Chapter Two

Literature Review

This chapter discusses the literature review related to Teachers Strategies in Teaching Students’
Speaking Skill at Private Rural Junior High School in Bangka. This chapter highlights some theories
related to the research and covers the definition of speaking English, the component of speaking, factor of
the difficulties of teacher in teaching students' speaking skill, the kind of teacher strategies in teaching
students speaking skill, role of teacher in teaching students' speaking skill. Following this chapter is the
conceptual framework of the research.

Definition of Speaking English

As we know that speaking is an important aspect in language learning, including English. Rao
(2019) stated that English is the most frequently used language for correspondence or as a connection
between business needed and internet purposes. English is the only language used by scientists in writing
scientific research articles. Because more than 85% of research publications are in English. English is an
international language used for many purposes such as trade and commerce. English cannot be
underestimated anymore in the modern era. Even in the technological sphere, the majority of applications
are written in English, and even software specialists who operate all over the world speak with one
another in English. Additionally, the majority of literature about higher education are written and
published in English. Many people learn English in order to succeed in their various areas because of
some of the benefits of the language. However, English is important to learn, not only writing skills,
listening, reading, but also speaking English. Because it's not clear to learn English if can't speak in
English even though only have basic knowledge to speaking English. Like many that we encounter today,
many artists and public figures on television and social media are getting used to their children speaking
English even though the children only use of basic English vocabulary. Brown (2004) argued that
speaking is a productive skill that can be directly observed empirically, these observations are always
accompanied by thoroughness and accuracy effectiveness of skills, speaking is the most difficult skills,
that can be done to test the reliability of speaking is to do an oral test (as cited in Kurniati et al., 2015, p.
3). Speaking has certain unique qualities when compared to writing and reading, which are both
considered receptive abilities for written language. Speakers rarely employ whole sentences when
speaking, and their vocabulary is generally less focused than it is when writing.
According to Brown (2004), there are a few fundamental styles of speaking, as shown in the following
taxonomies :

1. Imitative. This ability to just repeat back (imitate) a word, phrase, or possibly a sentence is at one
end of a continuum of sorts of speaking performance. In addition to this simply phonetic level of
oral output, the performance criterion may also take into account prosodic, lexical, and
grammatical aspects of language.
2. Intensive. The creation of brief vocal passages intended to show mastery of a specific range of
grammatical, phrasal, lexical, or phonological.
3. Responsive. Response involves engagement and understanding testing, but only to a limited
extent that only involves brief exchanges of greetings and light talk, as well as straightforward
requests and comments. This is a type of brief response that provides instructions and guidance in
response to queries or comments raised by the teacher or a pupil. Those responses are typically
adequate and insightful.
4. Interactive. The duration and complexity of the conversation, which occasionally involves many
exchanges and/or multiple participants, is what distinguishes responsive speaking from
interactive speaking. Interaction can occur in one of two ways: through transactional language,
which is used to communicate specific information, or through interpersonal exchanges, which
are used to uphold social bonds.
5. Extensive (monologue). Speeches, oral presentations, and storytelling are examples of extensive
oral production tasks. During these jobs, listeners' opportunities for spoken involvement are either
completely disregarded or severely constrained (perhaps to nonverbal answers).

The Component of Speaking

According to Vanderkevent (1990) there are three components in speaking :
1. The Speakers. People who create sound are known as speakers. They are helpful as a means of
communicating feelings or opinions to the listener. Therefore, if there are no speakers, no
viewpoint, feelings, or feelings will be expressed.
2. The Audience. People who absorb or understand the speaker's opinion or feeling are known as
listeners. If there are no listeners present, speakers will write down their opinions.
3. The Expressions. The speakers' words or sentences which express their opinions are referred to as
utterances. Both the speakers and the listeners will employ sign if there is no utterance.
According to Harris (1974) there are five components of speaking skill concerned with comprehension,
grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and fluency.

Grammar

Grammar is a set of structured rules that govern the arrangement of sentences, phrases, and words in a
language. According to Fromking, Robert, Hyams, Collin, Amberber and Cox (2012), Grammar is the
study of language's building blocks and rules, including phonology, morphology, syntax, and the rules for
putting words together to make sentences and phrases as well as the rules for determining meaning
(semantics).

Vocabulary

The collection of words that a person has in a particular language is called vocabulary. Vocabulary is a set
of words that are known by a person or other entity, or part of a particular language. Hatch and Brown
(1995) stated that vocabulary plays a fundamental role in communication. It is because oral
communication needed in a rich diction in articulating words to deliver their meaning.

Comprehension
The pupils' comprehension of oral communication and ability to provide a suitable response to the
inquiry. According to Brown (2001), comprehension is a talent when pupils can comprehend the content
of questions when they are uttered and can clearly communicate their responses without using repetition
or paraphrases. Students should also be aware of what they have stated and the appropriate questions to
answer.

Fluency
Fluency is defined as the kids' ability to speak clearly. According to Richard (2008), speaking fluently
involves having the innate ability to do so swiftly, effortlessly, accurately, and clearly while making as
few mistakes as possible that the audience could find distracting from the speaker's message. Therefore,
the students should be aware of what they want to say and how to express it correctly so that the
audiences may comprehend what the words imply.

Pronunciation
According to Richard and Schmidt (2002), pronunciation refers to the manner in which a particular sound
and stress are made. Pronunciation places more emphasis on how sounds are heard by the listener than
articulation, which deals with the actual generation of speech sounds in the mouth (as cited in Ramasari,
2017). It frequently compares the spoken and written forms of a word, for example, "You haven't said this
word correctly" and "The k is not pronounced in the word knife." As a result, speaking instruction must
concentrate on helping pupils produce their words more clearly, especially in their pronunciation.
Learning pronunciation in English is crucial, especially when speaking. The way in which people
pronounce words is known as pronunciation. However, one of the most challenging parts of learning
English, in the opinion of many students, is pronunciation. Even if they make mistakes in other areas,
students who speak English with clear pronunciation are more likely to be understood.

Factor of the difficulties of teacher in teaching students' speaking skills

It is important for teachers to be educated about what speaking competence entails and how various parts
of speaking competence relate to one another in order to teach speaking holistically and comprehensively.
Speaking is a "combinatorial skill," according to Johnson (1996), that "involves accomplishing a number
of things at the same time." A model of second language speaking proficiency is shown in Figure 1 below
and consists of knowledge of language and discourse, fundamental speaking abilities, and communication
and discourse tactics. In order to produce spoken language in a fluent, correct, and socially acceptable
manner within the limitations of a speaker's cognitive processing, learning to speak in a second language
entails developing the capacity to use these components.

Knowledge of
Language
Discourse

Second Language
Speaking Competence

Core Speaking Communication

Skill Strategies

Figure 1. Components of second language speaking competence (Goh and Burns, 2012, p. 53)
 Knowlwdge of language discourse. Knowing the grammar and vocabulary of the language
(spoken structures, grammatical features, lexis) and comprehending how stretches of connected speech
(discourse, genre) are organized so that they are socially and pragmatically appropriate are all necessary
for the first component, Knowledge of Language and Discourse. In English, this means being able to
pronounce the language intelligibly at segmental and suprasegmental levels (register).

Core Speaking Skills. Describes the process of learning to comprehend speech fast in order to
improve fluency (e.g. speech rate, chunking, pausing, formulaic language, discourse markers). It also
entails controlling the flow of speech as it develops (e.g., initiating topics, taking turns, signaling
intentions, opening/closing conversations), as well as the ability to negotiate speech (e.g., building on
prior utterances, monitoring understanding, repairing communication breakdown, and providing
feedback).

Communication strategies. This study involves the development of cognitive (e.g.,

circumlocution, paraphrasing, gestures, word coinage, approximation, avoidance) and metacognitive (e.g.,
planning ahead of time what to say, thinking consciously about how you say something) strategies as well
as interactional (e.g., asking for clarification or repetition, reformulating, rephrasing, and checking
comprehension) strategies to overcome language knowledge limitations.

This concept suggests that speaking classes are more than merely opportunities for speaking practice or
"doing." They must be viewed as structured, supported learning opportunities that foster the growth of
these different aspects of speaking competence. It is crucial that teachers lead students in a methodical
way, offering integrated, sequential activities that help students become more conscious of the
knowledge, skills, and approaches required for various forms of engagement and conversation. Students
may require assistance with specific language skills, such as suprasegmental level pronunciation
elements, or they may require assistance with affective issues, such as anxiety, nervousness, or shame
related to speaking a foreign language.

The kind of teacher strategies in teaching students speaking skills

Extending some of the ideas mentioned previously. For the purpose of organizing a comprehensive and
sequential series of speaking activities, researchers present a teaching-speaking cycle (Goh and Burns,
2012, p. 153). In the figure 2, the model tries to attract attention to many fundamental ideas that
instructors can use to direct their pupils :
  Use a variety of speech-enabling techniques
 Develop fluency in meaning expression
 Use grammar flexibly to create a variety of utterances that can express meaning precisely
 Use appropriate vocabulary and accurate language forms relevant to speaking needs
 Use a wide range of speech-enabling techniques
 Understanding and applying suitable oral communication and discourse techniques
 Increasing understanding of genre and genre structures
 Increasing metacognitive awareness of L2 speaking
 Managing and self-regulating their own speaking development
(Goh & Burns, 2012, p. 151-152).

1.
Focus students'
attention when
speaking
7. 2.
Facilitate Provide
feedback on input/guide
learning planning

6.
Direct 3.
learners' Conduct
reflection on speaking task
learning

5. 4.
Focus on
Repeat language/skills/str
speaking task ategies

Figure 2. Teaching Speaking Cycle

 1. Focus students’ attention on speaking.
The two main goals of this initial stage, which deals with increasing metacognitive awareness
regarding speech, are :
a. To encourage learners to plan for overall speaking development
This method to motivate students to make plans for their general speaking development.
Prompts are offered to learners to urge them to consider the requirements of speaking and
how they might get ready for it.
b. To get students ready to approach a particular speaking task
Here, the speaking activity that has been scheduled for the teaching cycle is the main
emphasis of the prompts. Learners get ready by becoming familiar with the task's outcomes
and thinking through the tools they'll need to finish it.

Example Task

Spending time reflecting on your own learning processes is beneficial. Here are a few straightforward
questions to get you started. Answer each of them briefly in writing.

 What is your primary motivation for learning English speaking skill?

 Do you have any anxiety or trepidation when speaking English?
 What three aspects of your speaking might you stand to get better at?
 What do you like most about learning to speak English? Is there anything you
do not like?

2. Provide input and/or guide planning

Burns (2019) stated that speaking a foreign language can be anxious for students, therefore it is
very important that the teacher provides support or encouragement to improve speaking skills in
students, giving students time to plan what to say and how to say it. The objectives of this
preparatory stage include:
 Introduce or teach a new language
 Allows learners to reorganize their growing linguistic knowledge
 Activate existing linguistic knowledge
 Recycle certain language items, and reduce processing load
 Encourage students to interpret assignments in more demanding ways
Example of the task

Explaining a Procedure or Process: Planning and Rehearsing

Part I Guidelines to help you prepare for the task
1) Identify a topic you are interested in or know quite a lot about (e.g. How to
do make your favorite food)
2) Write the main points you want to cover in the space provided below:
i)
ii)
iii
3) Write down a phrase or an expression you would use to show that you will
be moving from point i to point ii and then on to point iii.
i)
ii)
iii)
Part II Rehearsal (Optional)
Practice giving the explanation. Use the points you have made and link your
ideas by using the signposting words you have just identified. Don’t write
down everything you want to say, so that you can practice bringing in different
points!

3. Conduct speaking tasks

This stage's goal is to give students a situation where they can practice speaking in a
communicative task. The assignment should motivate the students to use whatever linguistic
expertise, abilities, and techniques they may possess to convey meaning. In other words, this
stage of the cycle promotes students to acquire expression fluency without giving too much
thought to form accuracy. Because of the teacher-guided or individual pre-task planning that took
place in Stage 2, this stage should be less taxing for the students.
4. Focus on language/skills/strategies
The fourth stage of the cycle is designed to give students the chance to sharpen their language
proficiency as well as their ability to employ skills and tactics more effectively. In this phase, the
teacher calls the students' attention to specific components of the completed fluency assignment
 that require attention. The components could comprise vocabulary as well as linguistic elements
including pronunciation, grammar, and textual structures.
5. Repeat speaking tasks
Students repeat the speaking tasks from Stage 3 at this stage. The fact that students have now had
a chance to analyze and put into practice particular language items or skills during Stage 4
distinguishes Stage 3 from Stage 5. As a result, they can use this knowledge to improve their
performance. You could complete repetitions by :
 Repeating specific sections of the original task
 Repeating the full task
 Changing up the groups or partners of the pupils
 Giving them a new assignment that is identical to the one they just completed (e.g.
instead of instructions about making your favorite food, learners could give instructions
about a topic of their own choice, so that they rehearse a procedure genre again).

6. Direct learners’ reflection on learning

Through monitoring and evaluating what they have learned from the previous stages, stage 6
allows learners to self-regulate their learning. Individually, in couples, or even in small groups,
one can reflect. Reflection, both individually and in groups, frequently has a cathartic effect on
students who may be experiencing stress and anxiety and believe they are the only ones.
Reflection by learners can concentrate on one or more of the following topics and should be
directed by various types of metacognitive knowledge :
 The demands of the speaking task that they have become aware of
 Useful strategies to meet task demands
 Their informal assessment of their abilities and performance
 Areas of their performance showing improvement
 Areas that need to be further improved
 Plans to improve certain area

7. Facilitate feedback on learning

The teacher gives students feedback on how they performed in earlier phases of the Teaching
Speaking Cycle during this stage, for instance:
 Written reflections and comments from individual learners on each other's progress and
accomplishments
 Consolidated comments from the teacher based on written reflections from the class;
  Written comments in learners' journals
 Comments and informal evaluation on learners' blogs.

It is not intended for the cycle just discussed to be finished in one or two lessons. It is a
comprehensive strategy that may be introduced and developed across a number of lessons or
perhaps an entire unit of work to support and scaffold the learning of speaking skills and tactics.
For instance, a cycle can include a number of lessons focusing on a single theme or subject.

Role of Teacher in Teaching Speaking Skills

The cycle is important for teachers because it helps them organize their planning, give methodical
attention to each component, and create assignments and materials that are appropriate for
students at various stages of learning. Activities that interest students on a cognitive and
emotional level are also taken into consideration. Thus, it emphasizes the following features:

1. When teaching speaking, it is important to emphasize the roles that the teacher, the student,
and the materials each perform.
2. The primary goal of speaking assignments is to assist students in achieving the fluency of
skilled communicators, in which meaning is conveyed with few pauses and in a way that is
suitable for the social purpose of the communication.
 The use of accurate language and discourse routines,
 Appropriate speech enabling skills, and
 Effective communication strategies.
3. Pre-task planning and task repetition can improve learners' speaking performance because
they lighten the cognitive burden placed on the brain during speech processing.
4. Learning requires paying attention to important information and retaining it in long-term
memory. Therefore, teaching speaking should include activities that draw students' attention
to language, abilities, and methods.
5. To meet the affective and other cognitive demands of learning to speak a second language,
learners also need activities that support the development of metacognitive knowledge and
self-regulation of their speaking and learning processes.

By planning learning according to the stages in the Teaching Speaking Cycle, teachers can
address all of these issues and provide a valuable scaffold for students as they engage in speaking
task. Students will not only practice expressing meaning using the existing language resources,
but they will also receive timely input and guidance to improve their performance from their
teacher.