The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher (2025) 34:765–775

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-024-00894-7

REGULAR ARTICLE

The Interplay Between Language Ideologies and Mother

Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTBMLE) Policy
Implementation in the Philippines
Yvonne Pedria Velasco1

Accepted: 11 July 2024 / Published online: 24 July 2024

© The Author(s) 2024

Abstract Drawing on Sutton and Levinson’s Socio-cul- and Vietnam have implemented MTI programs with vary-
tural Approach to policy, this study explores the experi- ing degrees of success (Kosonen & Young, 2009). However,
ences and collective language beliefs of 25 teachers imple- concerns regarding policy implementation and its impact on
menting the Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education learning outcomes have been raised in developing countries
(MTBMLE) policy in two urban Philippine school districts. (Burton, 2013; Rao, 2013; Tupas & Martin, 2016; Velasco,
Mixed methods were used to understand policy enactment 2016). At the classroom level, teachers grapple with peda-
and teacher perspectives. Findings reveal that teacher beliefs gogical challenges arising from multilingual environments,
about language significantly influence their appropriation particularly in navigating the use of diverse languages for
of the MTBMLE policy. While some teachers accommo- instruction. Several studies emphasize the critical role of
dated the policy, others demonstrated negotiation and some teachers as active agents in shaping and adapting language
showed nuanced resistance due to perceived pedagogical policies (Johnson & Freeman, 2010; Varghese, 2008).
challenges hindering implementation. This research high- Brown (2010) emphasizes the role of teachers in navigating
lights the role of teachers as active agents in shaping pol- a space for instruction within a sociocultural context often
icy, not simply passive recipients. By uncovering teachers’ fraught with ideological tensions. The Philippines presents a
deeply held language ideologies, the study o!ers valuable unique case study for mother tongue-based multilingual edu-
insights for MTBMLE policy reformulation. cation (MTBMLE) implementation as it stands as the only
Southeast Asian nation to fully institutionalize the policy in
Keywords Mother tongue-based multilingual education"· mainstream education. Despite the Philippines being highly
Language ideologies"· Policy appropriation"· Teacher multilingual, the Department of Education mandates strict
beliefs"· Language policy and planning"· Language policy nationwide implementation, requiring the use of the mother
implementation tongue as the medium of instruction in the first three years
of primary school. This policy creates a tension between
valuing languages for national and cultural identity, and
Introduction pragmatic considerations related to economic mobility. In
a developing nation like the Philippines, local languages
The growing body of research underscores the potential serve as symbols of national identity, while high English
benefits of mother-tongue instruction in early childhood proficiency remains a prized commodity in the job market.
education (Burton, 2013). Southeast Asian nations like Scholars have dissected the Philippines’ language policy,
Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Timor-Leste, highlighting its intricate interplay of political, cultural, and
ideological factors (Dekker & Young, 2005; Walter & Dek-
ker, 2011). Tupas and Martin (2016) describe the nation’s
* Yvonne Pedria Velasco linguistic landscape as a space where competing visions
[email protected]
of nationhood and ideologies regarding language use are
1
Carlos Hilado Memorial State University, Talisay"City, constantly negotiated. A multilingual language policy, by
Negros"Occidental, Philippines its very nature, can embody national beliefs about cultural

Vol.:(0123456789)
766 Y."P."Velasco

and linguistic diversity, equal educational opportunities, and Proponents of linguistic pluralism generally support multi-
human rights (Wa-Mbaleka, 2014). This study investigates lingual approaches to education, a key topic in discussions
the role of teachers in the MTBMLE implementation, mov- of linguistic human rights. Skutnabb-Kangas (2008) has
ing beyond the notion of teachers as passive recipients of raised concerns about the rapid decline of global languages,
policy directives. This study suggests that teachers act as estimating that 90–95% could be extinct or critically endan-
conduits, mediating the policy within the realities of their gered by 2100. The Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL)
classrooms. reports that the Philippines is home to a staggering 175 liv-
ing languages as of 2023, with a majority being indigenous
Language Ideologies or Beliefs About Language (SIL International, 2023). However, 48 of these languages
are currently endangered, and two have become extinct. b.
The concept of language ideologies emerged as a distinct English as the language of globalization. Another prevalent
field of study within linguistic anthropology in the late 20th language ideology positions English as a significant lan-
century (Silverstein, 1979). While earlier ethnographic work guage of globalization (Phillipson, 1992). This perspective
touched upon what we now understand as language ideolo- aligns with the notion that modernization is a prerequisite
gies, Silverstein’s (1979) work provided a foundational defi- for global development (Pennycook, 2002). In the Philip-
nition: ’any set of beliefs about language articulated by the pines, for example, English has become associated with eco-
users as a rationalization or justification of perceived lan- nomic advancement. Local stakeholders often view English
guage structure and use’ (p. 193). Kroskrity (2004) empha- proficiency as a gateway to white–collar jobs and improved
sizes the context-specific nature of language ideologies, social mobility, particularly for those from disadvantaged
defining them as "beliefs, or feelings about languages as backgrounds (Sibayan, 1999).
used in their social world" (p. 498). He argues that language
ideologies are rooted in social experiences, vary across indi- Language Policy Appropriation
viduals, and are multifaceted rather than uniform. Crucially,
Kroskrity (2004) di!erentiates language ideologies from Shifting the perspective on teachers from passive recipients
attitudes. Attitudes are individual dispositions, while ide- to active language policy actors reframes policy itself as
ologies represent recurring expressions of a more structured a dynamic sociocultural process, extending beyond legal
belief system. Attitudes are personal, whereas ideologies are mandates (Levinson et"al., 2009). Levinson et"al. (2009)
typically shared within a community. More recently, Rosa describe this process as policy appropriation, encompassing
and Flores (2017) have introduced the concept of raciolin- human interaction, negotiation, and resistance. Appropria-
guistic ideology, highlighting the intersection of language tion refers to "the ways that creative agents interpret and take
and race. Their framework posits that specific language in elements of policy, thereby incorporating these discursive
repertoires are perceived as deficient, often based on racial resources into their own schemes of interest, motivation,
stereotypes. This perspective invites educators and scholars and action" (Levinson et"al., 2009, p. 779). A sociocultural
to consider the adaptability of language acquisition and the approach to language policy acknowledges that teachers,
limitations imposed by racial categorization. a. Linguistic through appropriation, can make policy their own.
unification vs. linguistic pluralism. The ideology of linguis-
tic unification, also known as the "one-nation-one-language" MTBMLE: the Philippine Context
concept, is associated with Johann Gottfried Herder’s notion
of language as the "Volksgeist" or "spirit of a people" (Wool- This study focused on the widely held beliefs and practices
ard & Schie!elin, 1994). This perspective posits a natural of teachers in implementing the MTBMLE in the Philip-
correspondence between linguistic boundaries and national pines. Recent literature views active language policy and
or ethnic identities (Woolard & Schie!elin, 1994). The com- planning as multi-modal, multi-level, and linked to multi-
parison of language with culture held significant political layered ideological orientations. MTBMLE is challenging in
weight, as linguistically unified nations tied to a specific multilingual countries because the notion of mother tongue
territory could claim legitimacy for statehood (Gal & Irvine, becomes elusive in classrooms where students bring several
1995). This ideology remains influential today, particularly language varieties (Gacheche, 2010; Ghimire, 2012; Wa-
regarding minority languages and multilingualism. The Mbaleka, 2014). According to Quijano (2012) the migra-
Philippines’ previous policy of using Filipino (derived from tion of students from region to region, where the languages
Tagalog) alongside English as the medium of instruction are di!erent, creates gaps in their learning and makes it
exemplifies this ideology. Linguistic unification often views more difficult for them to succeed academically. Gumalal
multilingualism and code-switching as atypical behaviors, & Vilbar (2019) found that teachers believe that using the
while linguistic pluralism advocates for the maintenance and mother tongue in teaching a content area such as science is
vitality of minority languages (Skutnabb-Kangas, 2008). counter-intuitive realizing that their students were mostly
The Interplay Between Language Ideologies and Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education… 767

multilingual who could not understand the pure version of policy undergoes transformation as it is implemented
the mother tongue. The findings were corroborated by tes- across di!erent settings in a school. The socio-cultural
timonies from teachers, who reported that certain subject approach allows for the examination of the cultural mean-
areas in the elementary school curriculum are not appropri- ings teachers use to make sense of their experiences and
ate for instruction in the mother tongue due to the absence guide their implementation practices. This study focuses
of academic terminology for subjects like mathematics and on how teachers, as key social actors, interpret and adapt
science (Lopez et"al., 2019). Apparently, teachers are grap- the MTBMLE policy in their classrooms.
pling with the decision on how to deliver instruction most Grounded on the theoretical underpinning mentioned,
e!ectively: in the mother tongue or in English, particularly this study investigated teachers’ language policy appro-
in content areas that were previously taught in English. priation of the MTBMLE policy. Specifically, it sought
Moreover, several research studies have found that teachers answers to the following:
often face pedagogical challenges due to a lack of sufficient
knowledge about their own mother tongue and skills to teach 1. How do teachers implement the MTBMLE policy in
it, as well as insufficient training to implement language pol- their classrooms?
icies (Tupas & Martin, 2016; Velasco, 2016). Misalignments 2. What language ideologies do teachers hold in the context
between national language policies and teachers’ interpreta- of the MTBMLE policy?
tions of these policies in the classroom can also cause diffi- 3. How do teachers’ implementation practices and their
culties (Burton, 2013). Hence, there are calls for the Depart- language ideologies interact in shaping the overall enact-
ment of Education (DepEd) to re-evaluate the MTBMLE and ment of the MTBMLE policy within the classroom set-
to consider reinstituting the bilingual policy, using English ting?
as MOI in some subjects and to make the mother tongue as
a supplementary language (Apolonio, 2022).
A critical gap exists in our understanding of how teacher
language beliefs influence MTBMLE implementation. Few Methodology
studies have examined the policy through the lens of teacher
beliefs. This research aims to address this gap by investigat- Research Design
ing the ongoing pedagogical practices employed by teachers
and the corresponding language beliefs that inform them. The study utilizes a mixed-methods approach, employing
Teacher beliefs are known to significantly impact class- both qualitative and quantitative data collection meth-
room practices and shape educational realities in ways that ods to explore the relationship between teacher beliefs
may not be fully captured by traditional research agendas (language ideologies) and the appropriation of Mother
(Mante-Estacio & Tupas, 2022). A review of empirical stud- Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTBMLE) policy
ies on MTBMLE in the Philippines reveals recurring themes in the Philippines.
related to teacher language beliefs and also on pedagogical
challenges associated with successful policy implementation
(Abrea et"al., 2020; Lopez et"al, 2019; Dagalea et"al., 2022; Research Participants
Velasco, 2016; Apolonio, 2022; Gumalal & Vilbar, 2019).
However, scholars have called for further research that A total of 25 teachers from two urban school districts par-
examines MTBMLE classroom practices alongside teacher ticipated in the focus group discussions (FGDs). Twelve
language beliefs. This study aligns with this perspective, as of the 25 teachers who are all female were subject to class-
the existing literature critiques MTBMLE but lacks a criti- room observations and semi-structured informal inter-
cal examination of policy implementation that incorporates views. Table"1 below presents the summary of research
teacher beliefs. participants and data source.

Theoretical Framework
Data Collection
This study utilizes the Socio-Cultural Approach to Pol-
icy (Sutton & Levinson, 2001) to examine how teachers The multiple data sources inform the research questions
implement the Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Educa- in a manner that helped crystallize the data collection
tion (MTBMLE) policy in the Philippines. This approach method. Table"2 below presents the research questions in
views policy as a dynamic social process, shaped by vari- relation to data source.
ous actors within di!erent school and community contexts
(Sutton & Levinson, 2001). It emphasizes that an official
768 Y."P."Velasco

Table 1 Participants profile Teacher’s profile School A School B Home language Total number
of participants

Grade level taught

"Grade one 5 6 Hiligaynon
"Grade two 5 3 Hiligaynon
"Grade three 2 4 Hiligaynon
Teaching experience
"0–9 4 4
"10–19 4 2
"20–29 3 6
"30–39 1 1
Teaching position
"Teacher 1 8 4
"Teacher 2 0 1
"Teacher 3 4 7
"Master teacher 0
Classroom observation 12
"Grade One 6
"Grade Two 3
"Grade Three 3
Focus group discussion 25

Table 2 Summary of research questions in relation to data source

Research questions Data source

How do teachers implement the MTBMLE policy in their classrooms? Classroom observation/field notes digital voice recordings/transcripts
What language ideologies do teachers hold in the context of the Classroom observation/field notes digital voice recordings/transcripts
MTBMLE policy?
How do teachers’ implementation practices and their language ideolo- Classroom observation/field notes digital voice recordings/transcripts
gies interact in shaping the overall enactment of the MTBMLE policy
within the classroom setting?

Qualitative Data Analysis question and existing literature on language ideologies

in education.
The transcripts of the classroom observations, FGDs and 2. Developing Themes. Codes were reviewed and grouped
interviews were all verbatim. Through a sociocultural frame- into broader categories representing emerging themes.
work, a thematic analysis was conducted to find recurrent This involved identifying patterns and relationships
themes pertaining to teachers’ language ideologies and how between the codes.
these influence their implementation of the MTBMLE. The 3. Refining Themes. Themes were further refined through
transcripts and observations were coded for themes such an iterative process that involved defining clear defini-
as beliefs about the value of di!erent languages, perceived tions for each theme and going over the coded data to
challenges and benefits of MTBMLE, and teacher strategies ensure coherence within and between categories.
for language use in the classroom. The analysis involved a 4. Identifying Language Ideologies. Thematic analysis
multi-step process as outlined below: concentrated on finding recurrent notions regarding the
importance and purposes of several languages (Hili-
1. Initial Coding. Themes pertaining to language beliefs, gaynon, English, and Filipino). Codes were assigned to
instructional strategies, and rationales for linguistic FGD and interview segments where teachers expressed
decisions were coded line by line or segment by seg- beliefs about the value and function of di!erent lan-
ment in the transcripts. Codes were assigned based on a guages (Hiligaynon, English, Filipino). These persistent
pre-determined coding scheme informed by the research viewpoints were classified as language ideologies.
The Interplay Between Language Ideologies and Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education… 769

Quantitative Data Analysis Results and Discussion

The data from the classroom observation audio recording The MTBMLE Policy Implementation
transcripts were analyzed using descriptive statistics that
calculated for the frequency of recurrence of each language The study captured classroom observation data analyzed
(Hiligaynon, Filipino, English). The researcher speaks fluent quantitatively to identify the frequency and distribution of
Hiligaynon, Filipino and English and undertook a manual languages used by the teacher-participants. Language use
counting of the words from the classroom observation tran- analysis reveal patterns in how Hiligaynon, Filipino and
script. Table"3 below presents the data and data analysis English are used in the context of the MTBMLE directive.
techniques.
Language Use in the MTBMLE Classrooms
Analytical Framework for Ideology and Appropriation
Classroom observations, FGDs and informal interviews
To explore the relationship between language ideologies and provided insights into teacher practices. Essentially, the
teacher appropriation of MTBMLE policy, a thematic analy- MTBMLE is reflected in DepEd Order 31 s. 2012:
sis of interview data was conducted to identify recurring
“Mother tongue shall be used as the medium of
themes related to teachers’ beliefs about language. Class-
instruction and as a subject from Grade 1 to 3. English
room observation data are coded to identify specific teacher
or Filipino is used from Grade 4 to 10. Both languages
actions related to MTBMLE implementation, such as the use
are taught from Grade 1-10”
of di!erent languages in di!erent contexts and instructional
strategies employed. The identified language ideologies are hence, MTBMLE mandates teachers to use the learners’
compared and contrasted with observed teacher actions mother tongue as the medium of instruction and to teach
exploring how the teachers mobilized specific ideologies to it as a separate subject in Grades 1–3. Filipino or English
justify their practices. For instance, even if the MTBMLE is then gradually introduced from Grade 4 onwards. The
policy encourages the use of the mother tongue, how many policy seemingly intends a compartmentalized view of lan-
teachers still opted to use more English in the classroom. By guage use where the MT and other languages are to be used
employing this framework, the research provided a nuanced separately. Thus, to assess how teachers implemented the
understanding of how teacher beliefs (language ideologies) MTBMLE, twelve teachers from Grade 1 to Grade 3 were
shape their appropriation of the MTBMLE policy and influ- observed by performing a quantitative analysis of the class-
ence language use practices in the classroom. room observation transcripts. Word counts and categoriza-
tion by language use revealed the specific languages used
Ethical Considerations and their frequency in one-hour class sessions as shown in
Table"4 below.
This study adhered to ethical research protocols to ensure While the average teacher talk was 2120 words per hour, a
participant protection. Approval from the School’s Divi- key finding is that teachers used a combination of languages:
sion Superintendent was obtained, following standard pro- their students’ mother tongue (Hiligaynon), Filipino, and
cedures for educational research. Teacher participants were English. It was observed that Hiligaynon was the dominant
provided with informed consent forms that explained the language used by teachers, with usage ranging from 93%
study’s purpose, data collection methods, their rights, and (Grade 1 MT class) to 0% (Grade 3 Science class). While the
how confidentiality would be maintained. Similarly, students MTBMLE policy mandates instruction solely in Hiligaynon
were informed about the study and their assent to participate from Grades 1 to 3, all observed teachers incorporated Fili-
was obtained alongside parental consent through informed pino and English to varying degrees. Notably, English use
consent forms. Additionally, all data collection procedures averaged 35% across classes, reaching 100% in a Grade 3
ensured participant anonymity and no identifying informa- Science class. This finding suggests a nuanced approach to
tion will be collected or used in reporting the results. policy implementation. While no teacher conducted lessons

Table 3 The data and data analysis techniques

Data Data analysis techniques

FGD and informal interviews audio recordings classroom observation Transcribed; textual analysis based on the two main phases of grounded
audio recordings methods approach transcribed; content analysis by manual word count
to infer linguistic choice
770 Y."P."Velasco

Table 4 Teacher language practices showing tallies of languages used as MOI per class session of one hour
Class Teacher’s Total word count Total hiligaynon % hiligaynon Total filipino % filipino Total english % English
mother
tongue

Grade 1 mother tongue Hiligaynon 1834 1698 93% 98 5% 38 2%

Grade 1 mother tongue Hiligaynon 2015 1350 67% 45 2% 620 31%
Grade 2 mother tongue Hiligaynon 1901 1216 64% – 0% 685 36%
Grade 2 mother tongue Hiligaynon 1844 1348 73% 73 4% 423 23%
Grade 3 mother tongue Hiligaynon 2315 1675 72% 15 1% 625 27%
Grade 3 mother tongue Hiligaynon 1875 1359 72% 58 3% 458 24%
Grade 1 math Hiligaynon 2155 1258 58% 285 13% 612 28%
Grade 2 math Hiligaynon 2486 1476 59% 59 2% 951 38%
Grade 3 math Hiligaynon 2085 1292 62% 85 4% 708 34%
Grace 3 science Hiligaynon 2346 – 0% – 0% 2346 100%
Grade 2 science Hiligaynon 2428 1700 70% 73 3% 655 27%
Grade 1 science Hiligaynon 2150 1035 48% 87 4% 1028 48%
Average 2120 1284 62% 878 3% 762 35%

entirely in Hiligaynon, it could be argued that there was a Hiligaynon and!the!Ilonggo Identity
99% compliance rate, considering varying degrees of adher-
ence. This disparity highlights the agency of teachers as A recurring theme is the implicit belief in a natural asso-
more than mere policy implementers. Drawing on the socio- ciation between a language and its speakers, in the instant
cultural approach to policy studies (Levinson et"al., 2009), case, between Hiligaynon and Ilonggo identity. Specifi-
teachers are "policy actors" who interpret directives through cally, the teachers appear to subscribe to the ideology
their own understanding and the sociocultural context of which posits that Ilonggo identity is inherently tied to flu-
their environment. The data provides valuable information ency in Hiligaynon acknowledging the widespread profi-
on how teacher practices align with the MTBMLE policy’s ciency in the L1, leading some to question the necessity
language use expectations in Grades 1–3. of actively promoting its use. This highlights a potential
However, while the MTBMLE promotes a compartmen- dissonance between the perceived necessity of Hiligaynon
talized approach to language use, classroom realities neces- for cultural transmission and the reality of its widespread
sitate a more dynamic approach since treating languages as use. Teachers find the use of the L1 unavoidable consider-
separate entities may not fully reflect the complexities of ing that students are Hiligaynon speakers; however, some
classroom practice. In this study, teachers were observed to of them intimated that there were students who entered
strategically integrate all three languages to facilitate mean- grade one who had English instruction previously in pre-
ing-making, foster student relationships, and ensure instruc- school and had to grapple with Hiligaynon.
tional e!ectiveness. This dynamic approach involves trans-
We have students who were taught in English in pre-
languaging between languages based on specific learning
school and who were surprised when they learned that
objectives or individual student needs. Additionally, teachers
Hiligaynon is the medium of instruction in grade one.
leverage elements from di!erent languages, such as cognates
(Teacher, School A)
or translations, to enhance student comprehension.
Interestingly, some participants observed the increased
Teacher Language Ideologies and the MTBMLE Policy comfort and fluency when using the L1 in class. Obser-
vations during the study suggest a correlation between
This section explores the language ideologies of teachers Hiligaynon instruction and increased student engagement,
within the context of the MTBMLE policy. Language beliefs possibly supporting the participants’ claims.
refer to the language ideologies attached to language and
However, one thing which I have observed with the
language use that underlie the policy. Members of a speech
MTBMLE implemented, especially in grade one, it
community share a general set of beliefs about appropriate
seems that our students are more vocal. They can
language practices (Spolsky, 2004). These beliefs are herein
converse; they can organize their ideas.
thematically organized, corresponding to the overarching
(Teacher, School A)
language ideologies constructed by the teachers.
The Interplay Between Language Ideologies and Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education… 771

Overall, teachers argued that widespread spoken profi- by a later transition back to English in higher grades. They
ciency in Hiligaynon rendered explicit instruction unneces- advocate for an earlier introduction of English, suggesting
sary and insisted that the reported benefits of Hiligaynon a belief that a stronger foundation in English from a young
were primarily limited to facilitating communication within age is crucial for future success.
the immediate community. The teachers’ beliefs illustrate
the enduring influence of such ideologies in shaping lan- English and!Professional Identity
guage attitudes.
While the concept of colonial mentality might be relevant in
The Preference for!English broader discussions of language prestige, its direct applica-
tion to this study’s findings may be less pertinent. The data
A predominant view among the teachers is that Hiligaynon suggests a more nuanced perspective among the participat-
o!ers limited benefits for early literacy development. They ing teachers whose positive regard for English appears to be
believe that early exposure to English fosters greater profi- linked to its association with the teaching profession.
ciency, ultimately leading to a more advantageous linguistic With the MTBMLE, we, teachers, feel like we are dete-
skillset for the learners. When asked to rank the three lan- riorating. Our English skills are no longer developed
guages (Hiligaynon, Filipino, English) in terms of instruc- further because we speak Hiligaynon more. It’s some-
tional importance, the teachers overwhelmingly favored how difficult.
English. (Teacher, School A)
Hiligaynon should just be a subject, like Math and Instead of getting better in English, we have to dwell so
other subjects, but the medium of instruction should much on Hiligaynon. A lot of time is devoted to prepar-
be English. ing for MT and teaching in the MT.
(Teacher, School A) (Teacher, School B)

The data indicates a strong sentiment among teachers Ideologically, the teachers seem to equate strong English
advocating for the continued use of English as the medium proficiency with professional competence. Following this
of instruction (MOI). They expressed concerns about the logic, they perceive honing their own English skills as a
potential impact of the MTBMLE policy on students’ Eng- form of continuous professional development. This ideology
lish proficiency. This concern stems from the requirement for posits a social connotation of prestige associated with Eng-
students to take high-stakes standardized tests, often admin- lish proficiency, particularly within the teaching profession.
istered in English, such as board exams or certifications.
English and!Social Mobility
English as!the!Language for!International Communication
The analysis reveals that the teachers perceive English lan-
guage proficiency as a social and economic necessity. They
This preference aligns with the ideology that positions English
view a lack of English skills as a potential handicap, hinder-
as the primary tool for international communication. To them,
ing students’ future prospects. The data suggests that teach-
the development of English proficiency is viewed as having a
ers associate English with upward social mobility, believing
more significant long-term impact on students’ success.
it to be a key factor in achieving a higher social status. This
In my opinion, Ma’am, you can’t say that Hiligaynon perspective is underscored by the participants’ emphasis on
would be useful to the child because later on, English the potential opportunities English skills can provide for
would still be the medium of instruction. They will take their students.
the board exams in English, they will be interviewed
In the past years, when MTBMLE was not yet imple-
in English and the child would really find use knowing
mented, I know a lot of graduates from high school
and being proficient in English early.
who trained in TESDA. They are now call center
(Teacher, School A)
agents. From prep, grade 1, until elementary, they
When we do math, they count in English, the disad-
had English, Ma’am. How can the students now apply
vantage of Hiligaynon is that the students are lazy in
as call center agents after [high school] graduation
reading their test questions because they find them
because of MTBMLE? If in case they cannot pursue
quite long.
college? In this curriculum, students would not even
(Teacher, School B)
know basic English in grade one.
Teachers questioned the rationale behind shifting the MOI (Teacher, School B)
from English to Hiligaynon in the primary grades, followed
772 Y."P."Velasco

The study highlights a concern among teachers regarding During discussions regarding appropriate language of
the MTBMLE’s potential impact on students’ employabil- instruction for various subjects, a persistent preference
ity, particularly in the call center sector. Teachers consider for English emerged within the teachers’ discourse. They
English proficiency valuable to students seeking employ- highlighted the challenges associated with L1 use in sub-
ment and their apprehension stems from the belief that the jects like Math and Science, citing the limitations of Hili-
MTBMLE might hinder students’ English language devel- gaynon vocabulary in adequately translating domain-specific
opment, jeopardizing their ability to secure positions in call terminology.
centers, known for o!ering relatively high salaries. This
There are terms in Math, where, instead of saying
concern extends to students who may not pursue higher edu-
eleven you need to say ‘napulo kag isa’ which is the
cation, as even high school graduates with strong English
Hiligaynon of eleven. Presently, we don’t use ‘napulo
skills can find employment in this sector. Consequently, the
kag isa’ anymore and students already understand
teachers perceive the MTBMLE as potentially counterpro-
eleven. But MTBMLE instructs us to use the Hili-
ductive, potentially hindering economic advancement and
gaynon term so we introduce this to students.
inadvertently inducing poverty.
(Teacher, School B)
I think about the current time, Ma’am. Instead of I feel that some words were just coined so that there
moving forward, we are moving backwards. We can- are Hiligaynon equivalents for grammar lessons like
not compete globally. How can we compete globally ‘subject’ and ‘predicate’. I have never encountered
with this policy? Instead of exposing them to the global ‘tuluyuon’ (subject) and ‘panagsari’ (predicate) before
world, it’s like we are going back to darkness. MTBMLE.
(Teacher, School A) (Teacher, School A)
This ideology posits that English proficiency is a key fac- The perceived lack of standardized Hiligaynon orthog-
tor in achieving upward mobility. Teachers subscribe to the raphy emerged as a significant concern among teachers.
belief that fluency in English can improve one’s life pros- This absence was viewed as hindering the establishment
pects and is essential for navigating the future. Conversely, of clear conventions for written Hiligaynon, encompassing
a lack of English skills is perceived negatively and viewed aspects such as spelling rules, hyphenation, and capitaliza-
as a potential handicap. tion necessary for MT instruction. Furthermore, teachers
expressed dissatisfaction with the availability of instruc-
Challenges to!MTBMLE Implementation tional materials, which they described as often containing
archaic terminology that even educators found challenging
A recurring theme within the data analysis revealed a critical and unfamiliar.
stance among teachers towards the Mother Tongue-Based
Multilingual Education (MTBMLE) policy. Teacher dis-
course concerning the policy’s e!ectiveness could be char- The Interplay Between Language Policy
acterized as rather unenthusiastic. Implementation and Language Ideologies
It is difficult to use Hiligaynon in teaching. It is best to
Unveiling the!Link Between Language Ideologies
retain it only as a subject.
and!Policy Implementation
(Teacher, School B)
What should be done? First, the policy should be aban-
This section explores how teachers’ language ideologies
doned. Hiligaynon as MOI is proving very difficult for
identified in the previous section, shape the ways teachers
us teachers. Second, if it must really stay then it has to
appropriate the MTBMLE policy in practice. The identified
be retained as a subject just like Filipino.
language ideologies serve as a crucial lens for interpreting
(Teacher, School B)
how teachers appropriate the MTBMLE policy in prac-
It’s like introducing another language, instead of
tice. This study suggests that such appropriation emerges
bridging, you are creating a gap.
from the dynamic interaction between policy mandates and
(Teacher, School B)
teacher cognition that can result in diverse modes of policy
Even teachers are confused; I speak Filipino in Fili-
enactment. Mediated by their knowledge and belief systems,
pino class, then speak English in our English class,
teachers in the study engage in various modes of appro-
and by the time I teach Social Studies, I forget that
priation–accommodation, negotiation, nuanced resistance,
I should already speak Hiligaynon and I still speak
– resulting in a spectrum of policy enactment on the ground.
Filipino or English.
(Teacher, School B)
The Interplay Between Language Ideologies and Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education… 773

Language Ideologies and!Accommodation Teacher: This time, may ipakita ko sa inyo nga picture
sang isa ka butterfly ukon
Teachers who hold strong beliefs in the value of MT instruc- alibangbang.
tion and recognize their role as dutiful enactors within the This time, I will show you a picture of a butterly.
Department of Education’s legal framework are more likely (Classroom observation transcript, Grade 1 MT)
to accommodate the MTBMLE by prioritizing Hiligaynon.
The process of mixing languages as seen in the excerpt
They adapted their teaching materials and lessons to incor-
is perhaps the teacher’s way of checking for comprehension
porate more MT resources and activities. Their actions align
especially since Science was previously taught in English.
with their perceived professional duty to comply with the
The teachers describe a seemingly delicate balancing act
DepEd mandates that require full accommodation. The data
between adhering to the policy’s emphasis on MT instruc-
on teachers’ language practices (Table"4) showing a big-
tion and addressing the perceived need to prepare students
ger percentage of teachers’ use of Hiligaynon supports this
for future academic success.
contention.
School power dynamics denotes another layer to language
Language Ideologies and!Nuanced Resistance
policy process whereby ground level implementers acknowl-
edge the authority that derives from a Department Order or
Several teacher participants voiced anxieties regarding the
from a Republic Act.
limitations of Hiligaynon as the sole medium of instruc-
tion, especially for subjects perceived to necessitate a more
Language Ideologies and!Negotiation
technical vocabulary. These concerns likely stemmed from
a belief in the instrumentality of English, potentially leading
Teachers who held nuanced views on language roles,
to a form of subtle policy resistance. These teachers hold
acknowledging both the benefits of MTB and the perceived
strong ideologies about the importance of English for future
necessity of English for specific purposes, often engaged
careers and international communication. Furthermore,
in negotiation with the policy. This involved strategic lan-
some teachers expressed skepticism towards the necessity
guage use is consistent with translanguaging (Vogel &
of mother-tongue instruction, arguing that Hiligaynon is
García, 2017; Langman, 2014)–seamlessly integrating Hili-
already the dominant language of communication within
gaynon, Filipino, and English, suggesting a more complex
the school environment. They challenged the Department
negotiation. This translanguaging approach allows teachers
of Education’s (DepEd) rationale for the policy, suggesting
to leverage Hiligaynon whenever possible and allows for
that cultural and identity preservation can be achieved even
the strategic use of English or Filipino when encountering
with English as the medium of instruction.
limitations in Hiligaynon vocabulary for specific content or
technical terms. People in Bacolod City speak Hiligaynon. Almost eve-
ryone you meet here in school, whether students or
Teacher: Ano ang makita mo nga mga butang sa kaha-
teachers, all speak Hiligaynon. So why do we still need
waan nga makita mo sa laragway?
to teach it? (Teacher, School B)
What can you find in space that you can see in this
picture? Finally, anxieties regarding the suitability of Hiligaynon
Pupil: Adlaw! as a language of academic discourse were also expressed,
Sun! implying a perceived lack of preparedness for its use in this
Teacher: Adlaw. Correct. Kag may ara sang….? context. For instance, this study documented a grade one
Sun. Correct. And what else can you find (in the pic- teacher who opted to deliver Science instruction entirely in
ture)? English despite the policy. The teacher cited a lack of prepa-
Pupils: Balangaw! ration and appropriate Hiligaynon equivalents for scientific
Rainbow. concepts.
Teacher: Balangaw. What is balangaw in English?
I did not have any training in MTBM
Pupils: Rainbow!
(Classroom observation transcript, Grade 3 Science) LE and I think it’s best to teach my Science class in
Teacher: Sitsiritsit alibangbang!Alibangbang no? Sa English of which I’m more knowledgeable. I guess it’s
English ano na sya? better than teaching Science in Hiligaynon incorrectly
Hey, hey, butterfly! Is it a butterfly? What is it in Eng- using some terminologies.
lish? (Teacher, School A)
Pupil: Butterfly!
Closer examination revealed extenuating circumstances
Butterfly!
influencing this appropriation. This was the teacher’s first
774 Y."P."Velasco

week of teaching, and exercising professional judgment, the were made. The images or other third party material in this article are
teacher prioritized student success over policy adherence, included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated
otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
believing that immediate instruction in Hiligaynon would the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
be detrimental in the absence of proper resources. This case permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will
exemplifies how personal circumstances and beliefs regard- need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a
ing perceived pedagogical consequences shape classroom copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
practice. Importantly, this resistance was not characterized
by outright defiance, but rather a measured approach based
on their professional judgment about e!ective instruction. References

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