Units, Physical Quantities, And Vectors

We can never prove that a theory is always correct. We can disprove a theory by finding behaviour that is inconsistent
with it.

We use idealised models in physics to simplify complex real-world situations. They allow us to focus only on the
important forces or interactions. Models however, must be used within their valid range.

.3 Standards And Units

Any number that is used to describe a physical phenomenon quantitatively is called a physical quantity.

Two terms may be added or equated only if they have the same units.

.5 Uncertainty And Significant Figures

Uncertainty indicates the maximum difference there is likely to between the measured value and the true value. The
uncertainty depends on the measurement technique used.

Multiplication or division

Results can have no more significant figures than the factor with the fewest significant figures.

Addition or subtraction

Number of sf is determined by the term with the largest uncertainty (i.e, fewest digits right to the decimal point).

.7 Vectors and Vector Addition

The length of the line shows the vectorʼs magnitude, and the direction of the arrowhead shows the vectorʼs direction.

If two vectors have the same direction, they are parallel. If two vectors have opposite directions, they are antiparallel.

Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and the same direction.

We define the negative of a vector as a vector having the same magnitude as the original vector but the opposite
direction.

A vector can never be equal to a scalar.

Note that you generally cannot find the magnitude of a resultant vector by simply adding the magnitudes of the individual
vectors—unless the vectors are in the same direction.

When you multiply a vector by a scalar, each of its components is also multiplied by that scalar.

Units, Physical Quantities, And Vectors 1

 Scalar Product

Scalar product of two perpendicular vectors is zero.

The scalar product equals the magnitude of times the projection of onto .

Projection tells “how muchˮ one vector points in the direction of another.

Hence, scalar product quantifies projection through

Vector Product

The vector product of two parallel or antiparallel vector is zero.

The two vector multiply to produce a new vector that is perpendicular to the plane of both vectors. Direction given by
the right-hand rule.

Magnitude is area of parallelogram formed by A and B.

Its magnitude is linked to how “perpendicularlyˮ they point to each other

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Units, Physical Quantities, And Vectors 2

 Newtonʼs Laws Of Motion
Dynamics is the relationship of motion to the forces that cause it.

A body accelerates when the net force is not zero.

The third law relates force that two interacting bodies exert on each other.

.1 Force and Interactions

Force is an interaction between two bodies or between a body and its
environment.

When a force involves direct contact between two bodies, we call it a contact
force.

Three types of contact forces —normal force, friction force, tension force.

Long range forces are forces that act when bodies are separated by empty
space. Weight, force between two magnets, charges etc.

.2 Newtonʼs First Law

Once a body has been set into motion, no net force is needed to keep it
moving.

A body acted on by no net force has a constant velocity (which may be zero)
and zero acceleration.

The tendency of a body to keep moving once it is set in motion is called

inertia. Inertia is also the tendency of a body at rest to remain at at rest.

Newtonʼs Laws Of Motion 1

 Itʼs important to note that the net force is what matters in Newtonʼs first law.

Inertial Frames of Reference

.3 Newtonʼs Second Law

Net force acting on a body causes the body to accelerate in the same
direction as the net force. magnitude of acceleration is directly proportional to
the magnitude of the net force acting on the body.

Mass is a quantitative measure of inertia

For the same net force, the ratio of the masses of two bodies is the inverse of
the ratio of their acceleration.

Direction of net force is same as direction of acceleration, whether the bodyʼs

path is straight or curved.

Note that when we say forces, we are talking about external forces that affect
the bodyʼs motion. Those exerted on the body by other bodies in its
environment.

Newtonʼs law useful when mass is constant. If mass is changing, better to use
concept of momentum.

Newtonʼs Laws Of Motion 2

 Newtonʼs second law is valid only in inertial frame of references, just like first
law.

.4 Mass and Weight

Mass characterises the inertial properties of a body.

The force that makes the body accelerate downward is its weight.

.5 Newtonʼs Third Law

A force acting on a body is always result of interaction of two bodies. Forces
come is pairs.

The force that you exert on the other body is in the opposite direction to the
force that the body exerts on you.

If a body exerts a force on body , then body exerts a force on

body . These two forces have the same magnitude but are in opposite
direction. These two forces act on different bodies.

When two bodies interact, there are two forces between them, not one.

Newtonʼs Third Law forces donʼt cancel because they act on different objects.

Net force is calculated per object, not across the pair.

So each object can still accelerate depending on its own net force.

YES. If you consider the two bodies as a single system, and only the internal
forces between them are acting, then:

The net internal force on the system is zero.

Newtonʼs Laws Of Motion 3

 Because:

The force of A on B and the force of B on A are equal and opposite,

They are internal to the system,

So they cancel within the system as a whole.

3-Line Summary:
 When treated as one system, internal forces cancel Newtonʼs Third Law).

 Thatʼs why the net internal force is zero.

 But external forces, or individual accelerations, still matter for motion.

Newtonʼs Laws Of Motion 4