ere are detailed notes on Module BIOSL 1: Explore Continuity and Diversity of Life,

covering the topics at a GCSE level:

Module BIOSL 1: Explore Continuity and Diversity of Life

This module focuses on the fundamental biological processes that ensure the survival and
continuation of life, from the cellular level to the inheritance of traits across generations.

1.1 Analyse Cell Processes and Maintenance

Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. They are tiny structures containing
components necessary for life functions. There are two main types of cells studied at GCSE:
animal cells and plant cells, along with an understanding of bacterial cells.

Cell Structures and Their Functions:

 Animal Cells:
o Nucleus: Contains the genetic material (DNA) and controls the cell's
activities.
o Cell Membrane: A selective barrier that controls the movement of substances
into and out of the cell.
o Cytoplasm: A jelly-like substance where most chemical reactions take place
and organelles are suspended.
o Mitochondria: Often called the "powerhouse" of the cell, they are the site of
aerobic respiration, producing ATP (energy) for cellular processes.
o Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis, found in the cytoplasm or on the
endoplasmic reticulum.
 Plant Cells: Share all the components of animal cells, plus:
o Cell Wall: A rigid outer layer made of cellulose, providing structural support
and protecting against excessive water absorption.
o Chloroplasts: Contain chlorophyll and are the sites of photosynthesis,
converting light energy into glucose.
o Large Central Vacuole: A large sac filled with cell sap, important for
storage, maintaining turgor pressure, and regulating pH.
 Bacterial Cells (Prokaryotes): Simpler in structure, they have:
o A cell wall (made of peptidoglycan, different from plants).
o A cell membrane.
o Cytoplasm.
o Circular DNA (not enclosed in a nucleus).
o May contain plasmids (small loops of DNA).
o Lack a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles found in animal
and plant cells.

Movement Across Cell Membranes: Substances move in and out of cells via the cell
membrane through three main processes:

 Diffusion: The net movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an

area of lower concentration, down a concentration gradient. This is a passive process.
  Osmosis: The net movement of water molecules from a region of higher water
potential (dilute solution) to a region of lower water potential (concentrated solution)
across a selectively permeable membrane.
 Active Transport: The movement of particles against a concentration gradient (from
an area of lower concentration to higher concentration), which requires energy (ATP).

Enzymes: Enzymes are biological catalysts, which are proteins that speed up the rate of
specific biochemical reactions without being used up themselves.

 Specificity: Each enzyme has a uniquely shaped active site that binds to a specific
substrate, explained by the "lock and key" model.
 Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity:
o Temperature: Enzyme activity increases with temperature up to an optimum.
Beyond the optimum, the enzyme denatures (loses its shape and function).
o pH: Each enzyme has an optimum pH. Deviations from this pH can cause
denaturation.

Cell Differentiation and Specialised Cells: Cells undergo differentiation, a process where
they develop specialized features and structures to perform particular functions within an
organism. This specialization is controlled by genes.

 Examples of Specialised Cells:

o Nerve Cells: Elongated to transmit electrical signals quickly.
o Sperm Cells: Have a tail for motility to reach the egg.
o Palisade Cells: Packed with chloroplasts for efficient photosynthesis.
o Red Blood Cells: Biconcave shape and no nucleus to maximize hemoglobin
capacity for oxygen transport.

1.2 Apply Knowledge of Classification of Living Organisms to Group Them into

Kingdoms

Classification Systems: Living organisms are classified into groups based on their shared
characteristics and evolutionary relationships. The system was largely developed by Carl
Linnaeus. Modern classification also considers genetic information (DNA and protein
sequences) to establish more accurate relationships.

 Hierarchical System (Taxa): From broadest to most specific, the main ranks are:
o Kingdom
o Phylum
o Class
o Order
o Family
o Genus
o Species
 Binomial System: Each organism is given a unique scientific name consisting of two
parts: the genus (capitalized) and the species (lowercase), both usually italicized (e.g.,
Homo sapiens for humans). This system allows for accurate international
identification.

The Five Kingdoms: Organisms are typically grouped into five major kingdoms:
 1. Animals (Animalia):
o Multicellular.
o Cells have a nucleus but no cell walls or chloroplasts.
o Heterotrophic: Obtain nutrition by feeding on organic substances made by
other living things.
o Examples: Mammals, insects, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds.
2. Plants (Plantae):
o Multicellular.
o Cells have cell walls and chloroplasts.
o Autotrophic: Make their own food through photosynthesis.
o Examples: Mosses, ferns, flowering plants.
3. Fungi (Fungi):
o Can be multicellular (e.g., mushrooms) or unicellular (e.g., yeast).
o Cells have cell walls (made of chitin) but no chloroplasts.
o Heterotrophic: Obtain nutrition by secreting enzymes onto food and absorbing
the digested products (saprophytic or parasitic).
o Examples: Moulds, mushrooms, yeast.
4. Protists (Protoctista):
o Mostly unicellular, but some are multicellular.
o Eukaryotic (cells have a nucleus).
o Very diverse group; some have animal-like characteristics (e.g., Amoeba,
Plasmodium), others have plant-like characteristics (e.g., Chlorella).
o Examples: Amoeba, Plasmodium, Chlorella.
5. Prokaryotes (Prokaryotae/Monera):
o Unicellular organisms.
o Prokaryotic (lack a true nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles).
o Genetic material is a circular chromosome in the cytoplasm.
o Examples: Bacteria, blue-green algae (cyanobacteria).

Characteristics of Living Organisms (MRS GREN): All living organisms exhibit seven
key life processes:

 Movement: The ability to change position or place.

 Respiration: Chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules to release
energy.
 Sensitivity: The ability to detect and respond to changes in the environment.
 Growth: A permanent increase in size and/or mass.
 Reproduction: Processes that create new individuals of the same species.
 Excretion: Removal of waste products of metabolism.
 Nutrition: Taking in and using materials for energy, growth, and repair.

1.3 Evaluate the Role of Reproduction in Continuity of Life

Reproduction is a fundamental characteristic of living organisms that ensures the survival and
continuity of species by transferring genetic material from one generation to the next. It is
crucial for maintaining biodiversity and the balance of ecosystems. Without reproduction,
species would become extinct.

Asexual Reproduction:
  Definition: The production of new individuals from a single parent, without the
involvement of gametes (sex cells).
 Offspring: Genetically identical to the parent, forming clones.
 Advantages:
o Efficient and rapid population growth.
o Only one parent is needed, useful for isolated individuals.
 Disadvantages:
o Lack of genetic diversity makes the species vulnerable to environmental
changes, diseases, or new pathogens.
o Overpopulation in a habitat can lead to overcrowding.
 Examples:
o Binary Fission: (e.g., bacteria, Amoeba, Paramecium) A single cell divides
into two identical daughter cells.
o Budding: (e.g., yeast, Hydra) A new organism grows as an outgrowth from
the parent and then detaches.
o Fragmentation/Regeneration: (e.g., starfish) An individual breaks into parts,
each capable of developing into a new individual.
o Vegetative Propagation: (e.g., potatoes, strawberries) New plants grow from
parts of a parent plant (stems, roots, leaves).

Sexual Reproduction:

 Definition: Involves two parents (usually), and the fusion of their gametes (sex cells)
to form a zygote.
 Gametes: Sex cells (sperm and egg/ovum in animals; pollen nucleus and ovum in
plants) which are haploid (contain half the number of chromosomes of a normal body
cell).
 Zygote: The fertilized egg cell, formed by the fusion of two haploid gamete nuclei,
restoring the diploid number of chromosomes. The zygote then undergoes mitosis to
develop into an embryo and ultimately a new organism.
 Offspring: Genetically different from both parents due to the recombination of
genetic material, leading to genetic variation.
 Advantages:
o Increases genetic variation within a population.
o Allows species to adapt to changing environments, increasing their chances of
survival and providing a mechanism for natural selection and evolution.
o Reduces the risk of an entire population being wiped out by a single disease.
 Disadvantages:
o Requires time and energy to find a mate.
o Difficult for isolated individuals to reproduce.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants:

 Flower Structure: Contains reproductive organs. Key parts include:

o Stamen (male): Anther (produces pollen) and filament.
o Carpel/Pistil (female): Stigma (receives pollen), style (pollen tube grows
through), and ovary (contains ovules).
 Pollination: The transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma. Can be:
o Self-pollination: Pollen transferred within the same flower or to another
flower on the same plant.
 o Cross-pollination: Pollen transferred to a flower on a different plant of the
same species.
 Fertilization: After pollination, a pollen tube grows down the style into the ovule.
The nucleus from the pollen cell fuses with a nucleus in an ovule. This forms a
zygote, which develops into a seed.

Sexual Reproduction in Humans:

 Male Reproductive System:

o Testes: Produce sperm cells and testosterone.
o Scrotum: Contains the testes.
o Sperm Ducts: Carry sperm from the testes.
o Prostate Gland: Secretes fluid that combines with sperm to form semen.
o Urethra: Carries urine and semen out of the body.
o Penis: Delivers semen into the vagina during sexual intercourse.
 Female Reproductive System:
o Ovaries: Produce egg cells (ova) and female hormones.
o Oviducts (Fallopian Tubes): Connect to ovaries; site of fertilization and
transport egg to uterus.
o Uterus (Womb): Muscular organ where a foetus develops.
o Cervix: Narrow opening between the uterus and vagina, holds baby in place
during pregnancy.
o Vagina: Connects the cervix to the outside of the body.
 Gametes:
o Sperm Cells: Small, numerous, mobile (have a tail and many mitochondria
for energy), carry male genetic material.
o Egg Cells (Ova): Larger, typically one released per month, immobile, contain
energy stores for early embryo development.
 Fertilization: Fusion of a sperm cell nucleus with an egg cell nucleus, usually in the
oviduct, to form a zygote. The egg's jelly coat changes after one sperm enters to
prevent polyspermy.

1.4 Apply Knowledge of Heredity to Solve Problems

Heredity is the passing on of traits from parents to offspring. Understanding the basic
principles of genetics is crucial for predicting inheritance patterns.

Key Genetic Terms:

 Chromosomes: Structures found in the nucleus, made of DNA, that carry genetic
information in the form of genes. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total),
with one set inherited from each parent.
 Genes: Specific sections of DNA on a chromosome that code for a particular
characteristic or protein.
 Alleles: Different versions or forms of a gene. For each gene, an individual inherits
two alleles, one from each parent.
 Genotype: The combination of alleles an individual possesses for a specific
characteristic (e.g., TT, Tt, tt).
 Phenotype: The observable physical characteristics or traits expressed as a result of
the genotype (e.g., "tall" or "short" plant).
  Dominant Allele: An allele that is always expressed in the phenotype if present, even
if only one copy is inherited. Represented by a capital letter (e.g., 'T' for tall).
 Recessive Allele: An allele that is only expressed in the phenotype if two copies are
inherited (i.e., no dominant allele is present). Represented by a lowercase letter (e.g.,
't' for short).
 Homozygous: Having two identical alleles for a particular gene.
o Homozygous dominant: Two dominant alleles (e.g., TT).
o Homozygous recessive: Two recessive alleles (e.g., tt).
 Heterozygous: Having two different alleles for a particular gene (e.g., Tt). The
dominant trait will be expressed.
 Monohybrid Inheritance: The inheritance of characteristics controlled by a single
gene.
 Polygenic Inheritance: Many characteristics (like eye color or height) are controlled
by multiple genes interacting, leading to a wide range of phenotypes.

Predicting Genetic Crosses (Punnett Squares): A Punnett square is a diagram used to

predict the possible genotypes and phenotypes of offspring from a genetic cross.

 Steps to Construct a Punnett Square:

1. Determine the alleles for the trait (e.g., T/t).
2. Identify the genotypes of the parents.
3. Determine the possible gametes each parent can produce and write them along
the top and side of the square.
4. Fill in the inner squares by combining the alleles from the top and side,
representing the possible offspring genotypes.
5. From the filled square, determine the ratio or percentage of different
genotypes and phenotypes among the offspring.

Example: Cross between two heterozygous tall plants (Tt x Tt) | | T | t | | :-- | :-: | :-: | | T | TT
| Tt | | t | Tt | tt |

 Genotypes: 25% TT, 50% Tt, 25% tt.

 Phenotypes: 75% Tall, 25% Short.

Family Trees (Pedigree Charts): Family tree diagrams are used to trace the inheritance
pattern of specific traits (often genetic disorders) through multiple generations of a family.

 Symbols: Males are typically represented by squares, and females by circles.

Affected individuals are usually shaded.
 Purpose: Helps to work out the probability of individuals inheriting a genetic
disorder and identify carriers.

Selective Breeding: Selective breeding (or artificial selection) is a process where humans
intentionally choose organisms with desirable characteristics to breed together over many
generations. The aim is to enhance these traits in future offspring.

 Process:
1. Identify desirable characteristics (e.g., disease resistance in crops, high milk
yield in cows).
2. Select parents exhibiting these traits and breed them.
 3. Choose the best offspring from the next generation to be parents.
4. Repeat the process over many generations until the desired characteristics are
consistently expressed.
 Advantages:

o Produces new varieties with economically important traits.

o Can lead to increased food production (e.g., higher crop yields, more
meat/milk).
 Disadvantages:
o Reduced Genetic Variation: Leads to a smaller gene pool, making the
population less able to adapt to new diseases or environmental changes.
o Inbreeding: Can lead to an increased chance of inheriting undesirable
recessive traits, resulting in inherited defects or susceptibility to specific
diseases.

Codominance: In some cases, neither allele is completely dominant over the other. Instead,
both alleles are expressed in the phenotype, resulting in a distinct phenotype.

 Example: Feather color in chickens where a cross between a white chicken (WW)
and a black chicken (BB) can produce speckled offspring (BW), showing both white
and black feathers.
 Human Blood Groups (ABO System): An example of codominance and multiple
alleles. Alleles Iᴬ and Iᴮ are codominant, and both are dominant over i (or Iᴼ).
o Genotype IᴬIᴬ or Iᴬi = Blood Group A
o Genotype IᴮIᴮ or Iᴮi = Blood Group B
o Genotype IᴬIᴮ = Blood Group AB (both A and B antigens are expressed)
o Genotype ii = Blood Group O