzPBA
/'B2A/PL)P“A
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Advantages of fast retransmit/fast recovery
bl kn

 QB)(IDzALD(zPAB)A’B))(/OBzH(zPANB/PAz((HAzBPAPBAR(A’NLzD(H“A
at


Pu ch

4IzB)A’NLzD(/AL)(A)(‘SI)(HAIzA?BRI'(ANB/P>/A/BFP2L)(“A
 k()jA;I?O'(“A
Te

Disadvantages of fast retransmit/fast recovery

 -z/SFFI’I(zPAI/B'LPIBzABFAOL’1(PA'B//(/“A-FAPN(ANLzHB3()AF)B?ABz(AQ6APBALzBPN()APL1(/ALA'BzD()API?(5APN(A’B))(/OBzH(zPA
zBH(A2I''ANL3(AL')(LHjA/PL)P(HA)(P)Lz/?I//IBz/“A
 UNI/A LOO)BL’NA FB’S/(/A BzA PN(A OL’1(PA 'B//A HS(A PBA NLzHB3()“A –L’1(PA 'B//A HS(A PBA O)BR'(?/A BzA PN(A 2I)('(//A 'Iz1A I/A zBPA
’Bz/IH()(H“A
 UNI/ALOO)BL’NA)(‘SI)(/A’BBO()LPIBzAR(P2((zA4BRI'(A-–ALzHAU7–“A-PAI/APN()(FB)(ANL)H()APBA’NLzD(ABz(A2IPNBSPALFF(’PIzDA
PN(ABPN()“A

3.5.4 Transmission/ Time-out Freezing

 UNI/ALOO)BL’NA’LzANLzH'(A'BzDAHI/’Bzz(’PIBz/ABFA4=“A
 mSIP(A )(DS'L)'j5A IPA NLOO(z/A PNLPA PN(A 467A 'Lj()A O)(HI’PA PN(A ’Bzz(’PIBzA O)BR'(?/5A R(FB)(A PN(A ’Bzz(’PIBzA I/A L’PSL''jA
IzP())SOP(HAF)B?AU7–AOBIzPABFA3I(2“A
 6HHIPIBzL''j5A PN(A 467A 'Lj()A 1zB2/A PN(A L’PSL'A )(L/BzA BFA PN(A HI/’Bzz(’PIBzA LzHA HB(/A zBPA L//S?(A ’BzD(/PIBzA L/A U7–A
HB(/“A
 467A'Lj()A’LzAzB2AIzFB)?APN(AU7–A'Lj()AFB)APN(ASO’B?IzDA'B//AIzA’Bzz(’PIBz“A
 U7–A’LzAzB2A/PBOAOL’1(PA/(zHIzDALzHAF)((V(APN(A’S))(zPA/PLP(ABFA’BzD(/PIBzA2IzHB2ALzHAL''API?()/ABFAU7–“A
 -FAPN(AHI/’Bzz(’PIBz/AB’’S)AF)(‘S(zP'jAPN(zALHHIPIBzL'A?(’NLzI/?AIzAPN(AL’’(//AOBIzPA?S/PAR(AIz’'SH(HAPBAIzFB)?APN(A
’B))(/OBzH(zPANB/PALRBSPAPN(A)(L/BzABFAIzP())SOPIBz“A
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-40 Mobile Networking

 6/A/BBzAL/APN(A467A'Lj()AH(P(’P/A’Bzz(’PI3IPjALDLIz5AIPAIzFB)?/APN(AU7–APBA)(/S?(ABO()LPIBzA2IPNAPN(A/L?(A’BzD(/PIBzA
2IzHB2ALzHAPN(API?()/“A
Advantages of transmission/time-out freezing
 -PABFF()/ALA2LjAPBA)(/S?(AU7–A’Bzz(’PIBzA(3(zALFP()ALA'BzD()AIzP())SOPIBzABFAPN(A’Bzz(’PIBz“A
 UNI/A/’N(?(AI/AIzH(O(zH(zPABFALzjABPN()AU7–A?(’NLzI/?/A/S’NAL/AL’1zB2'(HD(?(zP/AB)A/(‘S(z’(AzS?R()/“A;BAIPA’LzA
R(AS/(HAPBD(PN()A2IPNA(z’)jOP(HAHLPL“A
Disadvantages of transmission/time-out freezing
 4BRI'(ANB/PAL/A2(''AL/A’B))(/OBzH(zPANB/PAz((H/APBAR(A’NLzD(H“A
 6''A?(’NLzI/?/AL)(ARL/(HABzAPN(A’LOLRI'IPjABFA467A'Lj()APBAH(P(’PAFSPS)(AIzP())SOPIBz“A
 -FA PN(A (z’)jOPIBzA I/A S/(HA PNLPA H(O(zH/A BzA PI?(aH(O(zH(zPA )LzHB?A zS?R()/5A PN(zA PNI/A /’N(?(A )(‘SI)(HA
)(/jz’N)BzIVLPIBzALFP()AIzP())SOPIBz“A

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3.5.5 Selective Retransmission

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 -zAPN(A/PLzHL)HAU7–AL’1zB2'(HD?(zP/AL)(AIzA/(‘S(z’(“A
io led
 -FA LA OL’1(PA I/A 'B/P5A PN(A /(zH()A NL/A PBA )(P)Lz/?IPA L''A PN(A OL’1(P/A /PL)PIzDA F)B?A PN(A 'B/PA OL’1(P“A 0gGaK67lA 9A
)(P)Lz/?I//IBz+“AUNI/A2L/P(/APN(ARLzH2IHPN“A
ic ow

 UN(A/('(’PI3(A)(P)Lz/?I//IBzALOO)BL’NAL''B2/ALA)(P)Lz/?I//IBzABFALA/('(’PI3(AOL’1(PAI“(“APN(A/(zH()A’LzAzB2AH(P()?Iz(A
2NI’NAOL’1(PAI/APBAR(A)(P)Lz/?IPP(H“A
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Advantages of Selective retransmission
bl kn

 ;(zH()A z((HA PBA )(P)Lz/?IPA 'B/PA OL’1(PA Bz'j“A UNS/5A RLzH2IHPNA )(‘SI)(?(zPA I/A ?S’NA 'B2()A LzHA IPA I/A LH3LzPLD(BS/A IzA
at
Pu ch

/'B2A2I)('(//A'Iz1/“A
 -?O)B3(/APN(AO()FB)?Lz’(ABFAU7–AIzA2I)('(//AL/A2(''AL/AIzA2I)(Az(P2B)1/“A
Te

Disadvantages of Selective retransmission

 7B?O'(:IPjABFA)(’(I3()A/IH(AIz’)(L/(/“A
 4B)(ARSFF()A/OL’(AI/A)(‘SI)(HALPAPN(A)(’(I3()A/IH(APBA/PB)(AL''APN(AOL’1(P/AFB''B2IzDAPN(A?I//IzDAOL’1(PALzHA2LIPAFB)APN(A
DLOAPBAR(AFI''(H“A

3.5.6 Transaction oriented TCP (T/TCP)

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-41 Mobile Networking

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Fig. 3.5.5 : Example of TCP connection setup and release
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Disadvantage of transaction-oriented TCP

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3.5.7 Comparison of TCP Variants

Table 3.5.1 : Comparison of the TCP enhancements

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-42 Mobile Networking

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3.6 IPv4 and IPv6

(MU - May 12)

Q. What advantages does the use of IPV6 offer for mobility? (May 12, 5 Marks)

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-43 Mobile Networking

(v) Support for resource allocation : In IPv6, the type-of-service field has been removed, but mechanism called Flow
label has been added to enable the source to request special handling of packet. This mechanism can be used to
support traffic such as real-time audio and video.
(vi) Support for more security : The encryption and authentication options in IPv6 provide confidentiality and integrity of
the packet.
Features of Ipv6 to support mobility
 No special mechanisms are needed for securing mobile IP registration. In every Ipv6 node address auto-configuration
i.e. the mechanism for acquiring a COA is inbuilt.
 Neighbor discovery mechanism is also mandatory for every Ipv6 node. So special foreign agents are no longer needed
to advertise services.
 Combining the features of address auto-configuration and neighbor discovery enable every Ipv6 mobile node to create
and obtain a topologically correct address or the current point of attachment.


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Every Ipv6 node can send binding updates to another node, so the MN can send its COA directly to the CN and HA. The
FA is no longer needed. The CN processes the binding updates and makes corresponding entries in its routing cache.
The MN is now able to :

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o Decapsulate the packets
o Detect when it needs a new COA and
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o Determine when to send binding updates to the HA and CN

 A soft handover is possible with Ipv6. The MN sends its new COA to the old router serving the MN at the old COA, and
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Ipv6 Header
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Fig. 3.6.1 shows both Ipv4 and Ipv6 header format.

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Fig. 3.6.1 : Comparison of Ipv4 and Ipv6 Header format

Fields of Ipv6 header

(i) Version : 4 bits. IPv6 version number.
(ii) Traffic Class : 8 bits. Used to specify different classes or priorities of IPv6 packets.
(iii) Flow Label : 20 bits. Used for specifying special router handling from source to destination(s) for a sequence of
packets. It distinguishes the different types of packets such as audio, video, txt etc. and accordingly provides Quality
of services to them.
(iv) Payload Length : 16 bits unsigned. Specifies the length of the data in the packet.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 3-44 Mobile Networking

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Review Questions

Q. 1 Explain working of DRS with a suitable example.

Q. 2 Explain DSDV routing protocol.

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Q. 3 Compare M-TCP and Snooping TCP.

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Q. 4 Write a short note on DSR.
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Q. 5 Explain any two routing algorithms used for MANET.

Q. 6 Explain the errors in wireless networks that degrade the performance of TCP.
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Q. 7 Explain various types of transmission errors in wired and wireless networks.

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Q. 8 Explain the errors in wireless networks that degrade the performance of TCP and how TCP snooping can improve the
performance.
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Q. 9 Discuss the problems of using traditional TCP in wireless networks? Explain I-TCP.

Q. 10 What are the problems with IPv4 protocol? What advantages does IPv6 provide over IPv4?
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Q. 11 What are the features of IPv6? Explain IPv6 packet format.

!!!
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SS
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S 4 Wireless Local Area Networks
S
Unit IV
S
S
Syllabus

4.1 Wireless Local Area Networks : Introduction, Infrastructure and ad-hoc network
4.2 IEEE 802.11:System architecture, Protocol architecture, Physical layer, Medium access control layer, MAC
management, 802.11a, 802.11b
4.3 Wi-Fi security : WEP, WPA, Wireless LAN Threats, Securing Wireless Networks

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4.4 HIPERLAN 1 and HIPERLAN 2

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4.5 Bluetooth : Introduction, User Scenario, Architecture, protocol stack
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Introduction
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4.1 Wireless Local Area Networks

4.1.1 Introduction
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-2 Wireless Local Area Networks

Disadvantages of wireless LAN

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4.1.2 Types of WLAN

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-3 Wireless Local Area Networks

2. Ad-hoc wireless networks

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Fig. 4.1.2 : Ad-hoc wireless networks

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4.1.3 Difference between Ad-hoc Network and Infrastructure based Wireless Networks
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MU – Dec. 15
Pu ch

Q. Explain Difference between Ad-hoc Network and Infrastructure based Wireless Networks. (Dec. 15, 5 Marks)
Te

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-4 Wireless Local Area Networks

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4.2 IEEE 802.11

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1. Architecture of Infrastructure based network

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Fig. 4.2.1 : Architecture of an infrastructure based IEEE 802.11

 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-5 Wireless Local Area Networks

Basic Service Set (BSS)

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2. Architecture of ad hoc network

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-6 Wireless Local Area Networks

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4.2.2 IEEE 802.11 Protocol Architecture
(MU – May 13)
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Q. Explain protocol architecture of 802.11. (May 13, 10 Marks)

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Fig. 4.2.3 : IEEE 802.11 protocol architecture and bridging

 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-7 Wireless Local Area Networks

Fig. 4.2.4 : IEEE protocol architecture and management

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-8 Wireless Local Area Networks

4.2.3 IEEE 802.11 Physical Layer

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4.2.3(a) Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Physical Layer (DSSS-PHY)

(MU – Dec. 14)

Q. Discuss the PHY frame format of an IEEE 802.11 using the spread spectrum technique, which separates by code.
(Dec. 14, 10 Marks)

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Fig. 4.2.5 : IEEE 802.11 DS-SS PLCP Physical layer packet format

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-9 Wireless Local Area Networks

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9ymm8HS12S128SC08µ/82UJ’jS
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 ”X::SPRS8yRP80SE1SP9mF8982EjS
Frame structure of FH-SS Physical layer
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Fig. 4.2.6 : IEEE 802.11 FH-SS PLCP Physical layer packet format

S
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-10 Wireless Local Area Networks

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Frame structure of Infra red physical layer
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Fig. 4.2.7 : IEEE 802.11 Infrared PLCP Physical layer packet format
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4.2.4 IEEE 802.11 MAC Sublayer (MU – Dec. 16)

Q. Explain in Detail IEEE 802.11 MAC sublayer. (Dec. 16, 10 Marks)

S
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-11 Wireless Local Area Networks

M,8SYz'SFyJ80S08Rm12RP5PFPEP8RSy08SHP6PH8HS58EB882SYz'SR/5SFyJ80Sy2HSYz'SFyJ80S9y2yq8982ESR/5SFyJ80jSS
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Fig. 4.2.8 : IEEE 802.11 MAC Layer Responsibilities

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4.2.4(a) MAC Frame Format
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(MU – May 14)

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Q. Explain IEEE 802.11 MAC frame format in detail. (May 14, 10 Marks)

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Fig. 4.2.9 : IEEE 802.11 MAC frame format

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-12 Wireless Local Area Networks

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Table 4.2.1: MAC addresses in IEEE 802.11
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Note : DS : Distribution System , AP : Access Point, DA : Destination Address, SA : Source Address

BSSID : Basic Service Set Identifier, RA : Receiver Address, TA : Transmitter Address

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-13 Wireless Local Area Networks

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Fig. 4.2.10 : IEEE 802.11 special control packets ACK, RTS and CTS

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4.2.4(b) Access Mechanisms in IEEE 802.11

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-14 Wireless Local Area Networks

Fig. 4.2.11 : MAC mechanisms

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Inter-Frame Spacing

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Fig. 4.2.12 : Medium access and inter-frame spacing

Basic DFWMAC-DCF using CSMA/CA

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-15 Wireless Local Area Networks

Fig. 4.2.13 : Contention window and waiting time

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 32SE,8S28=ESU12E82EP12SUJUF8–SE,8S21H8SH18RS21ESU,11R8SyS28BS0y2H19S5yUxZ1CCSEP98–SE,8SEP980SU12EP2/8RSC019SB,808S
PESByRSmy/R8HjS
 M,/RSE,8SREyEP12RSE,yES,y68SByPE8HSC10SySF12q80SEP98SyUU8RRSE,8S98HP/9SCP0REjSS
 ”PqjSXj"j‘XSR,1BRS/2PUyRESHyEySE0y2RC80S/RP2qSW”-Yz'ZW'”jS

Fig. 4.2.14 : IEEE 802.11 unicast data transfer

 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-16 Wireless Local Area Networks

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 M,8S 1E,80S REyEP12RS 08yHS E,8S Yz'S C0y98S y2HS H8E8UES C019S E,8S ()$%*!+"& #!',(S ,1BS F12qS E,8S U,y228FS BPFFS 58S 5/RJjS
M,808C108SE,8JSUy2SR8ESE,8P0SDzhS4D8ESyFF1UyEP12S68UE10’SC10SE,8Symm01m0PyE8SEP98Sm80P1HjSS
 zCE80SByPEP2qSC10S:3”:SE,8S08U8P680SyUx21BF8Hq8RSPCSE,8SmyUx8ESByRS08U8P68HSU1008UEFJjS
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 M,8S U12E82EP12S BP2H1BS REy0ERS yCE80S DzhS bS W3”:S m80P1HjS zFFS 1E,80S REyEP12RS U19m8EP2qS C10S E,8S U,y228FS 21BS U,11R8S yS
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 M,8SREyEP12SBPE,SE,8SR,10E8RES5yUxS1CCSEP98SCP2HRSE,8SU,y228FSPHF8Sy2HSREy0ERSE1SE0y2R9PESHyEyjS
DFWMAC-DCF with RTS/CTS extension
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

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3CS yS E809P2yFS PRS BPFFP2qS E1S R82HS HyEy–S yCE80S ByPEP2qS C10S W3”:S 4mF/RS yS 0y2H19S 5yUx1CCS EP98S PCS E,8S 98HP/9S ByRS 5/RJ’–S PES
R82HRSySR,10ESKM:SU12E01FSmyUx8EjS

g
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io led
P2UF/HP2qSE,8SyUx21BF8Hq8982EjS
 zFFS1E,80S21H8RS08U8P6P2qSKM:SmyUx8ERSR8ESE,8P0S28ESyFF1UyEP12S68UE10S4Dzh’jSDzhSPRSR8ESP2SyUU10Hy2U8SBPE,SE,8SH/0yEP12S
CP8FHSRm8UPCP8HSP2SE,8SKM:SmyUx8EjSM,8R8SREyEP12RSBPFFS21ESE0JSE1SyUU8RRSE,8S98HP/9SC10SE,PRSH/0yEP12jS
ic ow

 M,8SH8REP2yEP12SREyEP12S08Rm12HRSE1SE,PRSmyUx8ES5JSR82HP2qS'M:SU12E01FSmyUx8ESyCE80Sy2S:3”:Sm80P1HjS

n
M,PRS 'M:S myUx8ES U12EyP2RS E,8S H/0yEP12S CP8FHS yqyP2S y2HS yFFS REyEP12RS 08U8P6P2qS E,8S 'M:S C019S E,8S 08U8P680S 1CS E,8S HyEyS
bl kn

E0y2R9PRRP12SR8ESE,8P0SDzhSS

Note : This is needed because the set of stations receiving RTS can be different from the set of stations
at
Pu ch

receiving CTS, thus separate NAV has to be set by the receivers of RTS and the receivers of CTS).


Te

M,8SR1/0U8SE809P2yFS08U8P68RSE,8S'M:Sy2HSR82HRSHyEySyCE80SByPEP2qSC10S:3”:jS
 M,8SH8REP2yEP12SE809P2yFSR82HRSz'cSyCE80Sy21E,80S:3”:jS
 zCE80SU19mF8EP12S1CSE0y2R9PRRP12–SDzhS1CS8yU,SREyEP12SE809P2yE8HSy2HSU,y228FSPRSy6yPFy5F8SC10S1E,80S/R80RjSS

Fig. 4.2.15 : Implementation of RTS/CTS mechanisms in the IEEE 802.11

Fragmented mode of DFWMAC-DCF with RTS/CTS

 3CSB8SC0yq982ESE,8SFy0q8SC0y98RS4myUx8ER’SP2E1SR,10E80SC0y98RSE,82SE,8SQqM5L77j757HMLSBPFFS089yP2SE,8SRy98S5/ES21BS
R,10ESC0y98RSy08SH8RE01J8HSy2HS,82U8SE,8S07HEL5L77j757HMLS40yE8S1CS80010Sm80SC0y98’SH8U08yR8RjS”PqjSXj"j‘]SR,1BRSE,8S
C0yq982EyEP12S91H8S1CSKM:“'M:jS
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-17 Wireless Local Area Networks

 X808SE,8SHyEySC0y98SPRSC0yq982E8HSP2E1SR9yFF80SC0y98RjS
 :82H80SR82HRSy2SKM:SyCE80SByPEP2qSW3”:SEP98jSM,PRSKM:SP2UF/H8RSE,8SH/0yEP12SC10SE,8SE0y2R9PRRP12S1CSE,8SCP0RESC0yq982ES
y2HSE,8SU1008Rm12HP2qSyUxjS
 <E,80SREyEP12RS08U8P6P2qSE,PRSKM:SR8ERSE,8P0SDzhS4C10SKM:’SyUU10HP2qSE1SE,8SH/0yEP12SRm8UPCP8HSP2SKM:jS

g e
Fig. 4.2.16 : IEEE 802.11 fragmentations of data
io led
 M,8S08U8P680S21BSy2RB80RSBPE,S'M:–SyqyP2SP2UF/HP2qSH/0yEP12SCP8FHjS
 K8U8P680RS1CS'M:SR8ESE,8P0SDzhS4C10S'M:’SyUU10HP2qSE1SE,8SH/0yEP12SCP8FHjS

ic ow

M,8SR82H80SUy2S21BSR82HSE,8SCP0RESC0yq982ES4C0yq‘’SyCE80SByPEP2qSC10S:3”:SEP98jS
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n
C0yq982ERS4E,yESPRSC10SR8U12HSC0yq982ESy2HSPERSyUx’jS
bl kn

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
at

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Pu ch

C0yq982EjS
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Te

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21BSC088SC10S1E,80SREyEP12RjS
DFWMAC-PCF with polling
 +1P2ESU110HP2yEP2qSC/2UEP12S4+'”’SPRS/R8HSE1Sm016PH8SEP98Z51/2H8HSR806PU8RjSS
 +'”S08µ/P08RSy2SyUU8RRSm1P2ESE,yESU12E01FRSE,8S98HP/9SyUU8RRSy2HSm1FFRSySRP2qF8S21H8jS
 +'”S1m80yEP12SPRSy6yPFy5F8S12FJSC10SP2C0yRE0/UE/08S28EB10xRjS
YFL5QXC58jvvqYD5ELMFjP56j7LT5HT50jvvj6T5
 +1P2ESU110HP2yE10SP2SE,8SyUU8RRSm1P2ESRmFPERSE,8S82EP08SyUU8RRSEP98SP2E1SR/m80SC0y98Sm80P1HRjS
 zSR/m80SC0y98SU12EyP2RSyS-+"*'"*!+"&#$''&.'$!+(Sy2HSyS-+"*'"*!+"&.'$!+(jSS
 ”PqjSXj"j‘^SR,1BRSR8680yFSBP08F8RRSREyEP12RSy2HSE,8P0SDzhjSS
 zESEP98SE'SE,8SU12E82EP12ZC088Sm80P1HS1CSySR/m80C0y98SR,1/FHSE,8108EPUyFFJSREy0ES5/ES58Uy/R8SE,8S98HP/9SPRS5/RJSPESPRS
m1REm128HSEPFFSE!jS
 zCE80SByPEP2qSC10SyS+3”:SEP98–SE,8Sm1P2ESU110HP2yE10S4z+’SR82HRSW!SHyEySE1Sm1FFSCP0RESREyEP12jSM,PRSREyEP12SUy2S08mFJS12U8S
yCE80S:3”:jS
 zCE80S ByPEP2qS C10S :3”:S EP98–S E,8S m1P2ES U110HP2yE10S R82HRS W"S HyEyS E1S m1FFS R8U12HS REyEP12jS M,PRS REyEP12S 9yJS y2RB80S 5JS
R82HP2qSQ"SHyEySyCE80S:3”:jS
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-18 Wireless Local Area Networks

 M,8S m1P2ES U110HP2yE10S 21BS R82HRS W#S E1S m1FFS E,P0HS REyEP12jS M,PRS EP98S E,P0HS REyEP12S ,yRS 21E,P2qS E1S R82HjS M,8S m1P2ES
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 D1B–SE,8Sm1P2ESU110HP2yE10SUy2Sm1FFS1E,80SREyEP12RSyCE80SByPEP2qS+3”:SEP98jS
 M,8Sm1P2ESU110HP2yE10SUy2SR82HS82HS9y0x80S4'”()*’SE,yESP2HPUyE8RSE,8S82HS1CSU12E82EP12ZC088Sm80P1HSy2HSE,8SREy0ES1CS
U12E82EP12Sm80P1HjS
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g e
io led
ic ow

Fig. 4.2.17 : DFWMAC-PCF with polling

n
4.2.5 MAC Management
bl kn

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at
Pu ch

4y’S :J2U,012PVyEP12SS

45’S +1B80SYy2yq8982ESS
Te

4U’S zRR1UPyEP12“K8yRR1UPyEP12S
4H’S Yz'SYy2yq8982ES32C109yEP12S—yR84Yz'SY3—’SS

4.2.5(a) Synchronization in IEEE 802.11

(MU – May 15)

Q. Explain synchronization in 802.11 MAC management layer for both infrastructure as well Ad-hoc WLANs.
(May 15, 10 Marks)

 …yU,S21H8S1CSy2S3………SV;"j‘‘S28EB10xS9yP2EyP2RSy2SP2E802yFSUF1UxjS
 M1SRJ2U,012PV8SE,8SUF1UxRS1CSyFFS21H8R–S3………SV;"j‘‘SRm8UPCP8RSySEP9P2qSRJ2U,012PVyEP12SC/2UEP12S4M:”’jSS
 M,8R8SRJ2U,012PV8HSUF1UxRSy08S288H8HSC10S_S
o +1B80S9y2yq8982ES
o '110HP2yEP12S1CSE,8S+'”SS
o :J2U,012PVyEP12SP2S”X::S,1mmP2qSR8µ/82U8jS

Synchronization process for infrastructure based networks

 32SP2C0yRE0/UE/08S5yR8HS28EB10xR–Sy2SyUU8RRSm1P2ESU110HP2yE8RSE,8SRJ2U,012PVyEP12Sm01U8RRjS
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-19 Wireless Local Area Networks

 M,8Sz+SE0y2R9PERSySRm8UPyFSC0y98SUyFF8HSQLH9jYSm80P1HPUyFFJjS
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01y9P2qjS
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yHZ/RE8HjS
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E0y2R9PRRP12S1CSE,8S58yU12SC0y98jS

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Fig. 4.2.18 : Beacon transmission in 802.11 infrastructure network
ic ow

Synchronization process for ad-hoc networks

n
 zRSE,808SPRS21SyUU8RRSm1P2ESP2SyHS,1US28EB10x–S8yU,S21H8SBPE,P2SE,8S28EB10xSPRS08Rm12RP5F8SC10SE,8SRJ2U,012PVyEP12S
bl kn

m01U8RRjS
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at
Pu ch

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Te

Fig. 4.2.19 : Beacon transmission in 802.11 ad-hoc networks

4.2.5(b) Power Management in IEEE 802.11

(MU – May 12, Dec. 13, Dec.17)

Q. Explain how the power management is done in IEEE 802.11 infrastructure based and ad-hoc networks.
(May 12, Dec. 13, Dec. 17, 10 Marks)

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 …yU,SREyEP12SUy2S58SP2S128S1CSE,8SEB1SREyE8RSz4/5TvLL85zk/5H6HLLRS
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-20 Wireless Local Area Networks

 3CSySR82H80SPRSBPFFP2qSE1SU199/2PUyE8SBPE,SySm1B80SRy6P2qSREyEP12S4REyEP12SP2SRF88mS91H8’SE,82SE,8SR82H80S,yRSE1S5/CC80S
HyEyjS
 M,8SRF88mP2qSREyEP12SyByx8RSm80P1HPUyFFJSy2HS089yP2RSyByx82SC10SySU80EyP2Sm80P1HS1CSEP98jS
 W/0P2qSE,PRSEP98SyFFSREyEP12RSy221/2U8SH8REP2yEP12RS1CSE,8P0S5/CC808HSHyEyjS
 3CSySREyEP12SR88RSE,yESPESPRSySH8REP2yEP12S1CSyS5/CC808HSHyEy–SE,82SPESREyJRSyByx8S/2EPFSE,8SE0y2R9PRRP12SEyx8RSmFyU8jS
 zFFSREyEP12RSR,1/FHSByx8/mS10S58SyByx8SyESE,8SRy98SEP98jS”10SE,PR–SMP98S:J2U,012PVyEP12S”/2UEP12S4M:”’SPRS/R8HjS
Power management in infrastructure based networks
 32SP2C0yRE0/UE/08S28EB10xR–Sy2SyUU8RRSm1P2ESPRS08Rm12RP5F8SC10SE,8Sm1B80S9y2yq8982ESC/2UEP12jS
 zUU8RRSm1P2ES5/CC80RSHyEySmyUx8ERSC10SyFFSRF88mP2qSREyEP12RjS
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5/CC808HSHyEyjS
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io led
ic ow
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bl kn
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Pu ch

Fig. 4.2.20 : Power management in IEEE 802.11 infrastructure networks


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 32SE,8S28=ESWM3Y–SE,8SyUU8RRSm1P2ES,yRS9108S501yHUyRESHyEySE1SR82HSy2HSE,8SREyEP12S,yRSE1SyByx8SE1S08U8P68SE,yESHyEyjS
Power management in ad-hoc networks
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 X808–S8yU,SREyEP12S5/CC80RSHyEySE,yESPESBy2ERSE1SR82HSE1Sm1B80SRy6P2qSREyEP12RjS
 32SyHZ,1US28EB10xR–SyFFSREyEP12RSy221/2U8SySFPRES1CS5/CC808HSC0y98SH/0P2qSySm80P1HSB,82SE,8JSy08SyFFSyByx8jS
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-21 Wireless Local Area Networks

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E,8SzM3YSP2E806yFjS
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g e
io led
Fig. 4.2.21 : Power management in IEEE 802.11 ad-hoc networks

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ic ow

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4.2.5(c) Association/ Reassociation

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1. Association
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Fig. 4.2.22 : Association

WTTj9qHMqjY5Q7j9LPO7L5I5
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-22 Wireless Local Area Networks

4PP’S M,8SyUU8RRSm1P2ESE,82Sm01U8RR8RSE,8SyRR1UPyEP12S08µ/8REjSS
4y’S -,82SE,8SyRR1UPyEP12S08µ/8RESPRSq0y2E8H–SE,8SyUU8RRSm1P2ES08Rm12HRSBPE,SySREyE/RSU1H8S1CS;S4R/UU8RRC/F’Sy2HS
E,8S zRR1UPyEP12S 3WS 4z3W’jS M,8S z3WS PRS yS 2/980PUyFS PH82EPCP80S /R8HS E1S F1qPUyFFJS PH82EPCJS E,8S 915PF8S REyEP12S E1S
B,PU,S5/CC808HSC0y98RS288HSE1S58SH8FP6808HjSS
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2. Reassociation

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Fig. 4.2.23 : Reassociation procedure

at

VLHTTj9qHMqjY5Q7j9LPO7L5I5
Pu ch

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m1P2ERSP2SE,8SRy98S…::jSS
Te

 -,82S E,8S 915PF8S REyEP12S H8E8UERS E,yES PEYRS 08U8P6P2qS 58EE80S RPq2yFS C019S 1E,80S yUU8RRS m1P2E–S PES P2PEPyE8RS E,8S 08yRR1UPyEP12S
m01U8H/08jSS
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E,8SREyEP12jS3CSE,8S680PCPUyEP12SCyPFRSE,82SE,8S28BSyUU8RRSm1P2ES08Rm12HRSBPE,SySW8y/E,82EPUyEP12SC0y98Sy2HS82HRSE,8S
m01U8H/08jS
[jS M,8S yUU8RRS m1P2ES m01U8RR8RS E,8S K8yRR1UPyEP12S K8µ/8REjS +01U8RRP2qS K8yRR1UPyEP12S K8µ/8RERS PRS RP9PFy0S E1S m01U8RRP2qS
zRR1UPyEP12SK8µ/8RERS_S
S 4y’S 3CSE,8SK8yRR1UPyEP12SK8µ/8RESPRSq0y2E8H–SE,8SyUU8RRSm1P2ES08Rm12HRSBPE,SyS:EyE/RS'1H8S1CS;S4R/UU8RRC/F’Sy2HS
E,8Sz3WjS
S 45’S Q2R/UU8RRC/FSK8yRR1UPyEP12SK8µ/8RERSP2UF/H8SZ/RESyS:EyE/RS'1H8–Sy2HSE,8Sm01U8H/08S82HRjS
XjS M,8S28BSyUU8RRSm1P2ESU12EyUERSE,8S1FHSyUU8RRSm1P2ESE1SCP2PR,SE,8S08yRR1UPyEP12Sm01U8H/08jSM,PRSU199/2PUyEP12SPRSmy0ES
1CSE,8S3z++jS
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-23 Wireless Local Area Networks

]jS M,8S1FHSyUU8RRSm1P2ESE809P2yE8RSPERSyRR1UPyEP12SBPE,SE,8S915PF8SREyEP12jSS
^jS M,8S 28BS yUU8RRS m1P2ES 58qP2RS m01U8RRP2qS C0y98RS C10SE,8S 915PF8S REyEP12jS -,82S PES 08U8P68RS yS C0y98S H8REP28HS C10S E,8S
915PF8SREyEP12jS
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-,82SyS915PF8SREyEP12S9168RSC019S128SyUU8RRSm1P2ESE1Sy21E,80SyUU8RRSm1P2ESE,82SPES,yRSSE1SyRR1UPyE8SBPE,S28BSyUU8RRS
m1P2ES C10S /2P2E800/mE8HS R806PU8–S E,PRS 916P2qS 58EB882S yUU8RRS m1P2ERS UyFF8HS 01y9P2qS 4Xy2H1CC’jS M,8S RE8mRS C10S 01y9P2qS
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Fig. 4.2.24 : Roaming in IEEE 802.11 WLAN

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Te

E,82SREy0ERSRUy22P2qSC10Sy21E,80SyUU8RRSm1P2EjS
 :Uy22P2qS P261F68RS R8y0U,S C10S y21E,80S —::S 10S R8EEP2qS /mS 28BS —::S P2S E,8S UyR8S 1CS yHZ,1US 28EB10xRjS :Uy22P2qS 9yJS 58S
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T9HYYqYDSE,8SREyEP12SFPRE82SE1SE,8S98HP/9SPj8jSREyEP12S08U8P68RS58yU12SRPq2yFS1CSy21E,80S28EB10xjS+0158Sy2HS58yU12S
U12EyP2RSE,8S28U8RRy0JSP2C109yEP12SE1SZ1P2SE,8S28BSyUU8RRSm1P2EjS
 M,8S REyEP12S E,82S R8F8UES E,8S 58RES yUU8RRS m1P2ES z+#S BPE,S E,8S RE012q8RES m0158“S 58yU12S RPq2yFS RE082qE,–S y2HS R82HS
7LHTTj9qHMqjY57LGOLTMSE1SE,8SR8F8UE8HSyUU8RRSm1P2EjS
 M,8S28BSyUU8RRSm1P2ESy2RB80RSBPE,S7LHTTj9qHMqjY57LT8jYTLR53CSE,8S08Rm12R8SPRSR/UU8RRC/F–SE,8SREyEP12S,yRS01y98HSE1S
E,8S28BSyUU8RRSm1P2EjS
 M,8S28BSyUU8RRSm1P2ES/R8HS3z++S432E80SzUU8RRS+1P2ES+01E1U1F’SE1SP2C109SE1SE,8S1FHSyUU8RRSm1P2ESz+!Sy51/ESE,8SU,y2q8S1CS
yUU8RRSm1P2EjS!

4.2.5(d) MAC Management Information Base (MAC-MIB)

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P2HPUyE10RjSM,8R8SHPCC8082ESyEE0P5/E8RSm809PESy2S8=E802yFS9y2yq8982ESyq82ESE1SH8E809P28SE,8SREyE/RSy2HSU12CPq/0yEP12S1CS
y2S3………SV;"j‘‘SREyEP12jSM,8SY3—SP2SySREyEP12SU19m0PR8RSR8my0yE8SR8UEP12RSC10SYz'Sy2HS+X`jSS
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-24 Wireless Local Area Networks

4.2.6 IEEE 802.11a

 3ES1m80yE8RSyESU5URVSC08µ/82UJS5y2HjS
 3ES1CC80RS9y=P9/9SHyEyS0yE8S1CSU,5IQqMTZTjS
 QR8RS^CTIS4<0E,1q12yFS”WY’S91H/FyEP12SRU,898SC10SyU,P86P2qSR/U,SyS,Pq,SHyEyS0yE8jS
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—+:c–Sd+:c–S‘]ZdzYSy2HS]XZdzYjS
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Fig. 4.2.25 : Usage of OFDM in IEEE 802.11a

 ”PqjS Xj"j"\S R,1BRS \"S R/5Uy00P80RS 8µ/yFFJS RmyU8HS y01/2HS yS U82E08S C08µ/82UJjS M,8S RmyUP2qS 58EB882S E,8S R/5Uy00P80RS PRS
[‘"j\ScXVjS
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9yx8SE,8SRPq2yFSR8F8UEP12S015/RESyqyP2RESC08µ/82UJS1CCR8EjS
 '19my08HS E1S 3………S V;"j‘‘5S E,yES 1m80yE8RS P2S "jXS 7XVS E,8S 3………V;"j‘‘yS 1CC80RS ,Pq,80S HyEyS 0yE8S y2HS 9108S U1680yq8–S
,1B8680SR,yHP2qSyES\7XVSPRS9/U,S9108SR86808SU19my08HSE1S"jXS7XVjS

4.2.7 802.11b
 Q2FPx8S3………SV;"j‘‘y–S3………SV;"j‘‘5S1m80yE8RSyES"jXS7XVj5
 3ESm016PH8RS0yBSHyEyS0yE8RS/mSE1S‘‘SY5mRj5
 3ESm016PH8RSySBP08F8RRS0y2q8S1CS01/q,FJS[\S98E80RSP2H110RSy2HS‘X;S98E80RS1/EH110Rj5
 3ES/R8RSE,8S':Yz“'zSE8U,2Pµ/8j5
 M,8SK”SRPq2yFSC109yES/R8HSC10SV;"j‘‘5SPRS''cS10SU19mF8982Ey0JS'1H8Sc8JP2qj5
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-25 Wireless Local Area Networks

 IEEE 802.11b supports Adaptive Rate selection. The system monitors the signal quality. If the signal falls or
interference levels rise, then system adopt a slower data rate with more error correction. The system will first fall back
to a rate of 5.5 Mbps, then 2, and finally 1 Mbps. This scheme is known as Adaptive Rate Selection (ARS).

4.2.8 Comparison of Various IEEE 802.11x Standards

(MU – Dec. 15)

Q. Compare various IEEE 802.11x standards. (Dec. 15, 10 Marks)

Parameters IEEE IEEE IEEE IEEE 802.11g IEEE 802.11n

802.11 802.11a 802.11b

Operates at 2.4GHz 5GHz 2.4GHz 2.4 GHz 5 GHz or 2.4 GHz

Maximum data 2 Mbps 54 Mbps 11 Mbps 54 Mbps 300 Mbps

rate

e
Modulation DSSS, OFDM DSSS or DSSS or CCK or OFDM DSSS or CCK or OFDM

g
FHSS CCK
io led
Channel width 20 MHz 20 MHz 20 MHz 20 MHz 20 MHz or 40 MHz

Typical range 66 feet 75 feet 100 feet 150 feet 150 feet
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Antenna 1x1 SISO 1x1 SISO 1x1 SISO 1x1 SISO(Single Input- 4x4 MIMO (Multiple Input-
configuration Single Output) Multiple Output)
n
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IEEE 802.11 is mainly designed for enhanced security purposes. It addresses two main weaknesses of wireless security
networks which are encryption and authentication. Encryption is accomplished by replacing WEP’s original PRNG RC4
at

algorithm by stronger cipher that performs three steps on every block of data. The authentication and key management is
Pu ch

accomplished by the IEEE 802.1x standard.

Te

4.3 Wi-Fi Security Standards

 Since wireless networks transmit data over radio waves, it is easy to intercept data or "eavesdrop" on wireless data
transmissions.
 Several Wi-Fi security algorithms have been developed since the inception of Wi-Fi.
 The wireless security protocols prevent unwanted parties from connecting to your wireless network and also encrypt
your private data sent over the airwaves.
 Different types of wireless security protocols have been discussed below.

4.3.1 WEP – Wired Equivalent Privacy

 WEP stands for ‘Wired Equivalent Privacy’.
 WEP is specified by IEEE 802.11 for encryption and authentication of Wi-Fi networks.
 It operates at physical and data link layer.
 The goal of WEP is to make wireless networks as secure as wired networks.
 WEP is having two main parts. Authentication and Encryption.
(i) WEP Authentication
 Fig. 4.3.1 shows an example of WEP authentication:
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-26 Wireless Local Area Networks

Fig. 4.3.1 : WEP authentication

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 <2S08U8P6P2qSE,8S08µ/8RE–SE,8Sz+–S08mFP8RSBPE,SyS‘"VS5JE8S0y2H19SU,yFF82q8SE8=ESq8280yE8HS5JS-…+SyFq10PE,9jS
 M,8S08µ/8REP2qS21H8SE,82SU1mP8RSE,8SE8=ESP2E1SE,8Sy/E,82EPUyEP12SC0y98Sy2HSS82U0JmERSPESBPE,SySR,y08HSx8JS–Sy2HSE,82S
R82HRSE,8SC0y98S5yUxSE1SE,8Sz+jS

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
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 3CSE,808SPRS21ESyS9yEU,–SE,8Sz+SBPFFSR82HS5yUxSyS28qyEP68Sy/E,82EPUyEP12jS
(ii) WEP Encryption
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Fig. 4.3.2 : WEP Encryption

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 M1Sm08682ES/2y/E,10PV8HSHyEyS91HPCPUyEP12Sy2SP2E8q0PEJSyFq10PE,9–S'K'Z["S1m80yE8RS12SE,8SmFyP2SE8=ESE1Sm01H/U8S3'hjS
 M,8S1/Em/ES1CSE,8SB,1F8Sm01U8RRSPRSyS98RRyq8SU12EyP2P2qSE,088Smy0ER_SE,8S08R/FEP2qSUPm,80E8=E–SE,8S3h–Sy2HSE,8S3'hjS5
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-27 Wireless Local Area Networks

Decryption process

Fig. 4.3.3 : WEP Decryption

 M,8SP2U19P2qS98RRyq8S,yRSE,088Smy0ER_S'Pm,80E8=E–S3hSy2HS3'hjS
 M,8S3hS1CSE,8SP2U19P2qS98RRyq8SPRS/R8HSE1Sq8280yE8SE,8Sx8JSR8µ/82U8SE1SH8U0JmESE,8SP2U19P2qS98RRyq8jSS
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WEP vulnerabilities
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4.3.2 WPA
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-28 Wireless Local Area Networks

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WPA Modes

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1. Pre-Shared Key Mode or Personal Mode

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2. Enterprise Mode

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4.3.3 Wireless LAN threats

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-29 Wireless Local Area Networks

2. Evil Twin Aps

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4. Configuration Problems
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6. Misbehaving Clients
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4.3.4 Securing Wireless Network

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-30 Wireless Local Area Networks

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-31 Wireless Local Area Networks

4.4 HIPERLAN Standards

 M,808Sy08SEB1S9yP2SREy2Hy0HSCy9PFP8RSB,PU,Sy08S/R8HSC10S-P08F8RRSOzDS_S

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4.4.1 HIPERLAN T-1

(MU – May 12)

Q. Write a short note on HIPERLAN. (May 12, 5 Marks)

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
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
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Fig. 4.4.1 : HIPERLAN -1 protocol stack

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-32 Wireless Local Area Networks

Fig. 4.4.2 : HIPERLAN Communication model

e
4.4.1(a) HIPERLAN-1 MAC Sublayer

g (MU – May 18)

io led
Q. Explain HIPERLAN 1 MAC Layer. (May 18, 10 Marks)
ic ow

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1. MAC address mapping
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2. Security
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3. Addressing of MAC service access point (MSAP)

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4. Data forwarding
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5. Power saving

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-33 Wireless Local Area Networks

4.4.1(b) HIPERLAN-1 CAC Layer

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EY-NPMA


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g
m01E1U1FjSS

io led
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S
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bl kn
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Pu ch
Te

Fig. 4.4.3 : EY-NPMA protocol (Channel access cycle)

1. Prioritization
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 3CSE,8SU,y228FS089yP2RSPHF8–SE,8S21H8SR82HRSy2SyUU8RRSmyEE802jS
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-34 Wireless Local Area Networks

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2. Contention
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

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3. Transmission

g
io led
3CSE,8SREyEP12SH18RS21ESH8E8UESy2JSyUEP6PEJSP2SE,8SU,y228FSH/0P2qSFPRE82P2q–SPESP998HPyE8FJSREy0ERSE0y2R9PEEP2qSy2HS
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ic ow

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4.4.1(c) HIPERLAN-1 Physical Layer

n
bl kn

MU – May 16)

Q. Explain in detail HIPERLAN-1 physical layer. (May 16, 10 Marks)

at
Pu ch

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Te

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-35 Wireless Local Area Networks

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Fig. 4.4.4 : HIPERLAN-1 physical layer packet format for data and acknowledgement

g
4.4.2 HIPERLAN -2
io led
MU – Dec. 18)

Q. Explain HIPERLAN-2 Data link control. (Dec. 18, 10 Marks)

ic ow

X3+…KOzD"SyFF1BRSP2E80U1228UEP12SP2SyF91RESy2JSEJm8S1CSCP=8HS28EB10xjS
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Features of HIPERLAN- 2
bl kn

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Reference model and configuration of HIPERLAN-2
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-36 Wireless Local Area Networks

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Fig. 4.4.5 : HIPERLAN/2 Basic structure and Handoff scenario

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1. Sector Handover (Inter sector)
io led
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3. Network Handover (Inter-AP/ Intra network)

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HIPERLAN-2 networks operate in two modes

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1. Centralized Mode (CM)

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-37 Wireless Local Area Networks

HIPERLAN-2 Protocol Stack

S

MAC – Medium Access Control

DLC- Data Link Control

RRC-Radio Resource Control

ACF- Association Control Function

DCC-DLC connection control

RLC- Radio Link Control

EC – Error Control

CL – Convergence LayerS

e
Fig. 4.4.6 : HIPERLAN-2 reference Model

g
4.4.2(a) HIPERLAN-2 Physical Layer
io led
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Key features
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-38 Wireless Local Area Networks

”PqjSXjXj^SPFF/RE0yE8RSE,8S08C8082U8SU12CPq/0yEP12S1CSE,8SE0y2R9PRRP12SU,yP2S1CSySX3+…KOzDZ"SH86PU8jSS

1. Information bits 2. Scrambled bits

3. Encoded bits 4. Interleaved bits

5. Sub-carrier symbols 6. Complex baseband OFDM symbols 7. PHY bursts

Fig. 4.4.7 : HIPERLAN-2 Physical Layer reference configuration

g e
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io led
-ML8545I55 -97HEQvqYD5
S S M,8S CP0RES RE8mS E,82S PRS RU0y95FP2qS 1CS yFFS HyEyS 5PERS BPE,S E,8S q8280yE10S m1FJ219PyFS =+b=$b‘jS M,PRS PRS H128S C10S W'S
5F1UxP2qSy2HSB,PE82P2qS1CSE,8SRm8UE0/9jSM,8S1/EU198S1CSE,PRSRE8mSPRSE,8SRU0y95F8HS5PERjS
ic ow

-ML85k5I55 CNX5XjPqYD5
n
S S M,8S28=ESRE8mSPRSE1SymmFJS”…'SU1HP2qS12SE,8R8SRU0y95F8HS5PERjSM,PRSPRSH128SC10S80010SH8E8UEP12Sy2HSU1008UEP12jS
bl kn

M,8S08R/FES1CSE,PRSRE8mSPRS82U1H8HS5PERjS
-ML85G5I5 KYML7vLHKqYD5
at
Pu ch

S S D8=E–S82U1H8HS5PERSy08SP2E80F8y68HSE1S9PEPqyE8SE,8SC08µ/82UJSR8F8UEP68SCyHP2qjSM,8S08R/FESPRSP2E80F8y68HS5PERjS
-ML85,5I5 IH88qYD5
Te

S S M,8S9ymmP2qSm01U8RRSCP0RESHP6PH8RSE,8S5PESR8µ/82U8SP2Sq01/mS1CS‘–S"–SXS10S]S5PERSH8m82HP2qS12SE,8S91H/FyEP12S
RU,898RS /R8HS R/U,S yRS —+:c–S d+:c–S ‘]ZdzY–]XZdzYS 08Rm8UEP68FJjS M,8R8S q01/mRS y08S 9ymm8HS 12S E1S E,8S
ymm01m0PyE8S91H/FyEP12SRJ951FjSM,8S08R/FES1CSE,PRSRE8mSPRSR/5SUy00P80S91H/FyEP12SRJ951FRjS
-ML85U5I55 ^CTI5IjPOvHMqjY5 5
S S M,8S<”WYS91H/FyEP12SU12680ERSE,8R8SRJ951FRSP2E1SyS5yR85y2HSRPq2yFjSM,8SRJ951FSP2E806yFSPRSXpRjS
-ML85[5I55 QRS5QO7TM5
S S 32SE,PRSRE8mSE,8Sm,JRPUyFS5/0RESPRSU08yE8HjSM,PRS5/0RESU12EyP2RSm08y95F8Sy2HSmyJF1yHjS
-ML85\5I55 VHPqj5M7HYTEqTTqjY5
S S ”P2yFFJS0yHP1SE0y2R9PRRP12SR,PCERSE,8S5yR85y2HSRPq2yFSP2E1SySUy00P80SC08µ/82UJjS

4.4.2(b) HIPERLAN-2 Data Link Control Layer

 M,8SWyEySOP2xSU12E01FS4WO'’SFyJ80SPRSRPE/yE8HS12SE1mS1CSE,8Sm,JRPUyFSFyJ80jS
 WO'SOyJ80SU12EyP2RSE,8SC1FF1BP2qSR/5SC/2UEP12RS_S
‘jS Yz'SC/2UEP12S
"jS …0010S'12E01FS4…'’S
[jS KO'SR/5SFyJ80SE,yESP2SE/02SPRSR/5SHP6PH8HSP2E1SKO'–SKK'–Sz'”Sy2HSW''jS
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-39 Wireless Local Area Networks

 WO'SFyJ80Sm016PH8RSC10SySF1qPUyFSFP2xS58EB882SYMSy2HSz+S1680SE,8S<”WYSm,JRPUyFSFyJ80jS
 WyEySFP2xSU12E01FSPRSHP6PH8HSP2E1SE,088Smy0ER_SYz'–SE,8S'12E01FS+Fy28Sy2HSE,8SQR80SmFy28jS
 M,8S/R80SmFy28SU12EyP2RS…0010S'12E01FS98U,y2PR9S4…'’jS
 z2HSE,8SU12E01FSmFy28SU12EyP2RSKO'SR/5SFyJ80SE,yESm016PH8RS91RES1CSE,8SU12E01FSC/2UEP12RSqP682S58F1BjSS
4P’S z'”S 4zRR1UPyEP12S '12E01FS ”/2UEP12’S U12E01FRS yRR1UPyEP12S y2HS y/E,82EPUyEP12S 1CS 28BS YMRS yRS B8FFS yRS m80C109RS
RJ2U,012PVyEP12SEyRxjS
4PP’S W''S4WO'SQR80S'1228UEP12S'12E01F’SU12E01FRSU1228UEP12SR8E/m–S91HPCPUyEP12Sy2HS08F8yR8jS
4PPP’S KK'S4VHPqj57LTjO79L59jYM7jv/5C/2UEP12Sm80C109RSE,8SC1FF1BP2qSEyRxRS
o WJ2y9PUSC08µ/82UJSR8F8UEP12S
o Y8yR/08982ERSm80C1098HS5JSYMS
o K8m10EP2qS98yR/08982ERSE1SE,8Sz+S
o ”08µ/82UJSU,y2q8S5JSE,8Sz+Sy2HSPERSyRR1UPyE8HSYMRS

e
o +1B80SRy6P2qSm01U8H/08S

g
o M0y2R9PESm1B80SU12E01FS
io led
o Xy2H1680S58EB882Sz+RSy2HSBPE,P2Sz+S
 ”PqjSXjXjVSR,1BRSX3+…KOzDZ"SYz'S”0y98SC109yEjSS
ic ow
n
bl kn
at
Pu ch
Te

Fig. 4.4.8 : MAC frame structure of HIPERLAN-2

 X3+…KOzDZ"S98HP/9SyUU8RRSU12E01FSPRS5yR8HS12SE,8SMWYz“MWWjS
 …yU,SYz'SC0y98SPRS1CS"9RSH/0yEP12Sy2HSPESPRSC/0E,80SHP6PH8HSP2E1SC1/0Sm,yR8RjSS

o d7jHP9HTM5QFHTL5IS'y00P8RSE,8S—01yHUyRES'12E01FS',y228FS4—''X’Sy2HS”0y98S'12E01FS',y228FS4”''X’jSS

o Tj6YvqYL58FHTL5IS'y00P8RSP2C109yEP12SC019SyUU8RRSm1P2ES4z+’S10S'82E0yFS'12E01FF80S4''’SE1SE,8SRm8UPCP8HS915PF8S
E809P2yFjS

o a8vqYL58FHTL5IS'y00P8RSP2C109yEP12SC019S915PF8SE809P2yFSE1Sz+S10S''jS

o VHYPjE5H99LTT58FHTL5ISQR8HSE1SE0y2R9PES0y2H19SyUU8RRSU,y228FS4K'X’SjS
 X3+…KOzDZ"SH8CP28RSRP=SHPCC8082ESE0y2Rm10ESU,y228FRS

o dXR5zd7jHP9HTM59FHYYLv/5ISM,PRSU,y228FSU1268JRS5yRPUSP2C109yEP12SC10SE,8S0yHP1SU8FFSE1SyFFSYMRjS

o CXR5 zC7HEL5 9FHYYLv/5 IS '12EyP2RS E,8S 8=yUES H8RU0PmEP12S 1CS E,8S yFF1UyEP12S 1CS 08R1/0U8RS BPE,P2S E,8S U/0082ES Yz'S
C0y98jS
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-40 Wireless Local Area Networks

o WXR5zW99LTT50LLPQH9L59FHYYLv/5IS7P68RSC88H5yUxSE1SYMRS08qy0HP2qS0y2H19SyUU8RRSH/0P2qSE,8SK'XS1CSE,8Sm086P1/RS
C0y98jS

o BXRSzBjYD5TO88j7M59FHYYLv/5ISM0y2Rm10ERS/R80Sy2HSU12E01FSHyEySC10SH1B2FP2xRSy2HS/mFP2xRjS

o :'XS4:,10ESE0y2Rm10ESU,y228F’S_SSM0y2Rm10ERSU12E01FSHyEySC10SH1B2FP2xRSy2HS/mFP2xRj5

o VXR5zVHYPjE59FHYYLv/5ISQRP2qSE,PRSU,y228F–SYMRSUy2SR82HSP2C109yEP12SE1Sz+“''S6PySRF1EE8HSzF1,yj5
 X3+…KOzDZ"SyFR1SH8CP28RSR198SF1qPUyFSU,y228FRSC10SRPq2yFP2q–SU12E01FSy2HSP2C109yEP12SE0y2RC80jSM,8R8SF1qPUyFSU,y228FRS
y08S9ymm8HS12S:'X–SO'X–Sy2HSK'XSE0y2Rm10ESU,y228FRjSS

o -dXR5 I5 QR8HS 12FJS P2S H1B2FP2xS E1S 501yHUyRES U12E01FS P2C109yEP12S 08FyE8HS E1S E,8S U8FFjS 3ES ,8FmRS P2S ,y2H1680–S
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o TXXR5I5'1268JRSKO'SR/5SFyJ80SRPq2yFRS58EB882Sy2Sz+Sy2HSE,8SYMjS

e
o aTXR5I5'y00P8RSWO'S+WQSC10SU12680q82U8SFyJ80SHyEyjS

g
o BXXR5I53ESPRS/R8HSC10S80010SU12E01FSC/2UEP12RSC10SySRm8UPCPUSQW'XjS
io led
o W-XR5I53ESPRS/R8HSC10SyRR1UPyEP12Sy2HS08ZyRR1UPyEP12S08µ/8RE598RRyq8Rj555

4.5 Bluetooth
ic ow

4.5.1 Introduction
n

bl kn

—F/8E11E,SPRSySBP08F8RRSOzDSE8U,21F1qJSBPE,S680JSFP9PE8HSU1680yq8S4y51/ES‘;9’Sy2HSPESH18RS21ES288HSy2JSP2C0yRE0/UE/08S
4—F/8E11E,SPRSy2S8=y9mF8S1CSyHS,1US28EB10xR’jS
at
Pu ch

 —F/8E11E,SE8U,21F1qJSByRSCP0RESH868F1m8HS5JS…0PURR12jSS3ESByRSE,82SC109yFPV8HS5JSySq01/mS1CS8F8UE012PURS9y2/CyUE/080RS
R/U,SyRS…0PURR12–S3—Y–S32E8F–SD1xPy–Sy2HSM1R,P5ySB,1SZ1P2EFJSC109SE,8S—F/8E11E,S:m8UPyFS32E808RES701/mS4:37’jS
Te

 —F/8E11E,SE8U,21F1qJSByRSH8RPq28HSm0P9y0PFJSE1SR/mm10ESRP9mF8SBP08F8RRS28EB10xP2qS1CSm80R12yFSU12R/980SH86PU8RSy2HS
m80Pm,80yFR–SP2UF/HP2qSU8FFSm,128R–S+WzR–Sy2HSBP08F8RRS,8yHR8ERS4+80R12yFSz08ySD8EB10xSaS+zD’jS
 '19my08HSE1S-PZ”P–S—F/8E11E,S28EB10xP2qSPRS9/U,SRF1B80–SyS5PES9108SFP9PE8HSP2S0y2q8–Sy2HSR/mm10ERSC8B80SH86PU8RjS

Features of Bluetooth
 —F/8E11E,SH86PU8RSq8280yFFJSU199/2PUyE8SyESF8RRSE,y2S‘SY5mRjS
 <m80yE8RSP2SE,8SkR,5URVS3:YS5y2HSBPE,S^fS10S"[SK”SU,y228FRjS
 7”:cS 47y/RRPy2S ”08µ/82UJS :,PCES c8JP2q’S 91H/FyEP12S PRS /R8HS y2HS MWWS 4MP98S WP6PRP12S W/mF8=’S PRS /R8HS C10S /mFP2xS y2HS
H1B2FP2xSR8my0yEP12jS
 3ESymmFP8RSCR--SBPE,SyS4[PPS,1mR“RS,1mmP2qS0yE8jS
 3ES/R8RS:'<S4:J2U,0121/RS'1228UEP12S<0P82E8H’SFP2xRSC10S61PU8Sy2HSz'OS4zRJ2U,0121/RS'1228UEP12SF8RR’SFP2xRSC10SWyEyjS
 QR8RS”…'S4C10By0HS80010SU1008UEP12’SBPE,S21S08E0y2R9PRRP12jS
 QR8RS]XSx5PE“RSH/mF8=–Sm1P2EZE1Zm1P2E–SUP0U/PESRBPEU,8HSU,y228FRjS
 M1m1F1qJS_S<680FymmP2qSmPU128ERS4REy0R’SC109P2qSySRUyEE8028EjS
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-41 Wireless Local Area Networks

4.5.2 User Scenario

Yy2JSHPCC8082ESU12CPq/0yEP12RSBPE,S—F/8E11E,S5yR8HSmPU128ESy08Sm1RRP5F8jS
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x8J51y0H–S 91/R8–S ,8yHR8E–S Rm8yx80RS 8EUjS …yU,S EJm8S 1CS H86PU8S ,yRS PERS 1B2S EJm8S 1CS Uy5F8–S U1228UE10R–S mF/qRS 8EUjS 32S yS
BP08F8RRS 28EB10xRS 21S BP08RS y08S 288H8HS E1S U1228UES R/U,S H86PU8RjS —F/8E11E,S mPU128ES Uy2S 58S /R8HS E1S U1228UES R/U,S
m80Pm,80yFRSBPE,1/ESBP08RSE1SE,8SBP08F8RRSE809P2yFRSR/U,SyRSFymE1mS10S+WzjS

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-OzDSyHymE80RS1CS3………V;"j‘‘SREy2Hy0H–S5/ESU,8ym80S—F/8E11E,SU,PmRS5/PFESP2jS
GR5 d7qPDqYD5j05JLM6j7LT5I5QRP2qSBP08F8RRSmPU128ER–SyS915PF8Sm,128SUy2S58SU1228UE8HSE1SyS+WzS10SFymE1mSP2SySRP9mF8SByJjS
M,8S 915PF8S m,128S E,yES ,yRS 5F/8E11E,S U,PmS Uy2S 21BS yUES yRS yS 50PHq8S 58EB882S E,8S F1UyFS mPU128ES y2HS E,8S qF15yFS 7:YS

e
28EB10xjS

g
4.5.3 Architecture
io led
(MU – May 14)

Q. With respect to Bluetooth protocol explain piconet and scatternet. (May 14, 10 Marks)
ic ow

Piconet and Scatternet

n
4R5 Qq9jYLM5
bl kn

 Qq9jYLMSPRSySU1FF8UEP12S1CS—F/8E11E,SH86PU8RSB,PU,Sy08SRJ2U,012PV8HSE1SE,8SRy98S,1mmP2qSR8µ/82U8jSS
at


Pu ch

…yU,SmPU128ES,yRS128SH86PU8SUyFF8HSYyRE80S4Y’jSzFFS1E,80SH86PU8RSUyFF8HSRFy68RS4:’Sy08SU1228UE8HSE1SE,8S9yRE80jS

 M,8S9yRE80SH8E809P28RSE,8S,1mmP2qSR8µ/82U8SP2SE,8SmPU128ESy2HSyFFSRFy68RS,y68SE1SRJ2U,012PV8SE1SE,PRSmyEE802jS3CSyS
Te

H86PU8SBy2ERSE1Smy0EPUPmyE8SPES,yRSE1SRJ2U,012PV8SE1SE,PRjS

 M,808Sy08SEB1S9108SEJm8RS1CSH86PU8R_S+y0x8HSH86PU8S4+’Sy2HS:Ey2HZ5JSH86PU8R4:—’jS

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R198S9PFFPR8U12HRjS

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 zSYyRE80S4Y’SUy2SU1228UESR8682SyUEP68SRFy68RSy2HS/mSE1S"\\Smy0x8HSRFy68RSm80SmPU128EjSS

 zFFS yUEP68S H86PU8RS P2S yS mPU128ES y08S yRRPq28HS yS [Z5PES yUEP68S 989580S yHH08RRS 4zYz’jS z2HS yFFS my0x8HS H86PU8RS y08S
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 M,8S9yRE80S4Y’SqP68RSPERSUF1UxSy2HSXVZ5PESH86PU8S3WSE1SyFFSRFy68RSP2SySmPU128EjSX1mmP2qSR8µ/82U8SPRSH8E809P28HS5JS
H86PU8S3WSy2HS,1mmP2qSmyEE802SPRSH8E809P28HS5JS9yRE80YRSUF1UxjS

 zFFSyUEP68SH86PU8RS/R8SE,8SRy98S,1mmP2qSR8µ/82U8Sy2HS,1mRSE1q8E,80jS
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-42 Wireless Local Area Networks

(a)

g e
io led
ic ow
n
bl kn

M= Master device
at

S= Slave device
Pu ch

P = Parked device
SB = Standby device
Te

(b)
Fig. 4.5.1 : (a) Piconet (b) Scatternet

kR5 -9HMML7YLM5
 -9HMML7YLMSPRSySq01/mS1CSmPU128ERjSY108SE,y2S128SmPU128ESUy2S58SU1228UE8HSE1SC109SySRUyEE8028ESE,01/q,SE,8SR,y0P2qS
1CSU19912S9yRE80S10SRFy68SH86PU8RjS
 W86PU8RSUy2S58SRFy68SP2S128SmPU128ESy2HS9yRE80SP2Sy21E,80jSS
 '199/2PUyEP12S58EB882SmPU128ERSUy2SEyx8SmFyU8S5JSZ/9mP2qSH86PU8RS5yUxSy2HSC10E,S58EB882SE,8SmPU128ERjSS
 …yU,S mPU128ES P2S yS RUyEE8028ES /R8RS yS HPCC8082ES ,1mmP2qS R8µ/82U8S E,yES PRS yFByJRS H8E809P28HS 5JS E,8S 9yRE80S 1CS E,yES
mPU128EjS

4.5.4 Bluetooth Protocol Stack

MU – May 12, Dec. 12, Dec. 13, May 16, Dec. 16, May 17, Dec. 17, May 18, Dec. 18

Q. Draw and explain Bluetooth protocol stack in detail. (May 12, Dec. 12, Dec. 13, Dec. 18, 10 Marks)

Q. Explain in detail Bluetooth protocol architecture. (May 16, Dec. 16, May 17, May 18, 10 Marks)

Q. Describe Bluetooth architecture and protocol stack. Also discuss its limitations. (Dec. 17, 10 Marks)
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-43 Wireless Local Area Networks

e
o zMS_SzEE82EP12SR8µ/82U8S

g
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io led
o M':S—3DS_SM8F8m,12JSU12E01FSm01E1U1FSRm8UPCPUyEP12SaS5P2y0JS
o —D…+S_S—F/8E11E,S28EB10xS82UymR/FyEP12Sm01E1U1FS
o
ic ow

:W+S_S:806PU8SHPRU1680JSm01E1U1FS
o K”'<YYS_SKyHP1SC08µ/82UJSU199jS
n
Fig. 4.5.2 : Bluetooth protocol stack
bl kn

Radio Layer

at
Pu ch

KyHP1SFyJ80SH8CP28RSE,8SUy00P80SC08µ/82UP8RSy2HS1/Em/ESm1B80jS
 —F/8E11E,S/R8RS"jXS7XqSFPU82R8SC088S5y2HjS

Te

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 3ES/R8RS^fS,1mSUy00P80RS8µ/yFFJSRmyU8HSBPE,S‘SYXVjS
 7y/RRPy2S”:cS/R8HSC10S91H/FyEP12jS
Baseband Layer
 —yR85y2HSFyJ80Sm80C109RSC08µ/82UJS,1mmP2qSE1Sy61PHSP2E80C8082U8Sy2HSE1SyUU8RRSE,8S98HP/9jS
 W8CP28RSm,JRPUyFSFP2xRSy2HS9y2JSmyUx8ESC109yERjS
 3ESU12E01FRS_S
o W86PU8SzHH08RRP2qS
o ',y228FSU12E01FS4,1BSH86PU8RSCP2HS8yU,S1E,80’SE,01/q,SmyqP2qSy2HSP2µ/P0JS98E,1HRS
o +1B80ZRy6P2qS1m80yEP12RS
o ”F1BSU12E01FSy2HSRJ2U,012PVyEP12Sy912qS—F/8E11E,SH86PU8RjS
Link Manager Protocol (LMP)
 M,8SFP2xS9y2yq80Sm01E1U1FS4OY+’S9y2yq8RS6y0P1/RSyRm8UERS1CSE,8S0yHP1SFP2xS58EB882S9yRE80Sy2HSRFy68jS
 M,8SC1FF1BP2qSC/2UEP12RSy08SU16808HS5JSOY+S_S
o z/E,82EPUyEP12–SmyP0P2q–Sy2HS82U0JmEP12S
o :J2U,012PVyEP12S
o 'ymy5PFPEJS28q1EPyEP12S
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-44 Wireless Local Area Networks

o d1:S28q1EPyEP12S
o +1B80SU12E01FS
o OP2xSR/m806PRP12S
o :EyE8Sy2HSE0y2R9PRRP12S91H8SU,y2q8S
Logical Link Control and Adaptation Layer Protocol (L2CAP)
 O"'z+SPRSFyJ808HS1680SE,8S—yR85y2HS+01E1U1FSy2HS08RPH8RSP2SE,8SHyEySFP2xSFyJ80jSS
 O"'z+Sm016PH8RS_S
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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-45 Wireless Local Area Networks

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MU – Dec. 15

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-46 Wireless Local Area Networks

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Fig. 4.5.3 : Bluetooth baseband states

4.6 Comparison of IEEE 802.11, HIPERLAN-1, HIPERLAN-2 and Bluetooth

.MU - Dec. 12, Dec. 13, May 15, Dec. 15, May 16, Dec. 16, Dec. 17.

Q. Compare between IEEE 802.11 and HIPERLAN-2. (Dec. 12, Dec. 13, Dec. 17, 10 Marks)
Q. Compare HIPERLAN-1, HIPERLAN-2 and 802.11 W-LAN. (May 15, 10 Marks)
Q. Write a short note on HIPER LAN-1 VS HIPERLAN-2. (Dec. 15, 5 Marks)
Q. Compare HIPERLAN 2, BLUETOOTH, IEEE 802.11. (May 16, Dec. 16, 10 Marks)

Table 4.6.1 : Comparison of IEEE 802.11, HIPERLAN and Bluetooth

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 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-47 Wireless Local Area Networks

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Review Questions

Q. 1 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of WLAN over wired network. Explain two basic types of WLAN
architecture.

Q. 2 Explain in detail function of HIPERLAN-1 CAC sublayer.

Q. 3 Draw and explain IEEE 802.11 protocol architecture.

Q. 4 Discuss the PHY frame format of an IEEE 802.11 using FHSS technique.

Q. 5 Describe IEEE 802.11 MAC frame format.

 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 4-48 Wireless Local Area Networks

Q. 6 Describe MAC mechanism schemes used in IEEE802.11. Explain in detail MAC scheme that uses DCF with
RTS/CTS extension.

Q. 7 Discuss Basic MAC schemes used in IEEE 802.11.

Q. 8 Write a short note on HIPERLAN-2.

Q. 9 Explain HIPERLAN-2 data link control layer.

!!!

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 Mobility Management
5
Unit V

Syllabus

5.1 Mobility Management : Introduction, IP Mobility, Optimization, IPv6

5.2 Macro Mobility : MIPv6, FMIPv6,

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5.3 Micro Mobility : CellularIP, HAWAII, HMIPv6,

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Introduction
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IP Mobility is a mechanism that allows mobile device to move from one network to another network without
changing its permanent IP address. This chapter discusses various protocols to support IP Mobility. Mobile IP was the first
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(MIPV6) was developed as an update to IPV6 protocols to supports IP mobility. IPV6 header has some new features and
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 IP mobility refers to the set of mechanisms that allow an IP mobile node to move freely between
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different IP networks while maintaining IP connectivity in a transparent way.

 Current versions of the Internet Protocol (IPV4) assume that the point at which a computer attaches to the Internet or
a network is fixed and its IP address identifies the network to which it is attached.
 Packets are sent to a mobile device based on the location information contained in the IP address.
 If a mobile device, or mobile node, moves to a new network while keeping its IP address unchanged, its address does
not reflect the new point of attachment.
 Consequently, existing routing protocols cannot route packets to the mobile node correctly.
 In this situation, we must reconfigure the mobile node with a new IP address representing its new location. Thus,
under the current Internet Protocol (IPV4) , if the mobile node moves without changing its address, it loses routing;
and if it does change its address, it loses connections.
 One of the most desirable features of IP mobility mechanisms is the ability of maintaining connectivity without
interrupting ongoing communications.

5.1.1 Mobile IP
 Mobile IP (or MIP) is an IETF standard communications protocol that is designed to allow mobile device users to move
from one network to another while maintaining a permanent IP address.
Mobile IP is an enhancement of the internet protocol (IP) that adds mechanisms for forwarding internet traffic to
mobile devices when they are connecting through other than their home network. Fig. 5.1.1 shows generic Mobile IP
topology.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 5-2 Mobility Management

 Every host will have a "Home Address (Permanent IP)” within a "Home Network". A home network has a "Home
Agent" that provides several services for the mobile node
 Traffic destined to the "Home Address" of mobile node (MN) will always be routed to the "Home Agent."
 If the mobile node is in its "Home Network", traffic will be forwarded directly the mobile node.
 If the mobile node has moved to some other network called "Foreign Network", traffic will be IP tunneled by the
"Home Agent" to a "Care-of- Address". The Care- of- address defines the current location of the mobile node.
 Every Foreign network has ‘Foreign agent (FA) ’. The foreign agent can provide several services to the mobile node
during its visit to the foreign network. The FA can have the COA (care or address) acting as a tunnel endpoint when
forwarding packets to the MN.

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Fig. 5.1.1 : Mobile IP topology
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5.1.2 Optimization
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Triangular routing
 With Mobile IPv4 there is always a triangular traffic pattern. As shown in Fig. 5.1.2 the IP packet from a CN
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(Correspondent Node) destined to an MN needs to be routed to its HA first and then tunneled to the foreign agent of
the MN.
 If the Corresponding Node (CN)and MN are very near, then also the IP packet has to travel a long way to reach the
MN. This in efficient behavior of a non optimized mobile IP is called Triangular Routing.
 The triangle is made of the three segments : CN to HA, HA to COA/MN and MN back to CN.

Fig. 5.1.2 : Triangular Routing

 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 5-3 Mobility Management

Route optimization to avoid triangular routing

To solve triangular routing problem, a route optimization protocol has been introduced. Basically this protocol
defines some messages as to inform CN of an upto date location of MN. Once the current location of the MN is known, the
CN itself performs tunneling and sends packet directly to MN.
The optimized mobile IP protocol needs four additional messages; these are :
1. Binding request
If a node wants to know where the MN is currently located, it can send a binding request to the HA.
2. Binding update
The HA sends a binding update to the CN and informs the CN the current location of an MN. The binding update can
request an acknowledgement.
3. Binding acknowledgement
On request, after receiving a binding update message, anode returns a binding acknowledgement.

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4. Binding warnings


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currently.
 If CN receives the binding warning, it requests the HA for a new binding update.
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 If the HA receives the warning it directly sends a binding update to the CN.
 Fig. 5.1.3 explains how these four messages are used together when an MN changes its FA and also shows the
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Fig. 5.1.3 : Optimized mobile IP working

 The CN requests the current location of MN from the HA.
 HA returns the COA of the MN via update message.
 CN acknowledge this updated message and stores mobility binding.
 Now CN can send data directly to the current foreign agent FAold. FAold now forwards these data to MN.
 The MN might now change its location and register with an new foreign agent FAnew.
 FAnew informs FAold about new registration of MN via an update message and FAold acknowledged this update
message.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 5-4 Mobility Management

 CN doesn’t know about the current location of MN, its till tunnels its packets for MN to the old foreign agent FAold.
 The FAold notices packets destined to MN but also knows MN currently not in current FA.
 FAold might now forward these se packets to the new COA of MN which is new foreign agent.
 Thus the packets that are in transit are not lost. This behavior is another optimization to basic mobile IP and provides
smooth handover.
 FAold sends binding warning message to CN. CN then requests a binding update.
 The HA sends an update to inform the CN about the new location, which is acknowledged. Now CN cans end data
directly to FAnew, and avoid triangular binding.
 However, the optimization will not work if the MN does not want to reveal its current location to the CN because of
security.

5.2 IPv6 – Internet Protocol Version 6

 To overcome these problems, IPv6 also known as IPng (Internet Protocol next generation) was proposed. In IPv6, the

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Internet protocol was extensively modified to accommodate the growth and new demands of the Internet. The format

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and the length of the IP addreses were changed along with the packet format.
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 Related protocols such as ICMP were also modified. Other protocols in the network layer, such as ARP, RARP, IGMP
were either deleted or included in ICMPv6 protocol. Routing protocols such as RIP and OSPF were slightly modified to
accommodate these changes. The fast spreading use of Internet and new services such as mobile IP, IP telephony, and
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IP-capable mobile telephony, may require the total replacement of IPv4 by IPv6.
Advantages of IPv6
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1. Larger address space : An IPv6 address is 128 bit long. Compared with the 32 bit long IPv4 address, this is huge
increase in address space.
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2. Better Header format : IPv6 uses a new header format in which options are separated from the base header and
inserted when needed, between the base header and the upper layer data. This simplifies and speeds up the routing
process because most of the options do not need to be checked by routers.
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3. New Options : IPv6 has new options to allow for additional functionalities.
4. Allowance for extension : IPv6 is designed to allow the extension of protocol if required by new technologies or
applications.
5. Support for resource allocation : In IPv6, the type-of-service field has been removed, but mechanism called Flow label
has been added to enable the source to request special handling of packet. This mechanism can be used to support
traffic such as real-time audio and video.
6. Support for more security : The encryption and authentication options in IPv6 provide confidentiality and integrity of
the packet.
Features of Ipv6 to support mobility
 No special mechanisms are needed for securing mobile IP registration. In every Ipv6 node address auto configuration
i.e. the mechanism for acquiring a COA is inbuilt.
 Neighbor discovery mechanism is also mandatory for every Ipv6 node. So special foreign agents are no longer needed
to advertise services.
 Combining the features of address auto configuration and neighbor discovery enables every Ipv6 mobile node to
create and obtain a topologically correct address or the current point of attachment.
 Every Ipv6 node can send binding updates to another node, so the MN can send its COA directly to the CN and HA. The
FA is no longer needed. The CN processes the binding updates and makes corresponding entries in its routing cache.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 5-5 Mobility Management

 The MN is now able to decapsulates the packets

o To detect when it needs a new COA and
o To determine when to send binding updates to the HA and CN
 A soft handover is possible with Ipv6. The MN sends its new COA to the old router serving the MN at the old COA, and
the old router can encapsulate all incoming packets for the MN and forwards them to new COA.
Limitation of Ipv6
It does not solve any firewall or privacy problems. Additional mechanisms on higher layers are needed for this.
Ipv6 Header
Fig. 5.2.1 shows both Ipv4 and Ipv6 header format.

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Fig. 5.2.1 : Comparison of Ipv4 and Ipv6 Header format

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Fields of Ipv6 header :

1. Version : 4 bits - IPv6 version number.
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2. Traffic Class : 8 bits - Used to specify different classes or priorities of IPv6 packets.
3. Flow Label : 20 bits - Used for specifying special router handling from source to destination(s) for a sequence of
packets. It distinguish the different types of packets such as audio, video, txt etc. and accordingly provides quality of
services to them.
4. Payload Length : 16 bits unsigned - Specifies the length of the data in the packet.
5. Next Header : 8 bits - Specifies the next encapsulated protocol. The values are compatible with those specified for the
IPv4 protocol field.
6. Hop Limit : 8 bits unsigned - For each router that forwards the packet, the hop limit is decremented by 1. When the
hop limit field reaches zero, the packet is discarded. This replaces the TTL field in the IPv4 header that was originally
intended to be used as a time based hop limit.
7. Source address : 16 bytes - The IPv6 address of the sending node.
8. Destination address : 16 bytes - The IPv6 address of the destination node.

5.3 Macro Mobility

5.3.1 MIPv6 (Mobile IPv6)
 The first IP Mobility protocol, Mobile IP (discussed in Section 5.1.1) was developed for IPv4. The Mobile IP protocol
solves the TCP/IP Layer 3 mobility problem, by assigning a permanent IP address to the mobile node.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 5-6 Mobility Management

 Mobile IP supports of both MIPv4 and MIPv6, but IPv4 has a couple of drawbacks. The main drawback of IPV4 is
address exhaustion, making MIPv6 the future option for mobility protocol in IP Networks.
 Mobile IPv6 (MIPv6) is a protocol developed as a subset of IPv6 to support mobility.
 MIPv6 is an update of the Mobile IP standard designed to authenticate mobile devices using IPv6 addresses.
 In traditional IP routing, IP addresses represent a topology. Routing mechanisms rely on the assumption that each
network node will always have the same point of attachment to the Internet, and that each node's IP address
identifies the network link where it is connected.
 In this routing scheme, if you disconnect a mobile device from the Internet and want to reconnect through a different
network, you have to configure the device with a new IP address, and the appropriate netmask and default router.
 Otherwise, routing protocols have no means of delivering packets, because the device's network address doesn't
contain the necessary information about the node's network point of attachment to the Internet.
 Mobile IPv6 allows a mobile node to transparently maintain connections while moving from one subnet to another.


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Each device is identified by its home address although it may be connecting to through another network. When
connecting through a foreign network, a mobile device sends its location information to a home agent, which

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intercepts packets intended for the device and tunnels them to the current location.
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5.3.2 FMIPv6 (Fast Hand Over for Mobile IPV6)
 Mobile IPv6 (MIPv6) enables a Mobile Node (MN) to maintain its connectivity to the Internet when moving from one
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Access point to another. This process is referred to as ‘handover’.

 During handover, there is a period during which the Mobile Node is unable to send or receive packets. This period is
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called ‘Hand over latency’.
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 Hand over latency results from the standards handover procedure such as movement detection, new Care of address
configuration, binding updates etc.
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 This Hand over latency is often unacceptable to real-time traffic such as Voice over IP (VoIP).
 The fast handover for mobile IPv6 (FMIPv6) aims at reducing the long handover latency in mobile IPv6 by fast
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movement detection and fast binding update.

 It uses anticipation based on layer 2 trigger information of the mobile node (MN) to obtain a new care-of address at
the new link while still connected to the previous link, thus reducing handover delay.
 Furthermore, it also reduces packet loss by buffering before the real link layer handover takes place.

5.4 Micro Mobility

 Mobile IP represents a simple and scalable global mobility solution but lacks the support for fast handoff control and
paging.
 Imagine a large number of mobile devices changing networks quite frequently ; a high load on the home agents as well
as on the networks is generated by registration and binding update messages.
 IP micro-mobility protocols can complement mobile IP by offering fast and almost seamless handover control in
limited geographical areas.
 The basic underlying idea is the same for all micro-mobility protocols: Keep the frequent updates generated by local
changes of the points of attachment away from the home network and only inform the home agent about major
changes, i.e., changes of a region.
 In some sense all micro-mobility protocols establish a hierarchy.
 The following section presents three of the most commonly used approaches.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 5-7 Mobility Management

5.4.1 Cellular IP

Why Cellular IP ?
 Mobile IP exhibits several problems when there is a large number of mobile devices changing network frequently and
moving very fast. In such cases, a high load on home agents and on the network is generated by registration and
binding update messages.
 Mobile IP is basically designed only for macro level mobility and relatively slow moving hosts.
 Cellular IP (CIP) is a new robust, simple, and flexible protocol for highly mobile hosts.
 CIP complements Mobile IP by supporting local mobility.
 It can accommodate large number of users by separating idle hosts from active hosts.
CIP architecture
The architecture of Cellular IP is shown in Fig. 5.4.1. It consists of three major components.

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o Cellular IP gateway (GW),

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o Cellular IP node or the base station (BS)
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o Cellular IP mobile host (MH)
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Fig. 5.4.1 : Cellular IP access network (architecture)

 An important component of a Cellular IP network is the base station (BS). A cellular IP network consists of several
interconnected BSs.
 The BSs communicate with mobile hosts (MHs) via wireless interface and also route IP packets inside the cellular
network. The base stations are built on regular IP forwarding engines, but IP routing is now replaced by Cellular IP
routing and cellular location management.
 CIP gateway router connects a cellular IP network and the regular Internet.
 Mobility between gateways is managed by Mobile IP while mobility within access networks is handled by Cellular IP.
 Now the IP address of gateway serves as the care-of-address for all mobile hosts that are currently attached to the
network.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 5-8 Mobility Management

Routing in CIP
 Uplink packets (packets originated from mobile host) are routed from mobile host to the gateway on a hop-by-hop
basis.
 The path taken by these packets is cached in base stations. This cache is called routing cache.
 To route downlink packets addressed to a mobile host the path used by recent packets transmitted by the host (that
are already stored in route cache) is reversed.
 A mobile host may wants to maintain its routing cache mappings even though it is not regularly transmitting data
packets.
 Such mobile hosts transmit route-update packets at regular interval to keep their routing cache mappings valid. These
packets are empty data packets addressed to the gateway.
Paging in CIP
 In Cellular IP, an idle mobile host is one that has not received data packets for a system specific time.

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 For such idle hosts, their downlink soft state routes timeout and are removed from the routing cache.

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 These hosts transmit paging-update packets at regular intervals. The paging update packet is an empty IP packet
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addressed to the gateway. It is distinguished from route update packet by its IP type parameter.
 Similar to data and route update packets, paging update packets are routed on a hop-by-hop basis to the gateway.
Base stations may optionally maintain paging cache.
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 Thus all idle mobile hosts have mappings in paging caches but not in routing caches.

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In addition, active mobile hosts will have mappings in both routing as well as paging cache.
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 Packets addressed to a mobile host are normally routed by routing cache mappings. Paging occurs when a packet is
addressed to an idle mobile host and the gateway or base stations find no valid routing cache mapping for the
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destination.
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 The paging cache is used to avoid broadcast search procedures found in cellular systems.

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If there is no entry in the paging cache, then the packet addressed to an idle mobile host is broadcast in the access
network. This may happen when transmitting first packet to the any host.
 Idle mobile hosts that receive a packet, move from idle to active state and immediately transmit a route-update
packet.
Handover in CIP
 CIP implements MCHO (Mobile controlled handover) thus, in CIP, handoff is initiated by Mobile Host (MH).
 MH listens to the beacon transmitted by BSs and initiates handover based on signal strength measurements.
 To perform a handoff, an MH tunes its radio to the new BS. It then sends a route update packet to this new BS.
 This creates entry in a routing cache on route to the gateway, thus, configuring the downlink route to the new BS.
 During the handoff process time, downlink packets may be lost. The mappings associated with the old base station are
not cleared at handover, rather, they timeout as the associated soft-state timers expire.
 The mappings associated with the old BS are cleared after the expiry of a timer.
 Before the timeout, both the old and new downlink routes remain valid and packets are delivered through both the
BSs. Thus, Cellular IP uses semisoft handover to improve handoff performance.
Advantages of CIP
1. Provides easy Global migration
2. Cheap Passive Connectivity
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 5-9 Mobility Management

3. Efficient Location Management

4. Flexible Handoff
5. Simple Memory less Mobile hosts

5.4.2 HAWAII
HAWAII (Handoff-Aware Wireless Access Internet Infrastructure) tries to keep micro-mobility support as transparent
as possible for both home agent and MN.
Working
Step 1 : On entering an HAWAII domain, a mobile node obtains a co-located COA.
Step 2 : MN registers with the HA.
Step 3 : When MN moving another cell inside the foreign domain, the MN sends a registration request to the new base
station as to a foreign agent.
Step 4 : The base station interprets the registration request and sends out a handoff update message, which

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reconfigures all routers on the paths from the old and new base station to the crossover router. When the

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routing has been reconfigure successfully, the base station sends a registration reply to the MN, again as if it
were a foreign agent.
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Fig. 5.4.2 : Basic architecture of HAWAII

Advantages
1. Security : Challenge response extensions are mandatory. In contrast to cellular IP, routing changes are always initiated
by the foreign domain’s infrastructure.
2. Transparency : HAWAII is mostly transparent to mobile nodes.
Disadvantages
 Co-located COA raises DHCP security issues(DHCP has no strong authentication).
 Decentralized security-critical functionality(Mobile IP registration processing during handover)in base stations.
 Authentication of HAWAII protocol messages unspecified (potential attackers: stationary nodes in foreign network).
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 5-10 Mobility Management

 MN authentication requires PKI or AAA infrastructure.

 There are no provisions regarding the setup of IPsec tunnels.
 No private address support is possible because of co-located COAs.

5.4.3 HMIPv6 – Hierarchical Mobile IPv6

 Hierarchical Mobile IPV6 (HMIPv6) provides micro-mobility support by installing a mobility anchor point (MAP). MAP
is an entity which is responsible for a certain domain and acts as a local HA within this domain for visiting MNs.
 Fig. 5.4.3 shows basic architecture of Hierarchical Mobile IP.
 The MAP receives all packets on behalf of the MN, encapsulates and forwards them directly to the MN’s current
address LCOA (Link COA).

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Fig. 5.4.3 : Basic architecture of hierarchical mobile IP

Advantages
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1. Security : MNs can have (limited) location privacy because LCOAs can be hidden.
2. Efficiency : Direct routing between CNs sharing the same link is possible
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Disadvantages
1. Transparency : Additional infrastructure component (MAP).
2. Security : Routing tables are changed based on messages sent by mobile nodes. This requires strong authentication
and protection against denial of service attacks. Additional security functions might be necessary in MAPs

Review Questions

Q. 1 What is a need of Micro Mobility? Explain HAWAII in details.

Q. 2 Draw a neat sketch of IPv6 header. Compare IPv4 and IPv6 with respect to IP mobility.

Q. 3 What advantages IPv6 offer over IPv4.

Q. 4 Explain MIPv6 and FMIPv6 for Micro mobility.

Q. 5 What is Cellular IP. Explain CIP architecture along with routing and paging procedure in CIP.

Q. 6 What are the problems with standard Mobile IP protocol? Explain how MIPv6 overcome these problems.



 6 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP
Unit VI

Syllabus

6.1 Long-Term Evolution (LTE) of 3GPP : LTE System Overview, Evolution from UMTS to LTE
6.2 LTE/SAE Requirements, SAE Architecture
6.3 EPS: Evolved Packet System, E-UTRAN, Voice over LTE (VoLTE), Introduction to LTE-Advanced,
6.4 System Aspects, LTE Higher Protocol Layers, LTE MAC layer, LTE PHY Layer,

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6.5 Self Organizing Network (SON-LTE),SON for Heterogeneous Networks (HetNet), Introduction to 5G

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Introduction
In chapter 2 we discussed about 2G (GSM , GPRS) and 3G (UMTS) networks. This chapter focuses on 4G network
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architecture LTE (Long Term Evolution). The chapter discusses detailed system architecture and other system aspects of
Long Term Evolution (LTE). With LTE providing much higher data rate and low latency, it is also important that it supports
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voice transmission. VoLTE is a technology that transmits Voice over LTE network. Also Self Organizing Networks (SON)
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which supports dynamic configuration of LTE base stations (eNB) to automate the human efforts for setting up network has
been discussed.
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6.1 Long Term Evolution : Overview

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6.1.1 LTE System Overview

 3GPP stands for Third Generation Partnership Project.
 Under 3GPP, widely used 3G standards UMTS WCDMA/HSPA were developed.
 LTE (Long Term Evolution) is the 4G successor to the 3G UMTS system.
 LTE Provides much higher data speeds, low latency and greatly improved performance as well as lower operating
costs.
 LTE came into market around in 2010. Initial deployments gave little improvement over 3G HSPA and were sometimes
treated as 3.5G or 3.99G.
 Later the full capability of LTE was realized. It provided a full 4G level of performance.
 The first deployments were simply known as LTE, but later deployments were designated 4G LTE Advanced.

6.1.2 Evolution from UMTS to LTE

 Since the inception of cell phone technologies, many mobile generations have been seen.
 The first generation was analog (FM) technology, which is no longer available.
 The second generation (2G) brought digital technology into this. Multiple incompatible 2G standards were developed.
Only two of them, GSM and IS-95A CDMA, have survived.
 Next, the third generation (3G) standards came into market. Again, multiple standards were developed, mainly
WCDMA by the 3GPP and cdma 2000 by Qualcomm. Both have survived and are still used today.
 The 3G standards were continually updated into what is known as 3.5G.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-2 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

 WCDMA was upgraded to HSPA, and cdma 2000 was expanded with 1xRTT EV-DO releases A and B. Both are still
widely deployed.
 The Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), developed the widely used UMTS WCDMA/HSPA 3G standards. As a
4G successor to WCDMA, 3GPP developed Long-Term Evolution (LTE). Thus, LTE was created as an upgrade to the 3G
standards.
 Release 8 of LTE was completed in 2010, followed by release 9. Now, release 10 is also available which defines
 LTE-Advanced (LTE-A) is also under development.

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Fig. 6.1.1 : Evolution from UMTS to LTE

Table 6.1.1 : Comparison of all 3G and 4G technologies

Technology WCDMA HSPA HSPA+ LTE LTE-A

Release Rel 99/4 Rel 5,6 Rel 7 Rel 8 Rel 9,10

Rollout 2003/4 2005-8 2009 2010 2014

Down link Rate 384Kbps 14 Mbps 28Mbps 150 Mbps 1Gbps

Uplink Rate 128 kbps 5,7 kbps 11Mbps 75M bps

Delay 150 ms 100 ms 50 ms 10 ms <10

 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-3 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

6.2 SAE/LTE Architecture

6.2.1 SAE Requirements
 As the mobile communication generations evolved, radio interfaces also evolved.
 Soon it was realized that, the system architecture needs to be also evolved in order to support very high data rate and
low latency requirements for 3G LTE.
 Requirement of SAE architecture for LTE includes:
1. Flat architecture consisting of just one type of node, the base station, known as eNodeB in LTE.
2. Effective protocols for the support of packet-switched services.
3. Open interfaces and support of multivendor equipment interoperability.
4. Efficient mechanisms for operation and maintenance, including self-optimization functionalities
5. Support of easy deployment and configuration.

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6.2.2 SAE Architecture


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System Architecture Evolution (SAE) is a new network architecture designed to simplify LTE networks. It establish a flat
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architecture similar to other IP based communications networks.
 SAE uses an eNB and Access Gateway (aGW) and removes the RNC and SGSN from the equivalent 3G network
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architecture. This allows the network to be built with an “All-IP” based network architecture.
 SAE also includes entities to allow full inter-working with other related wireless technology (WCDMA, WiMAX, WLAN,
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etc.). These entities can specifically manage and permit the non-3GPP technologies to interface directly with the
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network.
 The high-level network architecture of LTE is comprised of following three main components :
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(i) The User Equipment (UE)

(ii) The Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio
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Access Network (E-UTRAN)

(iii) The Evolved Packet Core (EPC)

Fig. 6.2.1 : LTE reference model ( High level network architecture)

 The evolved packet core (EPC) provides the means to communicate with packet data networks in the outside world
such as the internet, private corporate networks or the IP multimedia subsystem.
 Between EU and E-UTRAN there is Uu interface,
 EPC is connected to E-UTRAN via S1 interface and to the outside world via SGi interface.

6.2.2(a) Evolved Packet System (EPS)

 EPS refers to the architecture of the LTE mobile standard.
 It includes the Evolved Packet Core (EPC), the Radio Networks (E-UTRAN), the End User Equipment (UE) and the
Services.
 EPS is based entirely on packet switching unlike legacy UMTS and GSM technologies that still use circuit switching .

6.2.2(b) The User Equipment (UE)

 UE is nothing but the mobile equipment.
 The internal architecture of the UE for LTE is identical to the one used by UMTS and GSM.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-4 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

 The mobile equipment comprised of the following important modules:

o Mobile Termination (MT) : This handles all the communication functions.
o Terminal Equipment (TE) : This terminates the data streams.
o Universal Integrated Circuit Card (UICC) : This is also known as the SIM card for LTE equipment. It runs an
application known as the Universal Subscriber Identity Module (USIM).
 A USIM stores user-specific data very similar to 3G SIM card. This keeps information about the user's phone number,
home network identity and security keys etc.

6.2.2(c) The E-UTRAN

The architecture of evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN) has been illustrated in Fig. 6.2.2.

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Fig. 6.2.2 : Architecture of E-UTRAN

 The E-UTRAN handles the radio communications between the mobile equipment (ME) and the evolved packet core
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(EPC). It contains only one component, the evolved base stations, called eNodeB or eNB.
 Each eNB is a base station that controls the mobiles in one or more cells.
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 The base station that is currently communicating with a mobile is known as its serving eNB.
 Each eBN connects with the EPC by means of the S1 interface.
 Two nearby base stations can be connected via the X2 interface, which is mainly used for signaling and packet
forwarding during handover.

6.2.2 (d) Evolved Packet Core (EPC) (The core network)

The architecture of Evolved Packet Core (EPC) is fully IP based has been illustrated in Fig. 6.2.3.

Fig. 6.2.3 : Basic EPS architecture

 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-5 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

Evolved Packet Core (EPC) components

It contains following important components :
1. Serving GW
 The serving gateway (S-GW) acts as a router, and forwards data between the base station and the PDN gateway.
 It is also responsible for inter-eNB handovers in the U-plane.
 It provides mobility between LTE and other types of networks (such as between 2G/3G and P-GW).
 The SGW keeps context information such as parameters of the IP bearer and routing information, and stores the UE
contexts when paging happens.
 It is also responsible for replicating user traffic for lawful interception.
2. PDN GW
The PDN GW is the point of interconnect between the EPC and the external IP networks. PDN GW routes packets to
and from the PDNs. The functions of the PGW include :

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 Policy enforcement

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 Packet filtering
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 Charging support
 Lawful interception

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Packet screening
3. HSS
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 The HSS (for Home Subscriber Server) is a database that contains user-related and subscriber-related information.
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 It is similar to - Home Location Register (HLR) and Authentication Centre (AuC) used in 3G networks.
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4. MME
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 The MME (for Mobility Management Entity) deals with the control plane.

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It handles the signaling related to mobility and security for E-UTRAN access. The MME is responsible for the tracking
and the paging of UE in idle-mode. It is the termination point of the Non-Access Stratum (NAS).
 Fig. 6.2.4 shows the entire SAE architecture.

Fig. 6.2.4 : LTE/SAE Architecture

6.3 Voice over LTE (VoLTE)

 VoLTE stands for Voice Over Long Term Evolution.
 It is a digital packet voice service that is delivered over IP via an LTE access network.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-6 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

 When 3GPP started designing the LTE system, prime focus was to create a system which can achieve high data
throughput with low latency.
 LTE is an all IP network and the ability to carry voice was not given much importance. Therefore, for LTE networks to
carry traditional circuit switched voice calls, a different solution was required.
 This solution to carry voice over IP in LTE networks is commonly known as “VoLTE”. Basically VoLTE systems covert
voice into data stream, which is then transmitted using the data connection.
 VoLTE is based on the IMS(IP multimedia system).
 IMS is an architectural framework for delivering multimedia communications services such as voice, video and text
messaging over IP networks.
Voice over LTE - VoLTE basics
 VoLTE, Voice over LTE is an IMS (IP multimedia System) based technique.
 VoLTE enables the system to be integrated with the suite of other applications for LTE.

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 To make implementation of VoLTE easy and cost effective to operators, cut down version of IMS network was defined.

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This not only reduced the number of entities required in the IMS network, but it also simplified the interconnectivity.
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 This considerably reduced the costs for network operators as this had been a major issue for acceptance of IMS. The
reduced IMS network for LTE has been shown in Fig. 6.3.1.
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Fig. 6.3.1 : Reduced IMS network for VoLTE

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The entities within the reduced IMS network used for VoLTE are explained below :
(i) IP-CAN IP, Connectivity Access Network : This consists of the EUTRAN and the MME.
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(ii) P-CSCF, Proxy Call State Control Function : The P-CSCF is the user to network proxy. All SIP signaling to and from the
user runs via the P-CSCF whether in the home or a visited network.
(iii) I-CSCF, Interrogating Call State Control Function : The I-CSCF is used for forwarding an initial SIP request to the
S-CSCF. When the initiator does not know which S-CSCF should receive the request.
(iv) S-CSCF, Serving Call State Control Function : The S-CSCF performs a variety of actions within the overall system, and it
has a number of interfaces to enable it to communicate with other entities within the overall system.
(v) AS, Application Server : It is the application server that handles the voice as an application.
(vi) HSS, Home Subscriber Server : The IMS HSS or home subscriber server is the main subscriber database used within
IMS. The IMS HSS provides details of the subscribers to the other entities within the IMS network, enabling users to be
granted access or not dependent upon their status.
The IMS calls for VoLTE are processed by the subscriber's S-CSCF in the home network. The connection to the S-CSCF is
via the P-CSCF.
Benefits of VoLTE
The implementation of VoLTE offers many benefits, both in terms of cost and operation.
VoLTE provides following benefits :
 Provides a more efficient use of spectrum than traditional voice;
 Meets the rising demand for richer, more reliable services;
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-7 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

 Eliminates the need to have voice on one network and data on another;
 Can be deployed in parallel with video calls over LTE and multimedia services, including video share, multimedia
messaging, chat and file transfer;
 Ensures that video services are fully interoperable across the operator community, just as voice services are,
 Increases handset battery life by 40 % (compared with VoIP);
 Provides rapid call establishment time.

6.4 Introduction to LTE-Advanced

 LTE Advanced adds a number of additional capabilities to the basic LTE to provide very much higher data rates and
much better performance.
 LTE provides improved performance particularly at cell edges and other areas where performance would not normally
have been so good.

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6.4.1 LTE Advanced Key Features

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The main aims for LTE Advanced :
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 Peak data rates : Downlink - 1 Gbps; uplink - 500 Mbps.
 Spectrum efficiency : 3 times greater than LTE.

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Peak spectrum efficiency : Downlink - 30 bps/Hz; uplink - 15 bps/Hz.

 Spectrum use : The ability to support scalable bandwidth use and spectrum aggregation where non-contiguous
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spectrum needs to be used.
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 Latency : From Idle to Connected in less than 50 ms.

 Cell edge user throughput to be twice that of LTE.
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 Average user throughput to be 3 times that of LTE.

 Mobility : Same as that in LTE
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 Compatibility : LTE Advanced shall be capable of interworking with LTE and 3GPP legacy systems.
These are many of the development aims for LTE Advanced.

6.4.2 LTE - Advanced : System Aspects

 The main new functionalities introduced in LTE-Advanced are;
o Carrier Aggregation (CA)
o Enhanced use of multi-antenna techniques (MIMO)
o Support for Relay Nodes (RN)
 LTE-Advanced is the all IP based cellular networks that can offer higher user data rates and lower latency.
 In LTE-Advanced lower latency can be achieve by adopting terminal state of being idle or active. This can significantly
reduce control plane latency and signaling compare to earlier generation.
 Higher user data rates can be achieved by adopting several techniques including: MIMO support, Modulation
techniques like OFDM, bandwidth flexibility, and the support of FDD (Frequency Division Duplex) and TDD (Time
Division Duplex) modes of operation.

6.4.2(a) Carrier Aggregation

 The increase in bandwidth in LTE-Advanced is achieved through aggregation of carriers. Carrier aggregation can be
used for both FDD and TDD.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-8 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

 Each aggregated carrier is referred to as a ‘component carrier’. The component carrier can have a bandwidth of 1.4, 3,
5, 10, 15 or 20 MHz.
 Maximum of five component carriers can be aggregated, hence the maximum bandwidth is 100 MHz.
 The number of aggregated carriers can be different in DownLink and UpLink; however the number of UpLink
component carriers is never larger than the number of DownLink component carriers.

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Fig. 6.4.1 : Carrier aggregation

 There are two types of carrier aggregation: continuous and non-continuous.

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In continuous aggregation, contiguous component carriers within the same operating frequency band are aggregated
so called intra-band contiguous.
 For non-contiguous allocation it could either be intra-band, (i.e. the component carriers belong to the same operating
frequency band, but are separated by a frequency gap) or it could be inter-band, in which case the component carriers
belong to different operating frequency bands (Refer Fig. 6.4.2)

Fig. 6.4.2 : Intra and Inter band carrier aggregation

 For each component carrier there is a one serving cell.
 The coverage of the serving cells may differ due to the component carrier frequencies.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-9 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

 The RRC connection is handled by one cell called the Primary serving cell, served by the Primary component carrier.
 The other component carriers are all referred to as Secondary component carrier serving the Secondary serving cells.

6.4.2(b) MIMO (Multiple Input and Multiple Output)

MIMO is used to increase the overall bitrate through transmission of two or more different data streams on two or
more different antennas.

Fig. 6.4.3 : MIMO

A major change in LTE-Advanced is the introduction of 8x8 MIMO in the Down Link and 4x4 in the Up link.

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6.4.2(c) Relay Nodes

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 In LTE-Advanced, the heterogeneous network planning i.e. a mix of large and small cells is possible through Relay
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Nodes (RNs).
 The Relay Nodes are low power base stations that provides enhanced coverage and capacity at cell edges. It also
serves as hot-spot areas and it can also be used to connect to remote areas without fiber connection.
ic ow

 The Relay Node is connected to the Donor eNB (DeNB) via a radio interface, Un.
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 Un is a modification of the E-UTRAN air interface Uu.
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 In the Donor cell the radio resources are shared between UEs served directly by the DeNB and the Relay Nodes.
 When the Uu and Un use different frequencies the Relay Node is referred to as a Type 1a RN
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 When Uu and Un uses the same frequencies, it is called Type 1 RN.

 In case of Type 1RN, there is a high risk for self interference in the Relay Node, when receiving on Uu and transmitting
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on Un at the same time (or vice versa). This can be avoided through time sharing between Uu and Un, or having
different locations of the transmitter and receiver.

f=f, inband, type 1 Relay Node – risk for self interference

f f, outband, type 1a Relay Node
Fig. 6.4.4 : Network extension using Relay Node

 Fig. 6.4.4 shows the Relay Node (RN) is connected to the DeNB via the radio interface Un. UEs at the edge of the donor
cell are connected to the RN via Uu, while UEs closer to the DeNB are directly connected to the DeNB via the Uu
interface. The frequencies used on Un and Un can be different, outband, or the same, inband.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-10 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

6.4.2(d) Coordinated Multipoint (CoMP)

One of the key issues with many cellular systems is that of poor performance at the cell edges. To improve the
performance at cell edges, LTE-Advanced introduces coordinated multipoint (CoMP) scheme.
In CoMP there are two important components :
1. TX (Transmit) points
2. RX (Receive) Points
 A number of TX points provide coordinated transmission in the DL (DownLink).
 Similarly a number of RX points provide coordinated reception in the UL (UpLink).
 A TX/RX-point constitutes of a set of co-located TX/RX antennas providing coverage in the same sector.
 The set of TX/RX-points used in CoMP can either be at different locations, or co-sited but providing coverage in

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different sectors. They can also belong to the same or different eNBs.

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 In Fig. 6.4.5 two simplified examples for DL CoMP is shown.
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(a)
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(b)

Fig. 6.4.5 : Down Link CoMP (a) Joint Transmission (b) Dynamic point selection

 In both these cases Down link (DL) data is available for transmission from two TX-points. When two, or more,
 TX-points, transmit on the same frequency in the same subframe it is called Joint Transmission.
 When data is available for transmission at two or more TX-points but only scheduled from one TX-point in each
subframe it is called Dynamic Point Selection.
 In case of Uplink (UL) CoMP, there is a Joint Reception i.e. a number of RX-points receive the UL data from one UE, and
the received data is combined to improve the quality.
 When CoMP is used additional radio resources for signaling is required e.g. to provide UE scheduling information for
the different DL/UL resources.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-11 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

6.4.3 LTE Advanced Architecture

6.4.3(a) Architecture

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Fig. 6.4.6 : LTE Advanced architecture

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
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The Fig. 6.4.6 depicts LTE Advanced (LTE-A) Architecture for E-UTRAN.
 It consists of P-GW, S-GW, MME, S1-MME, eNB, HeNB, HeNB-GW and Relay Node etc. Following are the functions of
these architecture entities.
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P-GW
 It stands for PDN Gateway.
 It interfaced with S-GW using S5 interface and with operator's IP services using SGi interface.
 It has connectivity with PCRP using Gx interface.
 It connects UE to packet data networks.
 P-GW assigns IP address to the UE. One UE can have connectivity with more than one PGWs in order to have access to
multiple PDNs.
 It takes care of packet filtering, policy enforcement and charging related services. Moreover it fulfils connectivity
between 3GPP (LTE, LTE-A) and non 3GPP (WiMAX, CDMA etc.) technologies.
S-GW
 It stands for Serving Gateway.
 It interfaces with MME using S11 interface and with SGSN using S4 interface.
 It connects with PDN-GW using S5 interface as mentioned above.
 EPC gets terminated at this node/entity. It is connected with E-UTRAN via S1-U interface.
 Each UE in LTE-A is associated to unique S-GW which has several functions.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-12 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

 It helps in inter-eNB handover as well as inter-3GPP mobility.

 It helps in inter-operator charging. It does packet routing and packet forwarding.
MME
 It stands for Mobility Management Entity.
 It is major control plane element in LTE advanced architecture.
 It takes care of authentication, authorization and NAS signaling related security functions.
 It takes care of selecting either S-GW or PDN-GW or P-GW.
S1-MME
It provides connectivity between EPC and eNBs.
eNB
 It is main building block or system in LTE-A.

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 It provides interface with UEs or LTE-A phones.

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 It has similar functionality as base station used in GSM or other cellular systems.
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 Each of the eNBs serve one or several E-UTRAN cells. Interface between two eNBs is known as X2 interface.
HeNB

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It stands for Home eNodeB or Home eNB.

 It is known as Fem to cell.
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 It is used to improve coverage in the indoor region of office or home premises.
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 It can be interfaced directly to EPC or via Gateway.

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HeNB-GW
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 It provides connectivity of HeNB with S-GW and MME.


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It aggregates all the traffic from number of Home eNBs to core network.
 It uses S1 interface to connect with HeNBs.
Relay Node :
It is used for improving network performance.

6.4.3(b) Comparison of LTE and LTE-A

 Both the LTE and LTE-Advanced are fourth generation wireless technologies designed to use for high speed broadband
internet access.
 The specifications are published by 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP).
 LTE is specified in 3GPP release 8 and LTE Advanced is specified in 3GPP release 10.
 LTE is the short form of Long Term Evolution. It uses FDD and TDD duplex modes for the UEs to communicate with the
eNodeB. The LTE uses OFDMA modulation in the downlink (from eNodeB to UEs) and SC-FDMA modulation in the
uplink. Various physical channels and logical channels are designed to take care of data as well as control information.
It supports peak data rate of 300MBPS in the downlink and 75MBPS in the uplink (theoretically).
 TE-Advanced is the upgraded version of LTE technology to increase the peak data rates to about 1GBPS in the
downlink and 500MBPS in the uplink. In order to increase the data rates LTE-Advanced utilizes higher number of
antennas and added carrier aggregation feature.
 Table 6.4.2 summarizes the key differences between LTE and LTEA.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-13 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

Table 6.4.2 : Difference between LTE and LTEA

Specifications LTE LTE Advanced

Standard 3GPP Release 9 3GPP Release 10
Bandwidth Supports 1.4MHz, 3.0MHz, 5MHz, 10MHz, 70MHz Downlink(DL), 40MHz
15MHz, 20MHz Uplink(UL)
Data rate 300 Mbps Downlink(DL) 4x4MIMO and 20MHz, 1Gbps Downlink(DL), 500 Mbps
75 Mbps Uplink(UL) Uplink(UL)
Theoretical Throughput About 100Mbps for single chain 2 times than LTE
(20MHz,100RB,64QAM), 400Mbps for 4x4
MIMO. 25% of this is used for control/signaling
(OVERHEAD)
Maximum No. of Layers 2(category-3) and 4(category-4,5) in the 8 in the downlink, 4 in the uplink
downlink, 1 in the uplink

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Maximum No. of 2 in the downlink, 1 in the uplink 2 in the downlink, 2 in the uplink

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codewords
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Spectral 16.3 for 4x4 MIMO in the downlink, 4.32 for 30 for 8x8 MIMO in the downlink, 15
Efficiency(peak,b/s/Hz) 64QAM SISO case in the Uplink for 4x4 MIMO in the Uplink
PUSCH and PUCCH Simultaneously not allowed Simultaneously allowed
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transmission
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Modulation schemes QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM
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supported
Access technique OFDMA (DL),DFTS-OFDM (UL) Hybrid OFDMA(DL), SC-FDMA(UL)
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Carrier aggregation Not supported Supported

Applications Mobile broadband and VOIP Mobile broadband and VOIP
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6.4.4 LTE Protocol Stack

Fig. 6.4.7 : LTE Protocol stack

 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-14 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

 Fig. 6.4.7 depicts LTE protocol stack. It is divided into two main parts - NAS (Non-Access Stratum) and AS (Access
Stratum).
 Further it is categorized into control plane and user plane.
 User plane of eNB consists of PHY, MAC, RLC and PDCP layers.
 Control plane of eNB consists of these 4 layers and in addition RRC layer also.
Following are functions of each layer.
PHY
 This layer takes care of frame formation as per TDD or FDD topology and as per OFDMA structure.
 Moreover, it takes care of modulation and coding of different control and traffic channels.
 It covers scrambling and codeword to layer mapping functionalities.
 It incorporates reference signals which are used for channel estimation and channel equalization.
MAC-Medium Access Control

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It takes care of following functions :

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 Multiplexing/demultiplexing of RLC Packet Data Units (PDUs).
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 Scheduling information reporting.
 Error correction through Hybrid ARQ (HARQ).
 Local Channel Prioritization.
ic ow

 Padding.
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RLC-Radio Link Control
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 Error correction through Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ).

 Segmentation according to the size of the transport block and re-segmentation in case a retransmission is needed.
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 Concatenation of SDUs for the same radio bearer.

 Protocol error detection and recovery.
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 In-sequence delivery.
PDCP-Packet Data Convergence Protocol
 Header compression.
 In-sequence delivery and retransmission of PDCP Session Data Units (SDUs).
 Duplicate detection.
 Ciphering and integrity protection.
RRC-Radio Resource Control
 Broadcast system information related to Non-Access Stratum (NAS) and Access Stratum (AS).
 Establishment, maintenance, and release of RRC connection.
 Security functions including key management.
 Mobility functions.
 QoS management functions.
 UE measurement reporting and control of the reporting.
 NAS direct message transfer between UE and NAS.
NAS-Non Access Stratum
Connection/session management between UE and the core network.
 Authentication.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-15 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

 Registration.
 Bearer context activation/deactivation.
 Location registration management.

6.5 Higher Protocol Layers

Higher layer protocols include :
(i) Radio Link Control - RLC
(ii) Packet Data Convergence Protocol - PDCP and
(iii) Radio Resource Control - RRC

6.5.1 Radio Link Control (RLC)

 RLC – Radio Link Control protocol is a data link layer protocol (Layer 2 protocol).
 An RLC entity receives/delivers RLC SDUs from/to upper layer and sends/receives RLC PDUs to/from its peer RLC entity

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via lower layers.

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 If RLC entity configured at the eNB, there is a peer RLC entity configured at the UE and vice versa. (Fig 6.5.1 (b)) RLC
performs following major functions :
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o Error correction through Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ).
o Segmentation according to the size of the transport block and re-segmentation in case a retransmission is
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needed.
o Concatenation of SDUs for the same radio bearer.
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o Protocol error detection and recovery.
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o In-sequence delivery.
RLC Modes :
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An RLC entity can be configured to perform data transfer in one of the following three modes.
1. Transparent Mode (TM)
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 As the name suggests the Transparent mode entity in RLC does not add any overhead to the upper layer SDUs.
 The entity just transmits the SDUs coming from upper layer to MAC.
In this mode :
o Segmentation or reassembly of RLC SDUs is not allowed
o No RLC headers are added.
o Does not guarantees delivery
 RLC TM is used for transmission of paging messages on PCCH, system information transmitted on BCCH and SRB0
messages transmitted on CCCH.
2. Unacknowledged Mode (UM)
RLC Unacknowledged Mode is used for transmission of delay sensitive packets, such as VoIP packets or audio/video
streams.
In this mode :
o Segmentation or reassembly of RLC SDUs is allowed
o RLC headers are added.
o Does not guarantees delivery
o This mode is suitable for carrying streaming traffic.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-16 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

3. Acknowledged Mode (AM)

RLC AM is used both in user plane and control plane packets. But in both the cases PDCP is the upper layer. So all the
SDUs which come to RLC AM entity are security protected.
In this mode :
o Segmentation or reassembly of RLC SDUs is allowed
o RLC headers are added.
o Guarantees In-sequence delivery of SDUs. It supports HARQ mechanism to retransmit lost PDUs.
o This mode is suitable for carrying TCP traffic.
RLC PDU (Protocol Data Unit)
 RLC PDUs can be categorized into RLC data PDUs and RLC control PDUs.
 RLC data PDUs are used by TM, UM and AM RLC entities to transfer upper layer PDUs (i.e. RLC SDUs).
 RLC control PDUs are used by AM RLC entity to perform ARQ procedures.

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6.5.2 Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP)

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The PDCP layer is located above the RLC layer and below the IP layer (in the user plane) or the RRC layer (in the
control plane).
 PDCP is a kind of interface between inside world and outside world.
ic ow

 In other words, the data coming into the eNB first go through PDCP and then gets into RLC (Downlink). Data waiting in
RLC trying to go out to the outside world has to go through PDCP to reach outside world(Uplink Path)
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The major functions of PDCP layer
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The major functions of PDCP layer are as follows.

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o Header compression
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o In-sequence delivery and retransmission of PDCP Session Data Units (SDUs)

o
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Duplicate detection
o Ciphering and integrity protection

Fig. 6.5.1 : PDCP layer, structure view

 PDCP is directly connected to RLC Layer (RLC UM and RLC AM). Note that PDCP has no connection to RLC TM mode,
meaning RLC TM mode data does not go through PDCP.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-17 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

 Fig. 6.5.2 gives the complete functional overview of the PDCP

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Fig. 6.5.2 : Functional overview of PDCP

6.5.3 Radio Resource Control (RRC)

 The RRC is the highest layer in the control plane of the Access Stratum (AS).
 The RRC layer controls communications between a UE and an eNB at the radio interface and the mobility of a UE
crossing cells.
 The RRC also transfers messages of the Non-Access Stratum (NAS), which is located above the RRC layer.
 NAS messages are used to control communications between a UE and the Evolved Packet Core (EPC).
The main services and functions of the RRC sublayer include :
 Broadcast of System Information related to the non-access stratum (NAS)
 Broadcast of System Information related to the access stratum (AS)
 Paging
 Establishment, maintenance and release of an RRC connection between the UE and E-UTRAN
 Security functions including key management
 Establishment, configuration, maintenance and release of point to point Radio Bearers
 Mobility functions
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-18 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

 QoS management functions

 UE measurement reporting and control of the reporting
 NAS direct message transfer to/from NAS from/to UE.

6.6 LTE MAC Layer

As discussed earlier the MAC layer of LTE performs following functions.
 Error correction through Hybrid ARQ (HARQ).
 Logical channel to transport channel mapping
 Logical Channel Prioritization.
 Scheduling information reporting.
 Multiplexing/demultiplexing of RLC Packet Data Units (PDUs).

6.6.1 Error Correction through Hybrid ARQ

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 The Hybrid Automatic Repeat-reQuest (HARQ) process is done in combination between the MAC and the PHY layer.
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 The PHY performs the retention and re-combination and the MAC performs the management and signaling.
 The MAC indicates a NACK whenever there’s a transport block (TB) CRC failure; the PHY usually indicates that failure.
 Retransmission is done by the eNodeB or the sender on the downlink using a different type of coding.
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 The coding is sent and maintained in buffers in the eNodeB. Eventually, after one or two attempts, there will be
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enough data to reconstruct the signal.
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 In HARQ operation, the retransmission does not have to be fully correct. It has to be correct enough that it can be
combined mathematically with the previous transport block (TB) in order to produce a good transport block.
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These are the basic steps of the HARQ process :

1. MAC sends “NACK” message when transport block (TB) fails CRC check.
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2. Transport blocks with errors are retained.

3. PHY retransmits with different puncturing code

4. Retransmission is combined with saved transport block(s)

5. When correct transport block is decoded, MAC signals “ACK”

6. Multiple HARQ processes can run in parallel to retry several outstanding TBs.

6.6.2 Logical Channels to Transport Channel Mapping

 Logical channels exist at the top of the MAC. Types of logical channels include control channels (for control plane
data) and traffic channels (for user plane data)
 Transport channels are in the transport blocks at the bottom of the MAC. They represent data transfer services
offered by the PHY and are defined by how the information is carried, different physical layer modulations and the
way they are encoded. Figure 3.2
 When a valid transport block is available from the HARQ process, the transport channels are mapped to logical
channels.
 Fig. 6.6.1 shows the mapping of logical channels to transport channels.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-19 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

g e
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Logical Channels Transport Channels
o PCCH : Paging Control Channel o PCH : Paging Channel
o BCCH : Broadcast Control Channel o BCH : Broadcast Channel
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o CCCH : Common Control Channel o DL-SCH : Downlink Shared Channel

o DCCH : Dedicated Control Channel o MCH : Multicast Channel
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o DTCH : Dedicated Traffic Channel
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o MCCH : Multicast Control Channel

o MTCH : Multicast Traffic Channel
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Fig. 6.6.1 : Logical channels to Physical channel mapping for Down link

 Fig. 6.6.1 shows the physical layer control channel at the bottom of the picture.
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 It is used for scheduling, signaling and other low-level functions.

 The downlink shared channel contains both a transport channel for paging and for downlink. The physical broadcast
channel goes all the way through for broadcast.
 Multicast channels are grayed out in Fig. 6.6.1 because they are not being specified in Release 8 of the LTE standard.
These channels will be re-addressed in Release 9.
Fig. 6.6.1 illustrates the following logical channels :
(i) Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH) : A point-to-point channel, dedicated to one UE, for the transfer of user
information. A DTCH can exist in both uplink and downlink.

(ii) Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) : A downlink channel for broadcasting system control information.

(iii) Paging Control Channel (PCCH) : A downlink channel that transfers paging information. This channel is used
when the network does not know the location cell of the UE.

(iv) Common Control Channel (CCCH) : Uplink channel for transmitting control information between UEs and
network. This channel is used by the UEs having no RRC connection with the network.

(v) Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH) : A point-to-point bi-directional channel that transmits dedicated control
information between a UE and the network. Used by UEs that have an RRC connection.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-20 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

6.6.3 Logical Channel Prioritization

 When the radio resources for a new transmission are allocated, the logical channel prioritization entity instructs the
multiplexing and de-multiplexing entity to generate MAC PDUs from the MAC SDUs.
 The logical channel prioritization entity also decides how much data from each configured logical channel should be
included in each MAC PDU whenever radio resource for a new transmission is available.

6.6.4 Scheduling
 Scheduling is a process through which eNodeB decides which UEs should be given resources (RBs), how much resource
(RBs) should be given to send or receive data.
 In LTE, scheduling is done at per subframe basis i.e. every 1 mili second.
 Resources are composed of Physical Resource Blocks (PRB) and Modulation Coding Scheme (MCS).
 The MCS determines the bit rate, and thus the capacity, of PRBs.

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An LTE scheduler performs following function for efficient scheduling :

g
(i) Link Adaptation : It selects the optimal combination of parameters such as modulation, channel Coding and
transmit schemes.
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(ii) Rate Control : It is in charge of resource allocation among radio bearers of the same UE which are available at the
eNB for DL and at the UE for UL.
ic ow

(iii) Packet Scheduler : It controls access to air interface resources amongst all active Users.
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(iv) Resource Assignment : It allocates air interface resources to selected active users on per TTI basis.
bl kn

(v) Power Control : Provides the desired SINR level for achieving the desired data rate, but also controls the
interference to the neighbouring cells.
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(vi) HARQ (ARQ + FEC) : It allows recovering from residual errors by link adaptation.

6.7 PHY Layer

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6.7.1 Generic Frame Structure

 The LTE specifications define both FDD and TDD modes of operation.
 The generic frame structure shown in Fig. 6.7.1 applies to both the DL and UL for FDD operation.

Fig. 6.7.1 : LTE Generic Frame Structure

 In OFDMA, users are allocated a specific number of subcarriers for a predetermined amount of time. These are
referred to as physical resource blocks (PRBs) in the LTE specifications.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-21 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

 PRBs thus have both a time and frequency dimension.

 Allocation of PRBs is handled by a scheduling function at eNodeB.
 LTE transmissions are segmented into frames, which are 10 msec in duration.
 One frames consist of 20 slot periods of 0.5 msec.
 Sub-frames contain two slot periods and are 1.0 msec in duration.
Downlink
 The LTE PHY specification accommodates bandwidths from 1.25 MHz to 20 MHz.
 The basic modulation scheme is OFDM which is very robust in the presence of severe multipath fading.
 Downlink multiplexing is accomplished via OFDMA.
 The DL supports physical channels, which convey information from higher layers in the LTE stack.
 Physical channels map to transport channels, which are service access points (SAPs) for the L2/L3 layers.

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 Depending on the assigned task, physical channels and signals use different modulation and coding parameters.

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6.7.2 Downlink Multiplexing
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 OFDMA is the basic multiplexing scheme employed in the LTE downlink.
 In OFDMA, groups of 12 adjacent subcarriers are grouped together on a slot-by-slot basis to form physical resource
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blocks (PRBs).
 A PRB is the smallest unit of bandwidth assigned by the base station scheduler.
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6.7.3 Physical Channels

 Three different types of physical channels are defined for the LTE downlink.
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 LTE DL physical channels are :

o Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH)
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o Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH)

o Common Control Physical Channel (CCPCH)
 Physical channels are mapped to specific transport channels.
 Transport channels are SAPs for higher layers.
 Each physical channel has defined algorithms for: Bit scrambling , Modulation, Layer mapping , CDD precoding ,
Resource element assignment Layer mapping and pre-coding are related to MIMO applications.

6.7.4 Transport Channels

Transport channels are included in the LTE PHY and act as service access points (SAPs) for higher layers.
Downlink Transport channels
1. Broadcast Channel (BCH)
 Fixed format
 Must be broadcast over entire coverage area of cell
2. Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH)
 Supports Hybrid ARQ (HARQ)
 Supports dynamic link adaption by varying modulation, coding and transmit power
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-22 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

 Suitable for transmission over entire cell coverage area

 Suitable for use with beam forming
 Support for dynamic and semi-static resource allocation
 Support for discontinuous receive (DRX) for power save
3. Paging Channel (PCH)
 Support for UE DRX
 Requirement for broadcast over entire cell coverage area
 Mapped to dynamically allocated physical resources
4. Multicast Channel (MCH)
 Requirement for broadcast over entire cell coverage area
 Support for MB-SFN


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Support for semi-static resource allocation

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6.7.5 Mapping Downlink Physical Channels to Transport Channels
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Transport channels are mapped to physical channels as shown in Fig. 6.7.2 Supported transport channels are :
1. Broadcast channel (BCH)
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2. Paging channel (PCH)

3. Downlink shared channel(DL-SCH)
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4. Multicast channel (MCH)
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Transport channels provide the following functions :

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 Structure for passing data to/from higher layers

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 Mechanism by which higher layers can configure the PHY


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Status indicators (packet error, CQI etc.) to higher layers

 Support for higher-layer peer-to-peer signaling

6.8 Self Organizing Network (SON-LTE)

 SON stands for Self Organizing Network.

 It means that just add an eNB wherever you want to put and just connect power and switch on, it would configure all
of its configuration by itself and makes itself ready for service.
 SON is like a 'Plug-and-Play' functionality.
Normally when a system operator constructs a network, they go through following steps.
(i) Network Planning
(ii) Bring the hardware (e.g., eNB) to the locations determined at Network Planning Process
(iii) Hardware installation
(iv) Basic configuration
(v) Optimizing parameters
 The main goal of SON is to automate large portions of human efforts involved in above mentioned process.
 In a more general way SON frame work can be illustrated in Fig. 6.8.1.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-23 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

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Fig. 6.8.1 : SON Framework

SON Architectures
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 The self-organization functionality can be located at one place even split in different nodes.
 Self-Optimization algorithms can be located in OAM or eNB or both of them.
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 According to the location of optimization algorithms, SON can be divided into the three main architectures:
1. Centralized SON
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2. Distributed SON
3. Hybrid SON
 The all three versions differ with respect to data acquisition, data processing and configuration management.
1. Centralized SON

 In Centralized SON, optimization algorithms are stored and executed from the OAM System. Here, the SON
functionality resides in a small number of locations, at a high level in the architecture.
 Fig. 6.8.2 shows an example of Centralized SON. Here, all SON functions are located in OAM systems, so it is easy to
deploy them but does not support those simple and quick optimization cases.
 To implement Centralized SON, existing Northbound Interface (Itf-N), which is the interface between the Element
Manager and the Network Manager, needs to be extended.
 Also, as the number of nodes in the network increases, computational requirements will also increase, which might
cause problems in scalability.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-24 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

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Fig. 6.8.2 : Centralized SON
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2. Distributed SON
 In Distributed SON, optimization algorithms are executed in eNBi. SON functionality resides in many locations at a
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relatively low level in the architecture.

 This increases the deployment efforts.
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 Fig. 6.8.3 shows an example of Distributed SON. When this architecture is implemented in large number of nodes, it
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has to be ensured that there is a coordination between them so that the network as a whole is optimised.
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Fig. 6.8.3 : Distributed SON

3. Hybrid SON
 In Hybrid SON, part of the optimization algorithms are executed in the OAM system, while others are executed in eNB.
 Fig. 6.8.4 shows an example of Hybrid SON.
 In Hybrid SON, simple and quick optimization schemes are implemented in eNB and complex optimization schemes
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-25 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

are implemented in OAM so as to provide flexibility to support different kinds of optimization cases.
 But on the other hand, it costs lots of deployment effort and interface extension work.

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Fig. 6.8.4 : Hybrid SON
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6.9 SON for Heterogeneous Networks (HetNet)

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 It is assumed that there will be 50 billion connected devices by 2020. Demands for higher data rates continues to
increase.
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High-quality video streaming, social networking and M2M communication over wireless networks are growing
exponentially.
 Hence, a new paradigm called heterogeneous networks (HetNet) are being considered by network operators.
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 HetNet stands for Heterogeneous Network, which involves a mix of radio technologies, different cell types, distributed
antenna systems, and WiFi working together seamlessly.
The HetNet involves several aspects :
o Use of multiple radio access technologies
o Operation of different cell sizes
o Backhaul
Multiple Size cells
HetNet introduces two main types of cells : Small cells and Macro cells.
1. Small cells :
 Small cells have smaller coverage and capacity and are of three types. Micro , Pico and Femto cells. (Listed as in order
of decreasing base station power).
 The idea of merging small cells with the macro cell network has the advantage of offloading traffic from the macro cell
sites to the smaller cells while the macro cell operates at its normal capacity.
 Table 6.9.1 compared all the cells based on certain characteristics.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-26 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

Table 6.9.1 : Properties of different cells

Characteristics Femto Pico Micro Macro

Indoor/Outdoor Indoor Indoor or out door Out door Outdoor
Number of users 4 to 16 32 to 100 200 200 to 1000++
Maximum output power 20 to 100mW 250 mW 2 to 10 W 40 to 100 W
Maximum cell radius 10 to 50 m 200 m 2km 10 to 40 km
Bandwidth 10 MHz 20 MHz 20 to 40 MHz 60 to 75 MHz
Technology 3G/4G/WiFi 3G/4G/WiFi 3G/4G/WiFi 3G/4G
Backhauls DSL, Cable, fiber Microwave, millimeter wave Fiber, Microwave Fiber, Microwave
 Small cells are deployed in hotspots to increase capacity. Hotspots are the areas where user density is more. They are
also deployed to fill in the areas not covered by the macro network (E.g. cell edges) – both out doors and indoors.
 These small cells can also be deployed within the user premises, residential or official, thereby bringing the network

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closer to the customer.

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(i) Microcells
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 Microcells, typically cover smaller areas maybe up to a kilometre.
 They usually transmit within a range of milliwatts to a few watts.
 Microcells are deployed for providing temporary cellular coverage and capacity to places like sports stadiums,
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convention centres etc.


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Sometimes, microcells may use distributed antenna systems (DAS) to improve bandwidth and reliability.
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(ii) Pico Cells

 Pico cells are deployed on the macro cell edges or hotspots to improve coverage or throughput.
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 Pico sells are open to all User Equipments (UEs)

 Pico sells can be used for both indoor and outdoor purpose.
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 This coverage area is around 200m. And us usually they served around 32 to 100 users.
(iii) Femto Cells
 Femto cells are typically user-installed to improve coverage area within a small vicinity, such as home office or a
dead zone within a building.
 Femto cells can be obtained through the service provider or purchased from a reseller.
 Femto cells are open to specific UEs – called CSG (Closed Subscription group) .
 A UE close to femto can’t connect to femto if it is not in CSG. In that case it connects to macro instead.
 Femto cell usually serves to 4 to 16 users.
 Its coverage area is 10 to 50 m.
2. Macro cells
Macro cells have large coverage and capacity and are controlled by High power base stations. These are the cells
which have been traditionally used in all cellular systems.
Base stations in HetNets
 Heterogeneous networks consist of different types of base stations supporting different types of cells such as Macro,
Micro, Pico and Femto cells.
o Macro cells are controlled by High Power eNBs.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-27 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

o Small Cells (Micro, Pico and Femto) are controlled by Low power eNBs. Low Power nodes include micro, pico,
Remote Radio Heads (RRH), relay nodes and femto nodes.
 These can use the same or different technologies.
 In LTE networks, the actual cell size depends not only on the eNodeB power but also on antenna position, as well as
the location environment; e.g. rural or city, indoor or outdoor etc.
Different nodes, for small cells, used in LTE/LTE-A HetNets are listed below :
1. Home eNodeB (HeNB)
 These nodes are used to form Femto cells.
 It is a low power eNodeB which is mainly used to provide indoor coverage, for Closed Subscriber Groups (CSG).
For example, in office premises.
 HeNBs are privately owned and deployed without coordination with the macro-network.
2. Relay Node (RN)

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 Relay 4 interface Uu.
3. RRHs (Remote Radio Head)
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 RRH is connected to an eNB via fibre can also be used to provide small cell coverage.
 It is an alternative solution to a BTS housed in a shelter at the bottom of the tower.
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 It is a distributed base station, in which the majority of the base station equipment is no longer located in the
shelter, but in an enclosure at the top of the tower near the antenna.
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 This separate but integrated radio frequency (RF) unit is called a remote radio unit or remote radio head.
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 It is compact in size. RRH is generally used to extend the coverage of a base station sub-system in the remote
rural areas.
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 Fig. 6.9.1 shows the typical HetNet architecture.

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Fig. 6.9.1 : Heterogeneous Network Architecture

 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-28 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

 A key component of such heterogeneous networks, which helps in meeting the above requirements is network
intelligence via the SON (Self Organizing Network).
 SON is automation technology that enables the network to set itself up and self-manage resources and
configuration to achieve optimal performance in an integrated network approach.
 The self-organizing and self-optimizing capability of the small cell smoothen the path for implementation of such
heterogeneous networks.
 A self-organizing micro base station can automatically detect the surrounding radio environment conditions and
automatically plan and configure radio parameters such as frequency, scrambling code, and transmission power.
 A traditional base station cannot do this.

6.10 Introduction to 5G

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6.10.1 Overview

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 5G is not just one technology, it is actually a combination of several technologies in one. The system, however, will be
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a smart and know when to make use of which technology for maximum efficiency.
 5G will be much more faster than 4G. It will provide data rate up to 10Gbps.
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 It will provide 100% coverage area. That is better coverage even at the cell boundaries.
 5G will also provide low network latency (up to 1 msec) which will be helpful for the critical applications like industry,
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healthcare and medical.
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 5G technology aims to provide wide range of future industries from retail to education, transportation to
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entertainment and smart homes to healthcare.

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 5G technology will provide ubiquitous connectivity means everything. from vehicles to mobile networks to industries
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to smart homes will be connected together.

 5G will utilize Extremely High frequency spectrum band between 3GHz to 30 GHz. These are called millimetre waves.
These wave can travel at very high speed but covers short distance since they cannot penetrate obstacles..
 Unlike 4G that requires high powered cellular base stations to transmit signal over long distance, 5G will use a large
number of small cell stations that may be located on small towers or building roofs.
 5G makes the use of Massive MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) standards to make is 100 times faster as
opposed to standard MIMO. Massive MIMO makes the use of as much as 100 antennas. Multiple antennas allow for
better and faster data transmission.
 The 5G network will come with 100 times more devices in market.
5G standards

 5G technology standard are still under development. So, no firm standards is in place at this time; the market is still
figuring out the essential 5G features and functionalities.
 The primary 5G standards bodies involved in these processes are the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), the
Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), and the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-29 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

6.10.2 5GAA (Autonomous Association)

 The 5G Automotive Association (5GAA) is a global, cross-industry organization of companies that work together to
develop end–to-end solution for future mobility and transportation services.
 These companies include the automotive, technology, and telecommunications industries (ICT).
 5GAA was created on September 2016. It consists of 8 founding members: AUDI AG, BMW Group, Daimler AG,
Ericsson, Huawei, Intel, Nokia, and Qualcomm Incorporated. More than 110 companies have now joined 5GAA.
 The 5G Automotive Association is a strong advocate of Cellular-Vehicle 2X (C-V2X). The following are the key
objectives of 5GAA.
1. Making vehicles smarter
 Communication and connectivity are key to the development of autonomous vehicles.
 Cellular based technologiesV2X : vehicle-to-everything communication protocol allows vehicles to communicate

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with other vehicles (V2V), pedestrians (V2P), networks (V2N), and the surrounding infrastructure (V2I).

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 Cellular Vehicle-to-Everything (C-V2X) is a unified connectivity platform designed to offer vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V),
vehicle-to-roadside infrastructure (V2I) and vehicle-to-pedestrian (V2P) communication.
 C-V2X will improve safety on roads by tremendously facilitating the flow of information between vehicles,
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pedestrians and road infrastructure. This will enable connected vehicles to anticipate and avoid dangerous
situations, reducing collisions and potentially saving lives.
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3. Improving driving experience

C-V2X will provide real-time traffic information to optimize user’s trip, finding the closest free parking space or
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enabling predictive maintenance to save drivers both time and money.

6.10.3 The Key Technology : C-V2X (Cellular - Vehicle To everything)

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Cellular-V2X (C-V2X) as initially defined as LTE V2X in 3GPP Release 14 is designed to operate in several modes.
It provides one solution for integrated V2V, V2I and V2P operation with V2N by using existing cellular network
infrastructure :
1. Device-to-Device Communication
 Device-to-device communication is Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V), Vehicle-to-(Roadway) Infrastructure (V2I) and
Vehicle-to-Pedestrian (V2P) direct communication.
 In the device-to-device mode (V2V, V2I, V2P) operation, C-V2X does not necessarily require any network
infrastructure. It can operate without a SIM, without network assistance and uses GNSS as its primary source of
time synchronization.
2. Device-to-Cell Tower Communication
Device-to-cell tower is another communication link which enables network resources and scheduling and utilizes
existing operator infrastructure.
3. Device-to-Network Communication
 Device-to-network is the V2N solution using traditional cellular links to enable cloud services to be part and parcel
of the end-to-end solution.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-30 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

 Collectively, the transmission modes of shorter-range direct communications (V2V, V2I, V2P) and longer-range
network-based communications (V2N) comprise what we call Cellular-V2X

6.10.4 Applications of 5G Network

5GAA focuses on more than simply providing faster data rate. 5G technology aims to provide wide range of future
industries from retail to education, transportation to entertainment and smart homes to healthcare.
1. High Speed Mobile Networks
 5G will revolutionize the mobile experience with data rate up to 10 to 20 GBPS download speed. It is equivalent
to a fiber optic Internet connection accessed wirelessly.
 Another important feature of 5G technology is Low latency which is significant for autonomous driving and
mission critical applications. 5G networks are capable of latency less than a millisecond.
2. Entertainment and Multimedia

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 Almost 50 percentage of mobile Internet traffic is used for video downloads globally. This trend will increase in

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future and high definition video streaming will be common in future.
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 5G will offer a high definition virtual world on your mobile phone. Live events can be streamed via wireless
network with high definition.
 HD TV channels can be accessed on mobile devices without any interruptions. Entertainment industry will hugely
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benefit from 5G wireless networks. Augmented reality and virtual reality requires HD video with low latency. 5G
network is powerful enough to power AR and VR with amazing virtual experience.
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3. Internet of Things - Connecting everything
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 Internet of Things (IoT) is another broad area that will use 5G wireless network. Internet of Things will connect
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every objects, appliances, sensors, devices and applications into Internet.

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 IoT applications will collects huge amount of data from millions of devices and sensors. 5G is the most efficient
candidate for Internet of Things due to its flexibility, unused spectrum availability and low cost solutions for
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deployment.
 IoT can benefit from 5G networks in many areas like: Smart Homes, Smart Cities, Industrial IoT, Fleet
Management etc.
4. Virtual reality and Augmented Reality
As Virtual reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) needs faster data rate, low latency and reliability. 5G networks will
unlock the potentials of VR and AR.

6.10.5 Millimeter Wave

 We all know that frequency spectrum is a scarce resource. The existing bands are crowded. One way to get around
this problem is to simply transmit signals on a whole new swath of the spectrum, one that’s never been used for
mobile service before.
 So now, all 5G service providers are experimenting with broadcasting on millimeter waves, Millimeter waves are
higher frequency waves than the radio waves. Millimeter wave is the band of spectrum between 30 gigahertz (Ghz)
and 300 Ghz (Extremely High Frequency). It lies between the super high frequency (SHF) band, and the far infrared
(IR) band. They are called millimeter waves because their wavelength vary from 1 to 10 mm, compared to the radio
waves that serve today’s smartphones. The radio waved wavelength is in tens of centimeters.
 Millimetre waves were first investigated in the 1890s by Indian scientist Jagadish Chandra Bose.
 Mobile Communication & Computing (MU-Sem. 7-Comp) 6-31 Long Term Evolution of 3GPP

 Until now, only operators of satellites and radar systems used millimeter waves for real-world applications.
 There is one major drawback to millimeter waves, though – they can’t easily travel through buildings or obstacles and
they can be absorbed by foliage and rain. That’s why 5G networks will likely augment traditional cellular towers with
another new technology, called small cells.

Review Questions

Q. 1 With a neat sketch explain SAE architecture.

Q. 2 What is the need of VoLTE. Explain VoLTE in details.

Q. 3 What additional features does LTE advanced contain compared to LTE? Explain LTE-A architecture in detail.

Q. 4 Explain protocol stack of LTE.

Q. 5 What are the functions of LTE – MAC layer? Explain in detail.

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Q. 6 Explain the Generic frame structure of LTE.

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Q. 7 Explain different transport and logical channels used by LTE.
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Q. 8 What do you mean by Self Organizing Networks? Explain SOIN architecture.

Q. 9 What are heterogeneous networks? Explain HetNet architecture in details.

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Q. 10 What are the applications of 5G networks? What is millimeter wave?

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Q. 11 Compare between LTE and LTE Advanced.
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