Chapter 7
The Control of Microbial Growth
Terminology Related to the
Control of Microbial Growth
Sterilization is the removal or destruction of all forms of microbial life. Commercial sterilization sub-
jects canned food to only enough heat to destroy the endospores of Clostridium botulinum. Disinfection
is the destruction of vegetative pathogens on a surface, usually with chemicals. Spores and viruses are
not necessarily destroyed. Antisepsis is the chemical disinfection of living tissue, such as skin or
mucous membrane. Asepsis is the absence of pathogens on an object or area, as in aseptic surgery.
Degerming (degermation) is the removal of transient microbes from skin by mechanical cleansing or by
an antiseptic. Sanitization is the reduction of microbial populations on objects to safe public health lev-
els. In general, the suffix -cide indicates the killer of a specified organism. A biocide or germicide kills
microorganisms. Fungicides kill fungi, virucides kill viruses, and so on. The suffix -stat used in this way
indicates only that the substance inhibits—for example, bacteriostasis.
Rate of Microbial Death
Bacterial populations killed by heat or chemicals tend to die at constant rates—for example, 90% every
10 minutes. Plotted logarithmically, these figures form straight descending lines.
Actions of Microbial Control Agents
Alteration of Membrane Permeability
The plasma membrane controls the passage of nutrients and wastes into and out of the cell. Damage to
the plasma membrane causes leakage of cellular contents and interferes with cell growth.
Damage to Proteins and Nucleic Acids
Chemicals may denature proteins by reacting, for example, with disulfide bonds (or disulfide bridges),
which give proteins their three-dimensional active shape. Chemicals and radiation may prevent proper
replication or functioning of DNA or RNA.
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80 Chapter 7
Physical Methods of Microbial Control
Heat
Thermal death point is the lowest temperature required to kill a liquid culture of a certain species of
bacteria in 10 minutes. Thermal death time is the length of time required to kill all bacteria in a liquid
culture at a given temperature. Decimal reduction time (D value) is the length of time, in minutes,
required to kill 90% of the population of bacteria at a given temperature.
Moist Heat. Boiling (100°C) kills vegetative forms of bacterial pathogens, many viruses, and fungi
within 10 minutes. Endospores and some viruses survive boiling for longer times. Steam under pressure
allows temperatures above boiling to be reached. Autoclaves, retorts, and pressure cookers are vessels in
which high steam pressures can be contained. A typical operating condition for sterilization is 15 psi
(pounds per square inch) at 121°C for 15 minutes. Moisture must touch all surfaces in order to bring about
sterilization. Air must be completely exhausted from the container. An autoclave is shown in Figure 7.1.
Pasteurization is mild heating that is sufficient to kill particular spoilage or disease organisms with-
out seriously damaging the taste of the product. Dairies use the phosphatase test to determine if products
Exhaust valve Operating valve
(to remove steam Steam to Safety (controls steam from
after sterilization) chamber valve Pressure gauge jacket to chamber)
Steam Door
Steam
chamber
Air
Perforated shelf
Sediment
screen
Steam jacket
Thermometer
Automatic ejector valve is Pressure regulator
thermostatically controlled for steam supply
and closes on contact with
pure steam when air is
To waste line exhausted. Steam supply
FIGURE 7.1 Autoclave. The entering steam forces the air out of the bottom (black arrows). The automatic ejector
valve remains open as long as an air-steam mixture is passing out of the waste line. When all the air has been eject-
ed, the higher temperature of the pure steam closes the valve, and the pressure in the chamber increases.
The Control of Microbial Growth 81
have been properly pasteurized. High-temperature, short-time pasteurization uses temperatures of at
least 72°C for about 15 seconds to pasteurize milk. Equivalent treatments are illustrated by the follow-
ing example: the heat of 115°C acting on an organism for 70 minutes is equivalent to heat of 125°C act-
ing on an organism for only 7 minutes; that is, applying a higher temperature for a shorter time may
kill the same number of microbes as a lower temperature for a longer time. Milk can be sterilized and
stored without refrigeration when given ultra-high-treatment (UHT).
Dry Heat Sterilization. Incineration, as in direct flaming, is efficient for limited purposes. Hot-air
sterilization, as in an oven, requires higher temperatures (such as 170°C) and longer times (such as
2 hours) to ensure sterilization. Moist heat is generally more efficient.
Filtration
Liquids sensitive to heat can be passed through a thin membrane filter that has carefully controlled
pore sizes to retain microorganisms. Operating theaters and special clean rooms receive air passed
through high-efficiency particulate air filters (HEPA).
Low Temperatures
Refrigerator temperatures (0° to 7°C) slow the metabolic rate of microbes; however, psychrotrophic
species still grow slowly. Some organisms grow at temperatures slightly below freezing, but microbes at
the usual temperatures of freezer compartments are completely dormant.
High Pressure
High pressure applied to liquid suspensions such as fruit juices can kill vegetative bacterial cells. Endo-
spores are relatively resistant. An advantage is that flavors, colors, and nutrient values are preserved.
Desiccation
Microbes require water for growth, and adequately dried (desiccated) foods will not support their
growth.
Osmotic Pressure
High salt or sugar concentrations cause water to leave the cell; this is an example of osmosis (see plas-
molysis in Chapter 6). Generally, molds and yeasts resist osmotic pressures better than bacteria.
Radiation
Ionizing radiation such as X rays, gamma rays, and high-energy electron beams carry high energy and
break DNA strands. Ionizing radiation forms reactive hydroxyl radicals. Such radiation is used to steril-
ize pharmaceuticals. Nonionizing radiation such as ultraviolet (UV) light has a longer wavelength and
less energy. UV light causes bonds to form between adjacent thymines in DNA chains. Penetration is
low. Sunlight has some biocidal activity, mainly due to formation of singlet oxygen (see Chapter 6) in
the cytoplasm.
Chemical Methods of Microbial Control
Evaluating a Disinfectant
The relative effectiveness of disinfectants is determined by tests such as the phenol coefficient test.
Bacteria are tested under standard conditions against concentrations of phenol and the test disinfectant.
82 Chapter 7
Use-Dilution Test. In the American Official Analytic Chemist’s use-dilution test a series of tubes
containing increasing concentrations of the test disinfectants are inoculated and incubated. The more the
chemical can be diluted and still be effective, the higher its rating.
Disk-Diffusion Method. A disk of filter paper is soaked in a chemical agent, which is placed on an
inoculated surface of an agar plate. A clear zone around the disk indicates inhibition.
Types of Disinfectants
Phenol and Phenolics. Phenol (carbolic acid) is seldom used today. Derivatives of the phenol mole-
cule, however, are widely used. Phenolics injure plasma membranes, inactivate enzymes, or denature
proteins. They are stable, persistent, and are not sensitive to organic matter. O-phenylphenol, a cresol, is
the main ingredient in most formulations of Lysol.
Bisphenols. Phenol derivatives called bisphenols contain two phenolic groups connected by a bridge.
Hexachlorophene is the main ingredient in pHisoHex and is used in nurseries to control gram-positive
skin bacteria such as staphylococci and streptococci. Excessive use can cause neurological damage.
Triclosan is a widely used bisphenol found in many household products. It has a broad spectrum of activ-
ity, especially against gram-positive bacteria. It is also effective against gram-negative bacteria and fungi.
Biguanides. Chlorhexidine, a member of the biguanide group, is not a phenol, but its structure and
applications resemble hexachlorophene. It is frequently used for surgical skin preparation and surgical
hand scrubs.
Halogens. Iodine is effective against all kinds of bacteria, many endospores, fungi, and some viruses.
Its mechanism of activity may be its combination with the amino acid tyrosine in enzyme and cellular
proteins. A tincture of iodine means it is in an aqueous-alcohol solution. An iodophore is a combination
of iodine and an organic molecule. Iodophores do not stain and are less irritating than iodine. Examples
are Isodine and Betadine. Chlorine is used as a gas or in combination with other chemicals. Chlorine gas
is used for disinfecting municipal water supplies, swimming pools, and sewage. Sodium hypochlorite—
ordinary household bleach—is a good disinfectant. Chloramines consist of chlorine and ammonia. They
are more stable than most chlorines. The U.S. military uses tablets of sodium dichloroisocyanurate for field-
disinfection of water. The biocidal action of all chlorines is based on the formation of hypochlorous acid
(HOCl) in water. One factor in its effectiveness is its neutral charge, which allows it to diffuse as rapidly
as water into the cell. Chlorine dioxide in gaseous form is used for area disinfection, most notably to kill
endospores of anthrax bacteria.
Alcohols. Both ethanol and isopropanol (rubbing alcohol) are widely used, normally at a concentra-
tion of about 70%. Concentrations of 60% to 95% are effective. They are bactericidal and fungicidal but
are not effective against endospores or nonenveloped viruses. Alcohols enhance the effectiveness of other
chemical agents.
Heavy Metals and Their Compounds. The fact that tiny amounts of heavy metals are effective
antimicrobials can be illustrated by oligodynamic action. A silver coin on an inoculated nutrient medium
will inhibit growth for some distance. A 1% silver nitrate solution has been used to prevent gonorrheal eye
infections in newborns. Silver-sulfadiazine is used in wound dressings. Silver combines with sulfhydryl
groups on proteins, denaturing them. Mercuric chloride is highly bacteriocidal, but is toxic and corrosive
and is inactivated by organic matter. Organic mercury compounds such as Mercurochrome are less irritat-
ing and less toxic than inorganic mercuries. Copper sulfate is often used to destroy green algae in reservoirs
or other waters. Zinc chloride is used in mouthwashes, and zinc oxide is used in paints as an antifungal.
Surface-Active Agents. Surface-active agents, or surfactants, decrease the surface tension of a liq-
uid. Soaps and detergents are examples. They emulsify oils and are good degerming agents. Acid-anionic
sanitizers are important for cleaning dairy equipment.
The Control of Microbial Growth 83
H H CH3
H N+ H C N+ C18H37 Cl
FIGURE 7.2 The ammonium ion and a quaternary H H CH3
ammonium compound, benzalkonium chloride
(Zephiran). Note how other groups replace the Ammonium ion Benzalkonium chloride
hydrogens of the ammonium ion.
Quaternary Ammonium Compounds. The quaternary ammonium compounds (quats) (Figure 7.2)
are most effective against gram-positive bacteria, and less so against gram-negative bacteria. These
cationic detergents have good fungicidal, amoebicidal, and virucidal (enveloped virus) activity, but they
are not sporicidal. They are colorless, odorless, tasteless, nontoxic, and stable, but they are inactivated by
organic matter, soaps, detergents, and surfaces such as gauze. They may even support the growth of
Pseudomonas bacteria. They act by disrupting the plasma membranes and by denaturing enzymes.
Widely used examples of quats are benzalkonium chloride (Zephiran) and cetylpyridinium chloride (Cepacol).
Chemical Food Preservatives. Sorbic acid (potassium sorbate) inhibits mold spoilage in foods such as
cheese. Benzoic acid (sodium benzoate) is an antifungal used in soft drinks and other acidic foods.
Methylparaben and propylparaben, which are derivatives of benzoic acid, work at a neutral pH. They
inhibit molds in liquid cosmetics and shampoos. Calcium propionate prevents mold growth in bread. All
of these organic acids inhibit enzymatic or metabolic activity; their activity is not related to their acidity.
Sodium nitrate and sodium nitrite are added to meats to produce a red color and to inhibit outgrowth of
botulism endospores. (The active principle is the nitrite ion; bacteria in the meat reduce the nitrate to
nitrite.) Nitrosamines, formed by a reaction between certain amino acids and nitrite, are possibly car-
cinogenic (cancer causing).
Antibiotics. A few antibiotics, not medically useful, are used as food preservatives. These include
nisin, a bacteriocin (a protein produced by a bacterium that inhibits another), which is added to cheese to
inhibit endospore formers. Another is Natamycin (pimaricin), an antifungal mostly used in cheese.
Aldehydes. Among the most effective antimicrobials are the aldehydes such as formaldehyde. In the
form of an aqueous solution, this gas is called formalin and is used to preserve biological specimens. Glut-
araldehyde is a less irritating form; in a 2% solution (Cidex), it is bactericidal, tuberculocidal, and virucidal
in 10 minutes. It is sporicidal after about 3 to 10 hours of contact. Both glutaraldehyde and formaldehyde
are used for embalming. A possible replacement for glutaraldehyde is ortho-phthalaldehyde (OPA).
Gaseous Chemosterilizers. Ethylene oxide inactivates protein by a mechanism similar to the alde-
hydes; that is, it combines with organic functional groups of proteins. It is a sterilant that kills all
microbes and endospores and has great penetrating power. It is used to sterilize disposable medical sup-
plies and equipment used in hospitals when heat treatment is not practical. Propylene oxide and beta-propi-
olactone are also important gaseous sterilants. These gases are suspected cancer-causing agents. Plasma
gas sterilization makes use of hydrogen peroxide vapors subjected to microwave radiation to produce
reactive free radicals.
Peroxygens (Oxidizing Agents). Peroxygens exert antimicrobial activity by oxidizing cellular com-
ponents. Hydrogen peroxide is a common household antiseptic. It is not a good antiseptic for open wounds,
but it is useful in deep anaerobic wounds where the oxygen released by the action of the enzyme catalase
in tissue is effective against anaerobes such as Clostridium. Benzoyl peroxide is also useful in treatment of
deep wounds, although it is better known as the main ingredient in many acne medications. Ozone (O3) is
a highly reactive form of oxygen. It is generated by high-voltage electric discharges and is often used to
supplement chlorination in water treatment. Peracetic acid is an effective liquid chemical sporicide.
84 Chapter 7
Microbes Relatively Resistant to Chemical Antimicrobials. Chemical antimicrobials are not
uniformly effective against all microorganisms. Gram-positive bacteria are relatively more resistant than
gram-negative. Viruses with an envelope (lipophilic) are more susceptible than those with only a protein
coat. Endospores, and cysts and oocysts of protozoa, are affected by few liquid chemical agents. Myco-
bacteria have a waxy cell wall that makes them relatively resistant. Prions, infectious proteins that cause
neurological diseases such as mad cow disease (Chapter 22 of the text), are difficult to render noninfec-
tious. Normal autoclaving is inadequate and at least autoclaving at a higher temperature, 134°C in a
solution of sodium hydroxide, is recommended. Incineration can be used in some cases.
The Control of Microbial Growth 85
Self-Tests
In the matching section, there is only one answer to each question; however, the lettered
options (a, b, c, etc.) may be used more than once or not at all.
I. Matching
1. A suffix meaning “to kill.” a. Disinfection
2. Destroying or removing all forms of microbial life. b. Sterilization
3. The absence of pathogens on an object or area. c. Antisepsis
4. The reduction of microbial populations to safe public d. Asepsis
health levels.
e. Sanitization
5. The chemical disinfection of living tissue, such as skin or a
f. Degerming
mucous membrane.
g. -cide
6. The removal of transient microbes from skin by mechanical
cleansing or by an antiseptic. h. -stat
7. Heat sufficient only to kill endospores of the botulism i. Commercial sterilization
bacterium.
II. Matching
1. The lowest temperature required to kill a liquid culture of a. Thermal death time
a certain species of bacteria in 10 minutes.
b. Decimal reduction time
2. The time in minutes required to kill 90% of a bacterial
c. Thermal death point
population.
d. Phenol coefficient
3. Mild heating to destroy particular spoilage organisms or
disease organisms in milk or similar products. e. Pasteurization
4. A test for the effectiveness of a chemical disinfectant. f. Desiccation
5. The absence of water, resulting in a condition of dryness. g. Incineration
86 Chapter 7
III. Matching
1. Ethylene oxide. a. Bisphenol
2. Sodium hypochlorite. b. Halogen
3. Copper sulfate. c. Alcohol
4. Mercurochrome. d. Heavy metal
5. Benzalkonium chloride. e. Quaternary ammonium com-
pound
6. Acid-anionic detergents.
f. Surface-active agents
7. Sorbic acid.
g. Organic acid
8. Benzoyl peroxide.
h. Aldehydes
9. Hexachlorophene.
i. Gaseous chemosterilizer
10. Isopropanol.
j. Oxidizing agent
IV. Matching
1. An effective liquid sporicide. a. Peracetic acid
2. A bacteriocin classified as an antibiotic. b. Chlorhexidine
3. Pimaricin. c. Triclosan
4. A biguanide. d. Natamycin
5. A bisphenol found in many household products. e. Nisin
6. An antibiotic antifungal.
V. Matching
1. Added to chlorine to form chloramines. a. Iodophore
2. An antibacterial effect of ultraviolet radiation on DNA. b. Formalin
3. Formaldehyde in an aqueous solution. c. Thymine dimers
4. An example would be iodine in an aqueous-alcohol d. Ammonia
solution.
e. Tincture
5. For example, povidone iodine solution.
The Control of Microbial Growth 87
VI. Matching
1. Chlorine in tablet form issued as a water purifier by the a. Sodium dichloroisocyanurate
U.S. military.
b. Phosphatase
2. Name of a test that determines if milk has been properly
c. Zinc chloride
pasteurized.
d. Sodium benzoate
3. Used as an antiseptic in certain mouthwashes.
e. Ozone
4. Used in many water treatment plants as a disinfectant;
produced by electrical discharges at the site.
5. Antifungal organic compound used in food.
Fill in the Blanks
1. Ultraviolet light is an example of radiation.
2. Sunlight owes its biocidal activity mainly to the formation of oxygen.
3. A good example of ionizing radiation is .
4. Ethanol is usually used in a concentration of about .
5. A less irritating form of formaldehyde is .
6. A compound that would only inhibit the growth of a fungus would be a fungi
.
7. Steam allows temperatures above boiling to be reached.
8. Steam under pressure is obtained in retorts, pressure cookers, and .
9. Plasma gas sterilization makes use of vapors of .
10. Generally speaking, the group of organisms that is more resistant to osmotic pressure than bacteria is
.
Critical Thinking
1. What physical method of control would be most effective in each of the following situations?
a. To eliminate endospore-forming pathogens.
b. To sterilize milk for storage at room temperature.
c. To sterilize vaccines.
d. To sterilize microbiological media.
88 Chapter 7
2. What chemical agent would be most effective in each of the following situations?
a. A puncture wound acquired while gardening.
b. For presurgical scrubbing.
c. To sterilize packaged bandages.
d. To prevent the growth of molds in liquid cosmetics.
3. Compare and contrast sterilization and sanitation.
4. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages associated with each of the following physical methods
of control.
a. Osmotic pressure
b. Desiccation
c. Refrigeration
d. Filtration
5. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of UV light as a method to control microbial growth.
Answers
Matching
I. 1. g 2. b 3. d 4. e 5. c 6. f 7. i
II. 1. c 2. b 3. e 4. d 5. f
III. 1. i 2. b 3. d 4. d 5. e 6. f 7. g 8. j 9. a 10. c
IV. 1. a 2. e 3. d 4. b 5. c 6. d
V. 1. d 2. c 3. b 4. e 5. a
VI. 1. a 2. b 3. c 4. e 5. d
The Control of Microbial Growth 89
Fill in the Blanks
1. nonionizing 2. singlet 3. X rays, gamma rays, high-energy electrons 4. 70%
5. glutaraldehyde 6. -stat 7. under pressure (as in an autoclave) 8. autoclaves
9. hydrogen peroxide 10. fungi, such as molds and yeasts
Critical Thinking
1. a. Autoclaving at 121°C, 15 psi for 15 minutes will kill all organisms and their endospores.
b. The milk should be sterilized by ultra-high-temperature (UHT) treatment.
c. Vaccines are heat-sensitive and must be filter-sterilized.
d. Most media can be safely autoclaved. Heat-sensitive media can be filter-sterilized.
2. a. An oxidizing agent such as hydrogen peroxide would be a good choice. Oxidizing agents are
especially effective against anaerobic bacteria.
b. Chlorhexidine is useful for surgical scrubbing because it is bacteriocidal against both gram-
positive and gram-negative organisms.
c. Ethylene oxide would be appropriate because it is 100% effective and can penetrate the wrapping
material covering the bandage.
d. The addition of a compound such as methylparaben would inhibit mold growth.
3. Sterilization refers to the destruction or the removal of all microbial life, including endospores. There
are many ways to achieve sterilization, including the use of heat, chemical agents, or filtration.
Sanitation is the reduction of pathogens on inanimate objects (such as eating utensils) to “safe” levels.
This may be achieved by mechanical cleaning or with chemical agents.
4. a. The use of high concentrations of salt or sugar creates a hypertonic environment that results in
the osmotic loss of water from microbial cells. Advantages are that this is a simple way to pre-
serve meat and fruit. Applications include jams and jellies. Disadvantages are that molds may
grow on foods prepared this way and that it isn’t a practical way to preserve many foods.
b. Desiccation involves drying food (for example, meat and fruit). The lack of water retards the
growth and reproduction of microbes. The advantage is that it is an easy way to preserve some
foods. The disadvantages are that many microorganisms are able to survive desiccation for long
periods of time and are revived upon the addition of moisture. Applications are beef jerky and
sun-dried tomatoes.
c. Refrigeration is a simple and relatively effective way to retard the spoilage of food. Although
many bacteria can survive and even reproduce at refrigerator temperatures, the rate of chemical
reactions is slowed.
d. Filtration is the passage of gas or liquid through a screenlike material with pores small enough to
retain microbes. There are many applications of filtration, such as sterilizing heat-sensitive mate-
rials. It is difficult to filter-sterilize viscous materials such as some media.
5. Nonionizing radiation (for example, UV light) damages the DNA of exposed cells and is used to
control microbes in air and to sterilize vaccines, serums, and toxins. A serious disadvantage of non-
ionizing radiation is that because of its relatively low energy content, it penetrates poorly.
Organisms protected by practically anything are not affected.
