COMPUTER STUDIES

FORM ONE
Notes Summary 2011 Edition

Table of Contents
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS...........................................................................4

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 1.1 Definition of terms......................................................................................................4
1.2 Physical Parts of a Computer......................................................................................5
1.3 Classification of Computers........................................................................................6
1.4 Development of Computers.......................................................................................11
First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes.................................................................12
Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors...................................................................12
Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits........................................................13
Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors......................................................13
Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence.....................................13
1. 5 Areas Where Computers Are Used..........................................................................14
1.6 The Computer Laboratory.........................................................................................16
1.7 Practical Hands on Skills...........................................................................................23
2.0 COMPUTER SYSTEMS..............................................................................................30
2.1 Components of Computer System.............................................................................30
2.2 Input devices..............................................................................................................31
2.3 The Central Processing Unit (CPU)..........................................................................48
What is virtual memory?.....................................................................................................54
Virtual memory and error messages................................................................................55
2.4 Output Devices..........................................................................................................59
Hardcopy Output Devices...............................................................................................63
Plotters.............................................................................................................................67
2.5 Secondary (Auxiliary) Storage and Media................................................................68
Classification of Secondary Storage Devices..................................................................69
Magnetic Disks................................................................................................................69
Tape Drives.....................................................................................................................69
Removable Magneto-Optical Storage.............................................................................72
Hard Drives.....................................................................................................................73
Care for magnetic and magneto-optical media................................................................74
Optical Disc Drives.........................................................................................................74
Laser disks.......................................................................................................................74
Optical tape......................................................................................................................76
Advantages and disadvantages.....................................................................................77
Advantages.................................................................................................................77
Disadvantages............................................................................................................78
2.6 Power supply and peripheral device Interface..........................................................79
2.7 Basic Computer Setup and Cabling...........................................................................84
Computer Software..........................................................................................................86

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3.0 OPERATING SYSTEM................................................................................................93
3.1 Definition:.................................................................................................................93
3.2 Devices under the control of an operating system....................................................93
3.3 Functions of Operating System.................................................................................94
3.4 Types of Operating Systems......................................................................................96
3.5 Factors to consider when choosing an operating system..........................................97
3.6 How an Operating System Organises Information using..........................................98
3.7 Getting started with Microsoft Windows..................................................................99
3.8 Managing Files and Folders....................................................................................101
3.9 Disk Management....................................................................................................105
3. 9 Installing Windows Operating System...................................................................108
Answers to Review Questions...........................................................................................110
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS...................................................................110
2.0 COMPUTER SYSTEM..........................................................................................111
3.0 OPERATING SYSTEM..........................................................................................115

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 1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
Specific objectives
By the end of the topic you should be able to:-
a). Define a computer
b). State the different parts that make up a computer
c). Explain how computers have developed
d). Classify the various types of computers
e). Identify areas where computers are stored used
f). State the safety precautions and practices in a computer laboratory
g). Demonstrate basic hands-on skills on the use of a computer

1.1 Definition of terms

A computer
 Is an electronic device that accepts user input (data) and processes it under the
influence of a set of instructions referred to as programs to produce desired output
(information).
 Is an electronic device that uses instructions (programs) to accept and process data
given to it in a variety of forms in order to produce useful information.
 Is an electronic device that accepts user input (data) and transforms it under the
influence of sets of special instructions called programs to produce information.
A computer is said to be electronic because it utilizes electrical signals to process
information.

The three key terms that define a computer are:- input, process and output.
Programs
Set of instructions written in computer language that directs the computer what task to
perform and how to perform it.

Data
Raw facts that do not have much meaning to the user. Includes alphabets, numbers and
symbols.

Data processing
The varied activities performed to convert data into useful information.

Information
Processed data that is meaningful to the user and which can form a basis for decision
making.

Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

Is the integration of computers and telecommunication facilities for the purpose of
communication?
A computer is said to be electronic because it utilizes small electrical signals to process
information.

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 Computers come in different sizes and designs but the most common is Personal
Computer (PC)

1.2 Physical Parts of a Computer

A computer is made up of a collection of different components that are interconnected
together in order to function as a single entity. A computer is basically made up of four
basic components and other devices connected to the system unit called peripheral
devices.

i). System unit

Looks like a box. A computer case (also known as a computer chassis, cabinet, box,
tower, enclosure, housing, system unit or simply case) is the enclosure that contains
most of the components of a computer (usually excluding the display, keyboard and
mouse). This part houses the brain of the computer called the Central Processing Unit
(CPU), motherboard, main memory, and the drives. The drive is used to store, record and
read data. The two common types of system units are Tower and desktop type. The below
picture shows a tower style.

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ii). Peripheral devices
Can be defined as:-
- Devices connected to the system unit via ports and controlled by the CPU; or
- hardware that is externally connected to the computer’s system unit
Most of the devices are connected using data interface cables . The interface cables
carry data and information to and from the devices. The cables are attached to the
system unit using connectors called ports.
Peripheral devices can be external -- such as a mouse, keyboard, printer, monitor,
external Zip drive or scanner -- or internal, such as a CD-ROM drive, CD-R drive ,
memory, motherboard, hard drive, graphics card, floppy drive, cd/dvd drive
or internal modem. Internal peripheral devices are often referred to as integrated
peripherals.

Some peripheral devices are:-

 Keyboard
Is a device that enables the user to enter data and instructions in the computer by pressing
its keys.
 The mouse
Is a hand held device that enables the user to issue instructions to the computer and move
items on the screen by controlling a special mouse pointer displayed on the screen.
 The monitor
Is a TV like device that displays output. it is a called a monitor because it enables the user
to monitor or see what is going on in the computer.

1.3 Classification of Computers

Computers are classified according to:
 Physical size and processing power
 Purpose
 Functionality

1) Physical size and processing power

a). Supercomputers

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 Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that
require immense amounts of mathematical calculations. For example, weather forecasting
requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid
dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum exploration. Are very fast,
largest in physical size, most expensive, fastest processor speed and largest memory
capacity computers. Perform many complex calculations and generate a lot of heat due to
their huge processing power. Due to this the whole CPU is immersed in a tank containing
liquid fluorocarbon to provide cooling. Mainly used for scientific research which
requires enormous calculations. Applications that justify use of supercomputers are:- space
science, nuclear physics, aerodynamic design and simulation., defense and weapon
analysis. Are found in developed countries like USA and Japan.

b). Mainframe

Are less powerful, less expensive, smaller, slower, lower

memory capacity than supercomputers. Handling all kinds
of problems whether scientific or commercial. Support a
variety of peripheral devices. Mostly found in government
agencies, big organizations and companies such as hospitals,
banks, airports etc, which have large information processing
needs and places where processing automation is required..
They can also be used as Network Servers in large businesses
like in Banks to provide online data of customer accounts to
branch offices.

c). Minicomputers
Also referred small scale mainframes. Slightly smaller, low memory, cheaper, and low
processing power than mainframe. Supports fewer peripheral devices and not as powerful
and fast as the mainframe. It was developed as a cheaper alternative to the mainframes for
smaller organizations. They are used in research institutions, scientific laboratories,
manufacturing industries, engineering plants, etc.

d). Microcomputers
Also called personal computers (PCs). Is the smallest, cheapest, slowest and least powerful
type of computers compared to supercomputer, mainframes and minicomputer. They are
called Microcomputers because their processor is very tiny (size of a thumbnail). They are
mainly used in training and learning institutions, small business enterprises,
communication centres, etc. Today powerful microcomputers have grown tremendously
closing the gap that formerly existed and reserved for minicomputers and mainframes.

Types of microcomputers
 Non-portable: Desktop computer which is not portable and designed to be placed on
top of an office desk.
 Portable

Laptop: Are small enough to rest on persons lap

when using. Weigh about 1 to 3 kg each.

Advantages of laptops
o They are portable

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 o Are convenient to travel with
o Their screen show sharper and clear images which prevent eye strain.
o Laptops have power batteries which serve as inbuilt UPS

Note books: are even smaller and lighter than laptops. Small enough to fit in the pocket of
a coat. Cheaper than laptops and just as useful. When very small
are called sub-notebooks.

Palmtops: A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size
computers, palmtops are severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions such
as phone books and calendars. Palmtops that use a pen rather than a
keyboard for input are often called hand-held computers or PDAs.

Because of their small size, most palmtop computers do not include

disk drives. However, many contain PCMCIA slots in which you
can insert disk drives, modems, memory, and other devices.

Palmtops are also called PDAs, hand-held computers and pocket

computers

Examples are: Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), personal organizers or pen computers.

2) Purpose (Use)
All computers falls into two broad groups according to the tasks they perform namely
special and general purpose.

(a) Special purpose computers

They are designed to serve/ perform only one specialized task. These computers cannot
perform other task except the one they were meant to do. The set of instructions which
drive the a special purpose computer are limited in number at the time of manufacturer.
Examples are: robots used in manufacturing industry, mobile phones for communication,
electronic calculators for calculations, watches, oven etc. they can perform the task very
fast and very efficiently since they are dedicated to a single task. Are relatively cheap.

(b) General purpose

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Are designed to be able to perform a variety of tasks when loaded with the appropriate
programs. Are quite flexible to be applied in a wide range of applications like document
processing, performing calculations, accounting, data and information management etc.

(c) Embedded computers

Are inbuilt within machines that they control. They have hidden inputs originating
from the machines they are controlling. Embedded computers are found in
microwaves, digital cameras, digital watches and air conditioners.

3) Functionality
In this class computers are classified according to the type of data they can process.

o Analog computers
Process data that is analog in nature which is continuous. They solve mathematical
operations and logical comparison by measuring the amount of change in physical
magnitude e.g. speed, temperature, etc. are dedicated to a single task. Are used in
manufacturing process control like monitoring and regulating furnace temperatures, speed,
pressures, weather, etc, stations to record and process physical quantities e.g. wind, cloud
speed, temperature, etc. in addition to PCs, most modern home appliances such as digitals
TVs, microwaves, wall clocks are digital in nature. Continuous data is represented using a
continuous waveform.
+

- Digital signal Draw manually

o Digital computers
They process digital data only which is discrete in nature and their operations are based on
two states namely “on” and “off” or “1” and “0”.

- Analog signal {Draw manually}

o Hybrid computers
`They are computers build with the characteristics of both analog and digital, thus process
both analog and digital data.

Review questions 1.1

1. What is a computer?
2. State different parts that make up a computer.
3. Differentiate the following types of computers.
a. Supercomputer and mainframe.
b. Minicomputer and a PC .
4. Differentiate between a digital and analog computer.

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 5. Give two reasons why smaller computers like laptops tend to be more
expensive than desktop computers.
6. A…………… computer performs only one task while a…………. performs more
than one.
7. A computer is called electronic device because:
a. It processes data.
b. It uses electrical signals.
c. It gives out information.
d. It accepts user input.
8. What is data?.
a. Processed information.
b. Unprocessed information.
c. Raw facts inform of characters, symbols and numbers.
d. Information displayed .
e. On the screen.
9. Which one of the following is not true about the system unit?.
a. It houses the CPU
b. It houses the monitor.
c. It connects to all peripheral devices using ports.
10. What is a mouse in relation to computing.
a. A small destructive rodent.
b. A round A pointing device that controls a pointer on the plastic container with
a tail.
c. screen.
d. A device used in typing.
11. Why the screen is also called a monitor.
a. It displays the monitor lizard.
b. It helps the user to track what is going on in the computer.
c. It monitors system performance.
d. It is a television.
12. Pick the old one out in the list below
a) Calculator
b) Mobile phone
c) Robot
d) laptop

13. Pick the odd one out in the list below.

a. Mainframe.
b. Microcomputer.
c. Minicomputer.
d. Digital computer.
14. Which of the following would be most suitable for travelers?.
a. Supercomputer .
b. Mainframe computer.
c. Palmtop computer.
d. Minicomputer.
15. Why is a mobile phone regarded to be a computer?.
a. It is electronic, has a screen, keypad, memory and is programmable.
b. It looks like a palmtop.
c. It is portable.

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 d. It produces tones.
16. What is meant by analog data.
a. Data that never stops.
b. Discrete data .
c. Large data.
d. Continuous data.
17. Which of the following are analog devices?
a. A monitor with knobs that are rotated to increase brightness.
b. A monitor with buttons that one presses to increase brightness.
c. A radio with a knob that slides in a slot to increase volume.
d. A thermometer.
18. Which of the following is called a microprocessor?
a. The CPU of a mainframe.
b. The CPU of a computer.
c. The CPU of a micro computer.
d. The CPU of a supercomputer.

1.4 Development of Computers

Non-electronic computing devices
Included Abacus, Napiers bones and Analytical engine
Before 1900, most data processing was done manually. Abacus was a special counting
instrument / calculating tool used to calculate large figures developed by Asian
merchants.
Napiers Bornes was developed by John Napier a scotish mathematician to help in
multiplication and division. The first machine after the abacus was Analytical Engine
developed by Charles Babbage who was an English Mathematician in 1822 -1871. Mark
I was the first computer like machine designed by professor Howard Aken of Horrand
University in 1939. Mark I became operational in 1943. It weighed 5 tons and was 16
metres long. Since then rapid advancements in computing have been realized and can be
categorized into five generations.

Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development

that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly
smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices.

The history of development is often referred to in reference to the different generations of

computing. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological
development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in
increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices.
Read about each generation and the developments that led to the current devices that we
use today.

Key Terms: computer, magnetic drums, binary, integrated circuit, semiconductor,

nanotechnology

First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes

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The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and
were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in
addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the
cause of malfunctions.

First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming

language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one
problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was
displayed on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices.
The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S.
Census Bureau in 1951.

Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers.
The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the
late 1950s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to
become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-
generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that
subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube.
Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for
output.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic,

or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.
High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early
versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their
instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core
technology.

The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed
the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that
monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience
because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

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Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated

circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire
room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971,
located all the components of the computer—from the central processing unit and memory
to input/output controls—on a single chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home

user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh.
Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop
computers and into many areas of life as more and more
everyday products began to use microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they

could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the
Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and
handheld devices.

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in

development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being
used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make
artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology
will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation
computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of
learning and self-organization.

In the fifth generation are characterized by:-

- computers have very high processing power and speed
- Size is increasingly becoming smaller because of superior hardware and software
products that are small in size.
- Emit negligible heat
- Have special instruction sets that allow them to support complex programs that
mimic human intelligence referred to as Artificial Intelligence (AI). Therefore the
circuit technology is AI, parallel architectures, three Dimensional circuit design and
super-conducting materials.
- Use advanced hard disks and optical disks for storage e.g. DVDs
- Perform multiprocessing
- Use multi-user operating systems and advanced application programs
- Massive connectivity to Internet and intranet.

NB: Internet refers to global interconnection of computer networks for the purpose of
communication and resource sharing.
Computer Network is collection of computers linked together using transmission media for
the purpose of communication and resource sharing.
Intranet – is a private network.

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DID YOU KNOW...?
An integrated circuit (IC) is a small electronic device made out of a semiconductor
material. The first integrated circuit was developed in the 1950s by Jack Kilby of Texas
Instruments and Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor.

1. 5 Areas Where Computers Are Used

Supermarkets
- Provides quick way of checking out customers purchases through EPOSS
- Provides opportunity to customers to purchase goods without hard cash through EFT.
- to help in management of daily stock control, for production of receipts and can be
used as a barcode reader

Banks
- Manage financial transactions through the use of special cash dispensing machines
called ATMs used for cash deposit and withdrawal services
- Processing of cheques
- For preparation of payrolls
- Better record keeping and processing of documents
- Provide electronic money transfer facilities

Homes
- Entertainment e.g. watching movies, playing music, playing computer games
- For storing personal information / documents
- For calculating and keeping home budgets

Industries
- To monitor and control industrial processes through the use of robots
- For management control i.e. to keep track of orders, bills and transactions
- For advertisement purposes, which enable an industry to attract more customers
- CAD {Computer Aided Design} allows accurate, quick and easy designs of products
on computer screen.

Law enforcement agencies

- For matching, analyzing and keeping database of fingerprints
- For taking photographs and other identification details
- For record keeping
- For face recognition, scene monitoring and analysis, which help the police carry out
criminal investigations speedily.

Transport industry
- Airports; to control the movement of aircrafts, their take off and landing using radar
equipment
- For making reservations (Booking purposes)
- Storing flight information
- Automobile traffic control i.e monitoring vehicle traffic in busy towns
- In Railway corporations to coordinate the movement of goods and wagons
- In shipping control for efficient management of fleets, cargo handling and
communication

Offices

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 - For receiving and sending of information through e-mails, fax , etc
- Production of documents
- Keeping records

Hospitals
- For keeping patient records
- Keeping records of purchases and stock of medicine
- Analysis data obtained from X-rays
- Maintaining the booking system of scarce resources such as operation theaters.
- Control of life support machines in intensive care unit
- Used by physicians to get proper diagnosis of the affected part of body through cross
sectional view
Education
- Access internet through email to link different schools and to exchange knowledge
- Communication through email to link different schools and exchange knowledge
- For teaching and learning purposes e.g. computer practical
- Administration –storing information about students, processing grades and teachers
salaries.

Library services
- Enables library personnel to easily access and keep updated records of books and other
library materials i.e. to keep electronic catalogues and track book circulation.
- Library users can also use computers to search for titles instead of using the manual
card catalogue

Entertainment industry – to generate and edit computer graphics in movies and games.
Military to design weapons and control flight.
Research institutions to process and analyze data.
Impaired persons
- converts speech to text for the deaf
- converts spoken language to sign language for the deaf.
- Converts text to speech for the blind using speech synthesizers.

Review questions 1.2

1) Match the following generations of computers with the technology used to develop
them.
1. First Generation A .Very Large Integrated
Circuit
2. Second Generation B. Thermionic Valves
3. Third Generation C. Transistors
4. Fourth Generation D. Integrated Circuits

2) Identify and explain at least five areas where computers are used to process data.
3) What were the characteristics of first generation computers?
4) Who developed the analytical engine
5) What is artificial intelligence?
6) Write the following initial sin full:
a) ENIAC
b) VLSI

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 c) IC
7) Represent 5780 using abacus
8) Match the following computer application areas with the role played by computers
in each case.

1. Supermarkets A. Matching fingerprints

2. Hospital B. Entertainment
3. Bank C. Stock control
4. Hotel D. Booking rooms
5. Home E. Analyzing academic data
6. School F. Manufacturing process control
7. Industry G. Life support machines
8. Police station H. Processing cheques

1.6 The Computer Laboratory

Definition
- Is a room that has been specially prepared to facilitate installation of computers and
to provide a safe conducive environment for teaching and learning of computer
studies; or
- A room where practical computer studies lessons are conducted where resources such
as printers, disks and manuals can be shared.

Factors to consider when preparing a computer laboratory

i). Security of computer programs and other resources
ii). Reliability of the source of power
iii). The number of computers to be installed and the available floor space
iv). The maximum number of users that the laboratory can accommodate.

Safety precautions and practices in the computer laboratory

Computer systems are expensive to acquire and maintain, and should therefore be handled
with great care. Most computer system malfunctions are caused by failure to follow
correct instructions on use of equipments, carelessness and neglect. We need to observe
the safety precautions, rules and practices to avoid accidental injury, damage of devices or
lack of conducive learning and teaching environment. Some safety precautions are made
to protect computers while others protect users.

Measures that protect the computers

 Behaviour in the computer laboratory
The following should be followed in and out of the computer laboratory
- Avoid smoking or exposing computers to dust by entering in shoes. Smoke and dust
particles can damage the computer components and cause wearing to moving parts.
- Never take any eatables (food or beverage). Food particles may fall in moving
computer like keyboard and clog them while liquids may pour into electrical circuits
causing rusting, electrical faults, or short circuits..
- Avoid unnecessary movements because you may accidentally knock down peripheral
devices.

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 - See that no waste materials (paper bits, etc) are inside the room. If any, collect them
and put them into the dustbin.
- Follow the correct procedure for starting and shutting down the computer.

- When in doubt ask. Students should always remember the principle of: “It is not stupid
to ask a sincere question”, to ensure that no damage is caused due to lack of proper
knowledge. If you are not sure of how to handle or operate any piece of equipment in
the laboratory please ask for assistance.

 Burglar proofing
Computer equipment is expensive and it is therefore important to protect the investment
against theft by implementing the following controls:
i). Fit strong metallic grills and locks on doors, windows
ii). Do not welcome strangers to computer room
iii). Install intrusion detection alarm system at strategic access points to alert security
personnel incase of break in.

 Protection against fire

Fire in laboratories is either caused by inflammable chemicals used for cleaning and
servicing computer equipment or electrical faults due to open wires or cables and
sometimes cigarette smokers. Install fire prevention and control equipment such as smoke
detectors, a gaseous fire extinguisher filled with carbon dioxide and should be non-liquid
or non-power based. The reason is that liquids may cause rusting and corrosion of
computer components while powder particles may increase friction and wear off moving
parts and/or cause disks to crash

 The room should be well laid out

There should be enough space for movement and the computers should be placed
on stable wide desks to avoid accidentally knocking them down. The cables should
be laid out in trunks away form the from user paths to avoid stumbling on them.

 Cables and power sockets should be well insulated to avoid short circuits that can
cause damage to computer components.

 Dust and dump control

Dust can be controlled by fitting good window curtains and an air conditioning system that
filters dust particles from the air entering the room. Also computers should be covered
with dust covers when not in use. Humidity should be regulated by using dehumidifiers in
the room to remain an optimum of 50%. Humidity lower than this allows static electricity
to built up and cause damage to computer components. High humidity of over 70% may
cause rusting of metallic parts.

 Stable power supply

Computers require a stable source of power. Momentary power interruptions or
fluctuations often cause computers to crash, damage data storage devices or loss of
information that had not been saved prior to the power disruptions. Power from main
supply is not always stable.

There are two types of power protection devices:

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A surge protector and Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
a) A surge protector
- A surge protector is a power protection device that protects the computer against
electrical surges. Surges are large amounts of electricity which exceed the maximum
level device is capable of holding. Surges can damage or destroy computer
components.

b) Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)

- Protects a computer from loss of power. It charges when mains power is on and has
power surge and brownout protection capabilities.
When the main’s power goes off, it beeps to alert the
user.
- The UPS has
the computer and other hardware to tap power from.

Function of UPS
- It regulates power from unstable power source to the required clean stable voltage
- It temporarily provides power to the computer incase of a sudden power failure.
- It beeps to alert the user when the main Power goes off.

In summary stable power supply must be applied and adhered to by installing surge
protectors, power extension cables, for each computer and a power backup generator.

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A computer connected to a UPS

Types of UPS
Standby Ups – which is a power conditioner with the ability to generate its own power
when there is a power failure

Online UPS (single conversion)

Operates like standby UPS but idles at very low power during standby operation.

True on-line UPS (Double conversion)

Is always on even during normal operation thus eliminating the need for any switching
incase of power failure. It is used for critical applications e.g in Banks where loss of power
for few seconds may result in file corruption.

- Installing lighting arrestors on the computer lab.

- The room should be well laid out with enough space for movement.

- Providing antiglare screens (light filters and adjustable screens to avoid eye strain and
fatigue caused by over bright CRT monitors.

Measures that protect the user

 The walls of the computer room should not be painted with over bright reflective
oil paints and the screens should face away from the window to avoid glare caused
by bright backgrounds.

 Cables insulation
All power cables must be properly insulated and laid away from busy pathways in the
computer laboratory. They can be laid along the wall in trunks or use special computer
tables designed to hide all the cables by running under.

 Standard furniture
The table on which a computer is placed must be strong and wide enough to hold the
weight and accommodate all peripheral devices. The user’s seat must be comfortable and
have a straight back rest that allows someone to sit upright to avoid muscle pains and back
aches. The sit must be high enough relative to the table to enable comfortable use of hands
on the keyboard as shown in the diagram below:

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The eye must be at the same level as the top of the screen (monitor) when user is seated
upright as show in the figure below:

 Providing antiglare screens like Light filters and adjustable screens to avoid eye
strain and fatigue caused by over bright CTR monitors. Alternatively you use LCD
monitors.

 Ventilation
There must be good air circulation to avoid suffocation or dizziness caused by lack of
oxygen and to allow computers to cool hence avoid damage to electronic parts. A
computer laboratory should be fitted with a HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air
Conditioning) system. This system controls the temperature, air flow and humidity within
a room, ensuring that the computer equipment does not get over-heated, and the occupants
of the laboratory are comfortable.
 Overcrowding in the computer laboratory should be avoided others users will
suffocate.
 Lighting: Computer room should be well lit to avoid eyestrain that leads to headaches,
stress and fatigue. The monitor should be positioned such that glare or bright
reflections on the display are minimized. Radiation filter screens may be fitted as
shown below:.

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 Computer layout
- Should be such that an instructor (tutor) can teach from the front. There should be
enough room between rows so that a person can easily move about the room. This
can be attained by using the two popular patterns for laying desks in a computer
laboratory namely classroom pattern and conference pattern. Figures below shows
these layouts.

Whiteboard

Fig.1.1 Classroom pattern layout

White board

Fig. 1.2 Conference pattern layout

There should be a central printer where students can print their work. If possible the
instructors computer should be connected to a projector to magnify the screen on a white
board

Review questions 1.3

1) What name is given to alternative sources of power.
a) Generators
b) UPS
c) Power backups
d) The sun
2) Which of the following will not ensure proper ventilation in a room.
a) Enough windows and doors
b) Overcrowding
c) Installing fans
d) Air conditioning system
3) All the following are dangerous to a computer except one.
a) Water
b) Smoke
c) Enough ventilation
d) Dust

4) Why must foods and beverages be kept out of the computer room?
a) Because computer users should not eat.
b) Because spilling may clog and destroy computer components

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c) Because the smell of food is not good for the room.
d) Because all foods affect computers.
5) Which one of the following statements is correct?
a) Opening the system unit when it is still on.
b) Using magnets in the computer room
c) Covering the computers with dust covers after shutting down
d) Stepping on power and data cables.
6) Why are powder fire extinguishers not allowed in the computer room?
a) Powder particles settle on storage devices and may scratch them during read/write
operation.
b) Power is poisonous
c) It fills the room with mist
d) Powder changes to liquid when sprayed.
7) All the following are functions of the UPS except one. Which one is it?
a) It prevents sudden power surges to destroy the computer
b) It supplies power to the computer during blackouts and brownouts
c) It provides stable power supply (clean power)
d) It can be used as the main power source for computers
8) Which of the following reasons are likely to cause eye strain in the computer room.
a) Poor lighting
b) Bright monitor
c) Poor ventilation
d) Ant radiation screen
9) All the following are proper sitting postures while using the computer except one.
Which on is it?
a) Straight back position
b) Feet firmly on the floor
c) High enough allowing eyes to be level with top of monitor
d) Bending the back backwards on a relaxed chair
10) What can be done to deter illegal access to a computer room by unauthorized
persons?
a) Burglar proof the room by reinforcing doors and weak access points
b) Welcome strangers to the room
c) Leave the room open when nobody is using it.
d) Switch off the security alarm when leaving the room.

1.7 Practical Hands on Skills

Computer booting (starting – up)
Definition of booting

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Process by which a computer loads system files into the main memory. i.e. the operating
system is read from hard disk and loaded to the maim memory.

Computer booting (starting-up) process

- Make sure that all components are properly connected. Turn on the switch at the source
of the power supply. If the computer is connected to the UPS turn on this after
switching the Main supply. Switch on the monitor and the system unit.
- The computer once switched on, you hear the sound of a cooler fan running. After a
view seconds, lines of text start to scroll on the screen as the computer goes through a
process of Power-On Self Test (POST), before it starts in preparation for use. POST is
directed by a special firmware called Basic Input Output System (BIOS) which is held
in ROM chip mounted on the motherboard. The POST checks whether existing storage,
all basic Input/Output devices and system components are working properly. If any of
the devices has a faulty or is missing, the process may stop or halt then an appropriate
error message is displayed on the screen.
- After POST, the computer reads some instructions such as the current time and date
from special memory known as the complementary metal-oxide semiconductor
(CMOS). CMOS is a special memory where instructions for current date and time are
contained. CMOS is powered by a dry cell that resembles that of a digital watch. If the
cell is down, the computer would always require the user to enter the current time and
date. Lastly, after the checks the operating system is read from the hard disk and loaded
to the memory (RAM) in a process called booting. Once the operating system is
successfully loaded, a user-interface called desktop is displayed.
- The entire process that makes the computer ready for use is called Booting up.

Types of booting
i) Cold booting {bootup}
Process of switching on a computer that has been off completely by pressing the power
button.

ii) Warm booting

This happens when the computer, originally on, is forced to restart by pressing the restart
button on the system unit or using the restart command on Start menu

Shutting down a computer

Turning a PC on and off several times a day is harmful. If the correct procedure is not
followed then loss of data, damage of programs and computer components may occur. It is
therefore advisable to shutdown the computer only after the sessions for the day.

Procedure for shutting down a computer

1. Save the work done on the computer before you turn it off
2. Close all programs that may be currently running.
3. Remove the floppy disks if you have inserted any.

4. if your computer is running on Microsoft Windows XP or Windows 7

a). click the Start button
b). on the Start menu, click Turn Off Computer or Shut Down

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 c). On the message box that appears(see figure below), click Turn Off. The computer
will undergo the shut down process.

NB: Pressing the Power key on the keyboard shuts down the computer.
5. Switch off your printer / or any other output devices.

Keyboarding ands mouse skills

Keyboard layout

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Activity: Identify keys on the keyboard that could be used for entering
- Alphabetic characters
- Numbers and arithmetic operators

Keys on the keyboard can be categorized into five groups as follows:

1. Alphanumeric (typing) keys
2. Function keys
3. Cursor movement and editing keys
4. Special PC operation keys
5. Numeric keypad keys

1) Alphanumeric keys (typing keys)

Are keys labeled A-Z, numbers arranged in a line 1, 2, …0 respectively and symbols
like !, @, %, ^, >, [, } etc as well as keys like Enter, Caps Lock, Tab, space bar, back
space.
 Caps Lock
Lets then user switch between uppercase(CAPITAL Letters) and lowercase (small letters)
by pressing it. When its ON Caps Lock diode lights which is above Numeric keypad keys.
Just press it again to switch to lower case.
 Enter key(return key)
If pressed it forces the text cursor to move to the beginning of the next line.
Definition of cursor: Is a blinking underscore ( _ ) or a vertical beam ( I ) that shows where
the next character to be typed will appear.
Apart from cursor movement, the other function of enter key is to execute a selected
command and in spreadsheets when pressed it moves the cell pointer from one cell to
another downwards.

 Space bar
It is the longest key on the keyboard and creates a space between words during typing.

 The backspace key

This key is like an eraser. It has backward arrow marked on it. When pressed it erases
characters to the left of the cursor position (insertion pointer) i.e. from right to left.
 Tab key
Moves the text cursor at set intervals on the same line. Its also used in setting Tab stops
during typing and moving from one cell to another or option to option.

2) Function keys
These keys are located on top of the keyboard. They are labeled F1, F2 …. F12. each of
these keys is used for a special function or job. Example pressing F1 invokes the on-line
help, Pressing F7 starts Spelling and Grammar Checker

3) Cursor movement(navigation) and editing keys

Cursor movement(navigation) keys: are used to move the cursor on the screen. They
include: Home, End, Pageup / Pagedown and Arrow keys.
 Arrow keys

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They are four in number and have arrow marked on them showing the four directions.
They are used to;
- Move the cursor where we want it to be e.g. pressing the right or left arrow key
moves the cursor one character to right or left respectively. Pressing the Upward or
Downward arrow key move the cursor one line up or down respectively.
- Move the selected text or object to the desired place on the screen
 Page Up and Page Down
- Page Up moves the cursor up one page incase the document has many pages. Page
Down moves the cursor down one page incase the document has many pages.
 Home and End keys
Home key moves the cursor to the beginning of the current line while End key moves the
cursor to the end of the current line.

Editing keys
Editing keys are used to erase (delete) or insert characters in a document.
These are:
 Insert key
Helps the user to insert or replace a character at the cursor position i.e. switch between
Insert and Typeover (Overwrite) mode.
 Delete (Del) key
Is used to delete the text or any part therefore from the right of the cursor position

4) Special PC Operation keys

These keys are rarely used singly but in combination with other keys. They give special
instructions to the computer. They include SHIFT, CTRL, ALT, and ESC keys.
Ctrl key:
- used for shortcuts in combination with other keys e.g. holding down Ctrl + S activates
Save command,

Shift Key
- used for typing alternative characters for keys that represent more than one character
e.g. Shift + 5 types operator %.
- Changing cases i.e. if the Caps Lock light is not illuminated and you hold down the
shift key and press a letter key, the upper case version of the character will be
generated. The opposite will happen if the Caps Lock light is illuminated.
- If you hold down Shift key as you delete folders/files from hard disk they will bypass
recycle bin folder and get deleted (discarded) completed.

5) Numeric keypad keys

They are located on the rightmost part on the keyboard. They have digits marked on the in
rows from bottom upwards. They have numbers in compact form and helps in rapid entry
of numeric data. Apart from the digits the numeric keypad has some mathematical
symbols also marked on its key e.g /, +,\, -, *.
Note: that the numbers on the numeric keypad can only be used when the Num Lock key
is turned on. The key is situated on the numeric pad.
They can also be used as cursor movement keys and editing keys when Num Lock key is
turned off. Some portable computers lack numeric keypad due to size limitations.
The Num Lock used to switch between numbers, editing and navigation keys on the
numeric keypad.
NB: Caps Lock, Num Lock and Scroll Lock act in ON and OFF states.

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 Practical Keyboard Skills
The following typing rules should be observed when using keyboard:
I. Sit upright with both feet firmly on the ground maintaining an alert posture
II. Place the material to be typed on your right in a position you can read without strain if
possible using copy holder as shown in diagram below:
III. Rest both hands on the keyboard with fingers resting on the home keys. Home keys are
keys on which fingers rest during typing in readiness to press other keys. Home keys
for the hand are: A, S, D, F with the thumb on the Spacebar. For the right hand are:
semicolon (;), L, K, J with the thumb on spacebar. NB: Some authors state Home
keys for right hand starting with apostrophe i.e. ‘,(;), L, K and Space bar.
IV. Start typing text slowly, making sure you are using all the 10 fingers and you press the
key nearest to the home keys with the closest finger e.g. to press Q, use the small
finger on the left hand while to J, use the index finger on the right hand.

Mouse skills
The mouse got its name from shape and long interface cable which makes it look like the
biological mouse, although this is vanishing because of wireless technology.
The mouse is an input device with sensor buttons and a ball that slides it on a flat surface.
When it is made to slide, it controls a pointer on the screen, which is called a mouse
pointer or a cursor. The movement of a mouse is mirrored by a pointer on the screen. To
make a selection the pointer should be on the item that is to be selected, then manipulate
the item by pressing the mouse button.
A typical mouse has a ball at its bottom that rotates when the mouse is moved.
Mouse come in various shapes, colours and sizes even there are cordless mouse this is
does not have a connection cable. A mouse has two buttons at the top and an optional
scroll wheel which can be used to scroll up the screen in an application.

Rules to observe when using the mouse

1. Place the mouse on a flat smooth surface

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 2. Gently hold the mouse with your right hand, using the thumb and the two right most
fingers
3. The index finger should rest on the left button while the middle finger rests on the
right button. See diagram below.

Mouse terminologies and meaning

Terminology Meaning
Point Move the mouse until the mouse pointer on the screen points on the
item
Click Position tip of the mouse pointer over specified element, then press
and release the left mouse button once. Selects an object/icons, files in
a list and dialog box options.
Double clicking Pressing the left mouse button twice in quick/rapid succession.
Expands icons, starts applications, opens a file and chooses items from
a list .
Right clicking Pressing the right hand side mouse button once. It displays a shortcut
menu or context sensitive menu, which apply to the right clicked text /
item.
Drag and Drop Press and hold down the mouse button as the mouse is moved. Release
once the destination is reached. Through drag and drop, user drags an
item from one location on the screen to another, move windows, icons
and resizes windows.

Selecting items using the mouse

Item Using the mouse
Single item Click
Multiple sequential items Click first item, hold SHIFT key and click the last
item.
Multiple non-sequential items Hold CTRL and click.

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The figure below emphasizes on mouse terminologies and actions:

Review questions 1.4

1) What is booting?
2) Differentiate between cold booting and warm booting.
3) What is the difference between function keys and special PC keys?
4) Explain the various categories of keys found on a standard keyboard.
5) Define the following terms:
a) Double clicking
b) Clicking
c) Drag and drop
d) Right click
e) Mouse pointer
6) What makes a mouse move a pointer on the screen?
7) Explain the correct procedure for shutting down of the computers in the computer
laboratory.

Revision questions
1. Explain why smoke and dust particles are harmful to a computer
2. Explain the emerging trends in a microcomputer technology in relation to size.
3. describe the ideal environment for a computer to work properly
4. Explain the term system unit and name some of the components found in the system
unit
5. What is booting? Explain what happens in the computer during the booting process.
6. State on reason why a computer needs to be connected to a stable power source.
7. Give two examples of special purpose computers
8. Why would it not be good to install water based fire extinguishers in the computer
room?

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9. Explain the following terms: clicking the mouse, right clicking the mouse, double
clicking the mouse
10. What precaution would you take in the computer room in case:
a) The humidity falls below normal for prolonged periods due to weather change.
b) Users complain of backaches after long periods of using the computer.
11. Classify the following keyboard characters
a) A, B, C, …Z
b) 0,1,2,…9
c) F1, F2, …F12
d) Del, Insert
e) Home, End, Page UP, arrow key
f) Ctrl, shift, Alt

2.0 COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Specific objectives
By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to;
a) Describe a computer system
b) Explain the functional organization of the elements of a computer system
c) Describe input devices of a computer system
d) Describe the Central Processing Unit (CPU)
e) Describe the output devices of a computer system
f) Describe the types of secondary storage devices and media
g) Distinguish between power and interface cables
h) Explain basic computer setup and cabling
i) Distinguish between system software and application software
j) Evaluate the criteria for selecting a computer system.

Introduction
Computer systems will include the computer along with any software and peripheral
devices that are necessary to make the computer function. A computer is made up of two
main components Hardware and Software while a computer system has three namely:
Hardware, software and liveware (computer user).A system is a collection of different entities
that collectively work together to achieve a desired goal. Examples of systems are human
body, social system, school system etc.
A computer system is a collection of three components namely hardware, software and
liveware entities that work together to receive, process, manage and present information in a
meaningful format using computers.

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 2.1 Components of Computer System
The computer system consists of three major parts namely
i). Hardware
These are the physical or tangible components of a computer system, which one can touch and
feel/see. They consist of the mechanical , electrical and electronic parts of the system e.g
monitor, system unit, keyboard and mouse, etc.

ii). Software
Is a set of instructions that direct a computer on what to do. They guide the computer in each
and every activity that happens inside the computer during data processing. The programs are
also written to help the computer users perform various tasks using the computer. The
software is intangible, flexible and changeable in nature. They are mainly classified into two
categories namely system software and application software.

iii). Liveware (computer user)

Refers to users who have computer knowledge and hence can properly utilize the computer
hardware and software as well as in participation in hardware and software selection.

Computer Hardware
The computer hardware is classified into four categories namely input devices, central
processing unit, output devices and storage devices.

2.2 Input devices

These are devices which accept data and send it to the CPU. The input devices have two tasks
to perform:
i). Read data from the medium from which it is stored
ii). Code it into a form that can be understood by the computer

Input devices are classified according to how they are used to enter data as follows:
1) Keying devices i.e. keyboard, keypad
2) Pointing devices i.e. mouse, joy stick, light pen, track ball.
3) Scanning and other data capture devices
4) Speech recognition or voice input devices
5) Touch screen, digitizer and digital cameras

Keying devices

Keying or typing is the most common way to input data. A keying device converts typed
numbers, letters and special characters into machine readable form before processing takes
place.

Keyboard and keypad

They enter into a computer by typing (pressing its keys). A keypad is a tiny keyboard which is
mostly used on small portable computers, calculators, mobile phones etc.

Common types of keying devices include:

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 Standard keyboard: It is a full sized rigid keyboard as discussed in Chapter 1 of the
Handout.

 Flexible / Rollup Keyboard: It is a more portable type of keyboard that can be

folded and packed into a bag. Rollup computer keyboards are extremely good for
traveling. Simply roll them up and then unroll them when you need them again. Typically
the material is either silicone or polyurethane. These devices are meant to be rolled up,
rather than folded, as folding can damage the circuitry.

. Ergonomic Computer Keyboards

Ergonomic computer keyboards is a computer keyboard designed with ergonomic

considerations to minimize muscle strain and a host of related problems. An ergonomic
keyboard is designed to make typing easier and lessen the strain that your hands may
suffer, such as "Carpal Tunnel Syndrome".

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 Keypad : is a miniature keyboard used on portable devices such as PDAs, laptops,
palm notes, calculators and mobile phones, etc. keypad is a set of
buttons arranged in a block or "pad" which usually bear digits,
symbols and usually a complete set of alphabetical letters.
If it mostly contains numbers then it can also be called a numeric
keypad. Keypads are found on many alphanumeric keyboards
and on other devices such as calculators, push-button telephones,
combination locks, and digital door locks, which require mainly
numeric input.
A computer keyboard usually has a small numeric keypad on the side, in addition to the
other number keys on the top, but with a calculator-style arrangement of buttons that allow
more efficient entry of numerical data. This number pad (commonly abbreviated to
"numpad") is usually positioned on the right side of the keyboard because most people are
right-handed.[1]

Many laptop computers have special function keys which turn part of the alphabetical
keyboard into a numerical keypad as there is insufficient space to allow a separate keypad
to be built into the laptop's chassis. Separate external plug-in keypads can be purchased.[1]

 Braille keyboard: is an accessibility option for the blind. It consists of keys identified
by raised dots.

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 Advantages of keyboard
- Its very reliable compared to other methods of text input (voice input)
- Is very cost effective, since every computer comes with a keyboard and there are no
additional costs .
-

Pointing devices

Enter data or instructions by controlling a pointer or cursor on the screen. Some examples
pointing devices include:- mouse, trackball, joystick, light pen, and stylus.
i). A mouse
Enter data or instructions by controlling a pointer on the screen. Generally there are three
types of mice available in the market today namely mechanical, optical and cordless.

Mechanical mouse
It has a ball underneath, two buttons and an optional scroll wheel located between the left and
right buttons.

The optical mouse

An optical mouse uses a light-emitting diode and photodiodes to detect movement

relative to the underlying surface, unlike wheeled mice
which use a set of one rolling ball and two chopper wheels
for motion detection. It does not have any moving parts.

Laser mouse
A laser mouse is a type of computer mousing device that uses a laser beam rather than a
ball to track the movement of the user's hand. Laser mice are becoming increasingly
common because they are perceived to have better tracking ability

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Distinguish between mechanical mouse, optical mouse and laser mouse.
Optical mice make use of one or more light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and an imaging array
of photodiodes to detect movement relative to the underlying surface, rather than internal
moving parts as does a mechanical mouse. A Laser mouse is an optical mouse that uses
coherent (Laser) light.

The difference between a regular optical mouse and a laser mouse is the light used to
track movement. A regular optical mouse uses an LED light in the optical engine, while a
laser mouse uses a laser to track movement. The more dots per inch (dpi) a mouse can
track, the more sensitive and accurate it is. A typical optical mouse tracks between 400dpi
and 800dpi, while laser mice track more than 2,000dpi.

Neither is really better; it all depends on your needs and preferences. Unless you're a
gamer or a graphic artist with a need for precise movement, you'll probably find a
2,000dpi laser mouse too sensitive. Many gaming mice, however, allow you to switch
sensitivity levels so that you have precision when you need it but can revert to 400dpi or
800dpi for regular mousing.

Besides their tracking speeds, laser mice work on nearly every surface, whereas optical
mice may experience trouble tracking on black or shiny surfaces.

Cordless ( wireless) mouse

Cordless or wireless mouse is a battery powered mouse that uses radio or infrared waves
instead of being physically connected to the system unit.

Uses of a mouse
- To select options from menus or from a set of icons by clicking the mouse button.
- To position the cursor when editing text or using design package
- To select an object in a drawing or a piece of text to be copied, moved or deleted.

Advantages of using a mouse

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 - Is easy and convenient to use
- It is inexpensive
- Most modern software includes an option to use it
- It selects a position on screen much more quickly than a keyboard
Disadvantages
- Cannot be used to input text easily, you need a keyboard to do that.
- It is relatively slow for selecting menu options
- Requires a flat surface to operate
- It is not accurate for drawing purposes

ii). Track ball

A track ball is like a mouse that has been turned upside down. The ball is on top, and the user
moves the ball without moving the mouse. The track ball does not require a flat surface to
operate. Question: State one advantage of using a track ball over a mouse. Answer: It does
not require flat surface or extra space to operate.

ii). Joystick
Is a hand held device used for playing computer games and video games. It allows the fast
interaction needed in games. The user controls game actions by varying the pressure, speed
and direction of the joystick. Just like mouse, it has a
button which is used for selecting an item, issue
commands or trigger actions.

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iii). Light pen and stylus
A light pen is a computer input device in the form of a light-sensitive wand used
in conjunction with a computer's CRT TV set or monitor. It allows the user to point
to displayed objects, or draw on the screen, in a similar way to a touch screen but
with greater positional accuracy. A light pen is a pen-like light-sensitive device, held
in the hand. It operates by sensing to the presence and absence of light through a light
sensitive cell at its end. A stylus on the other hand is used on touch sensitive devices
such as PDA screens that recognize commands or handwritten text.

Uses of light pen

- Are used as design aids
- Used to read bar codes and to indicate a point on the a screen or pad

Advantages
- Provide a direct mode of input
- More precise than using a mouse
Disadvantages
- Can only detect the presence and absence of light
- Can only be used in conjunction with a graphic VDU, which is able to sense special
hardware and software.

Touch pad

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 Scanning devices (Document readers)

Scanning means capturing data from an object and converting it into digital format. Scanning
devices are devices that capture data into the computer directly and are classified according to
the technology they use to capture data namely optical and magnetic scanners.
A). Optical scanners
Capture data using optical or light technology. A light beam passes over an object and the
image is analysed by a specialized software.

They are of three types

i). Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR detect marks made on a piece of paper using ink or soft pencil, by passing an infrared
beam of light over them.. The documents are pre-printed with predefined data positions. The
OMR converts the marks into computer readable data. The reader detects the presence and
absence of a mark on a form by sensing reflected infrared light.

Uses of OMR
- Are used to mark multiple choice questions, e.g. KCPE or aptitude test.
- analyzing responses to structured questionnaires
- Insurance premium collection
- Selecting correct number combinations from lottery tickets.
- Supermarkets for stock recording
- Payroll data entry
- Market research questionnaires

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 - Voter’s registration process

Advantages
- Has low error rate
- Conspicuous errors are easily corrected
- Economical where the volume of data is large
- Data captured at source, hence no data entry errors

ii. Optical Bar Reader (OBR)

These scanners are used to capture data coded as lines of varying thickness known as bar
codes or universal product code (UPC). Scan and translate a bar code into machine
understandable mode. Bar codes are lines of different thickness and are common on consumer
products and contain item information such as country of manufacture, manufacturer and the
product code. Bar codes do not have the price details because prices vary from one place to
another.

The two types of bar code scanners are the hand held wand and desktop bar code reader.

Uses
- On labels and on shelves for stock taking
- Printed on shop goods e.g. supermarkets
- In libraries

iii. Optical Character Reader (OCR) or Image scanners

Is the most advanced type of scanner that works like the human eye. It is used to read
typewritten, computer printed, or handwritten characters and transforms the images into a
softcopy that can be manipulated using a word processor.
Today OCR comes as integrated feature of more advanced scanners called flat-bed scanners.
Flat- bed scanners are used to capture pictures and real objects.

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 Advantages
i). Data is captured at source hence errors are limited
ii). Its an easier method to use
iii). Document design is less complicated
iv). Characters can be read by people

Disadvantages of OCR
- Some optical scanners are expensive
- Handling precaution necessary e.g. document should not be folded or creased for accurate
reading

Uses
- Sale order forms
- Stock taking sheets

B). Magnetic Scanners

These scanners use the principle of magnetism to sense the document characters that have
been written using magnetized ink or coded onto magnetic strip. They can also be said to use
magnetic technology to capture data.

Examples of magnetic scanners are:-

i). Magnetic-Ink Character Reader (MICR)

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The MICR is also known as magnetic reader. MICR recognizes characters formed from

magnetic ink. The document characters are typed or printed in ink containing Iron II Oxide
that gives them magnetic property. MICR is used in banks to read cheques, credit cards etc.
Advantages of MICR
- Its fast, accurate and automatic
- The codes are both machine and human readable.
- Reduces forgery i.e. its difficult to forge
Disadvantages
- MICR system is limited to only 14 characters
- MICR system is based on magnetism and can easily be damaged.

ii). Magnetic stripe recognition (magnetic card reader)

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A magnetic card reader is used to read data coded on a magnetic strip on a plastic card such as
the one used on an automated teller machine (ATM) and credit card reader.
A magnetic stripe is a thin magnetic tape, often at the back of a plastic card e.g. ATM card.
The stripe contains coded information of the holder.
A magnetic stripe card is a type of card capable of storing data by modifying the
magnetism of tiny iron-based magnetic particles on a band of magnetic material on the
card. The magnetic stripe, sometimes called swipe card or magstripe, is read by physical
contact and swiping past a magnetic reading head.

Applications
- On credit cards
- On bank cards e.g. ATM
- As tags on clothes
- As a phone card
- Production control where punched cards holds data in a factory like employee’s details
- Access control for security reasons in many offices to control access to buildings or
rooms
- Car parks where badges are used to raise car barriers, allowing entry or exit from a car
park.

Advantages
- Simple to produce
- Not easily damaged
- Stores fairly large number of characters
- Disadvantage
- Data can be changed or erased by magnetic fields

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4) Speech Recognition devices
Data is entered directly into a computer using voice input devices such as microphones. A
microphone is attached to a sound card which has an analog-digital converter. Speech
recognition software allows the user to issue commands using natural language. The device
recognize a limited standard of spoken words via a microphone linked to a computer system.
A user must train the system to recognize his/her voice by repeating each word in the
vocabulary several times.

An emerging trend in voice input is the inclusion of voice tag in cell phones that allows the
user to simply store and dial contacts.

Uses of speech input/recognition devices

- For people with special needs (disabilities)
- In language translator programs
- Voice tags for voice dialing
- Quality control and automation in factories i.e. speech input used to order robots e.g in
Japan
- Automated material handling whereby in airports, handlers speak the commands to
direct luggage on conveyor belts.
- House / car security using voice activated locks
- Electronic fund transfer
- Security and access control e.g. office security for room access, house / car security

Advantages
- No keyboards is necessary useful in situations where hands or eyes are busy handling
documents etc
- People are moving around, since wireless microphone can be used.
- Can be used from remote locations via the telephone

Disadvantages
- Homophones: some words sound the same e.g. Fair & Fare
- Recognition is low
- Speaker variability
- Limited vocabularies
- Background noise can disrupt the data entered

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 Other input technologies

a). Touch screen

A touch screen is an electronic visual display that can detect the presence and location of
a touch within the display area. The term generally refers to touching the display of the
device with a finger or hand in order write or select an item. The screen consists of infrared
light crisscrossing behind it. When the user touches a location on the screen, the finger
interrupts the infrared light and the command touched is executed.

Touch screens can also sense other passive objects, such as a stylus. Touchscreens are
common in devices such as all-in-one computers, tablet computers, and smartphones.

The touchscreen has two main attributes. First, it enables one to interact directly with what
is displayed, rather than indirectly with a pointer controlled by a mouse or touchpad.
Secondly, it lets one do so without requiring any intermediate device that would need to be
held in the hand. Such displays can be attached to computers, or to networks as terminals.
They also play a prominent role in the design of digital appliances such as the personal
digital assistant (PDA), satellite navigation devices, mobile phones, and video games.

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b). Digital cameras
A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that takes video or still photographs, or
both, digitally by recording images via an electronic image sensor. It is the main device
used in the field of digital photography. Most 21st century cameras are digital.

Digital cameras can do things film cameras cannot: displaying images on a screen
immediately after they are recorded, storing thousands of images on a single small
memory device, and deleting images to free storage space. The majority, including most
compact cameras, can record moving video with sound as well as still photographs. Some
can crop and stitch pictures and perform other elementary image editing. Some have a
GPS receiver built in, and can produce Geotagged photographs.
Capture the same way as other cameras do but stores image in digital form. Pictures are stored
on a memory card instead of a film. The digital image taken can be streamed directly into a
computer, uploaded to internet using a webcam or directly printed using a special photo
printer. Are used to take electronic pictures of an object. They are of two types:
1. still digital camera one that can take still images i.e. photographs and another
2. a video digital camera that takes motion pictures.

c). Digitizers

A graphics tablet (or digitizer, digitizing tablet, graphics pad, drawing tablet) is a
computer input device that allows one to hand-draw images and graphics, similar to the
way one draws images with a pencil and paper. These tablets may also be used to capture
data or handwritten signatures. It can also be used to trace an image from a piece of paper
which is taped or otherwise secured to the surface. Capturing data in this way, either by
tracing or entering the corners of linear poly-lines or shapes is called digitizing.

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A digitizer input by drawing using a sty

A graphics tablet (also called pen pad or digitizer) consists of a flat surface upon which the
user may "draw" or trace an image using an attached stylus, a pen-like drawing apparatus.
[In computing, a stylus (or stylus pen) is a small pen-shaped instrument that is used to
input commands to a computer screen, mobile device or graphics tablet. With touchscreen
devices a user places a stylus on the surface of the screen to draw or make selections by
tapping the stylus on the screen.[1]

Pen-like input devices which are larger than a stylus, and offer increased functionality
such as programmable buttons, pressure sensitivity and electronic erasers, are often known
as digital pens.[1]]The image generally does not appear on the tablet itself but, rather, is
displayed on the computer monitor. Some tablets, however, come as a functioning
secondary computer screen[1] that you can interact with images [2] directly by using the
stylus

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A digitizer also known as graphic tablet, is made up of a flat surface and allows the user to
draw an image using a stylus. The image
drawn does not appear on the tablet but on the
computer screen. The stylus moves on the
tablet and the drawing is directly reflected on
the screen. Digitizers are used for tracing
highly detailed engineering and architectural
drawings and designs.

Interactive whiteboard (smartboard)

An interactive whiteboard (IWB), is a large interactive display that connects to a

computer and projector. A projector projects the computer's desktop onto the board's
surface where users control the computer using a pen, finger, stylus, or other device. The
board is typically mounted to a wall or floor stand.

They are used in a variety of settings, including classrooms at all levels of education, in
corporate board rooms and work groups, in training rooms for professional sports
coaching, in broadcasting studios and others.

Is a large interactive display that connects to a

computer. The computer display is projected
onto the board’s surface, where users control the
computer and write using a pen or a finger. The
board is typically mounted to a wall or on a floor
stand.
Smart boards are used in places such as
classrooms, seminars, corporate broad
broadcasting studios

Factors to consider when selecting an input

device
-Device cost
The initial cost and recurrent cost to be weighed
against the expected benefits and /or operational
characteristics of the facility
- Device speed
- Data volume: It should cope with that data volume to be input with appropriate timing.
- Device accuracy
- Device reliability
- Mode of operation: This will depend on the nature of the system i.e. data processing
system.
- Appropriateness: weigh out the merits and demerits of the device in relation to where it is
applied/used.

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Review questions 2.1
1. What is a computer system?
2. Differentiate between a computer and a computer system.
3. A scanner used at points of sale terminals in supermarkets is an example of a ___________
scanner.
4. The automated input technique where keying of input data is eliminated is sometimes
referred to as __________.
5. The type of scanner used to grade multiple choice examination is called an _______.
6. Name three factors one would consider when selecting data entry method, and give a
reason why each is important.
7. Describe three different optical and two magnetic techniques used for input and give an
example of the use of each.
8. Explain how banks use MICR scanners for cheques processing.
9. Describe two situations in which speech recognition devices may be useful as a method of
data entry.
10. Optical scanning of the Universal Product Code is now widely used as input method.
Give an example of a place where it is used and explain how it is used.

38,40,42,44,46

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2.3 The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
CPU is also called the Processor or microprocessor is a tiny chip etched into a silicon chip.
The CPU is the most important component of the computer. This is because it is the portion of
the computer responsible for executing (processing) instructions stored in memory. Also all
control operations are coordinated here.
The CPU performs the following functions:
- Processing data
- System control
- Provide temporary storage (RAM) and permanent storage (ROM)
- Runs the Operating System software installed on the computer, peripheral devices such
as printers, scanners etc.

In microcomputers, the CPU is housed inside the system unit where its mounted on a circuit
board called the motherboard or the system board.

Functional units of the CPU

Regardless of size, a processor consists of three functional elements namely;
- Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
- Control Unit (CU)
- The Main Memory (primary memory)

 Control unit
CU controls / coordinates all processing activities in the CPU using a system clock, which
sends electrical signals. The CU interprets instruction fetched from the Main Memory and
sends control signals to the ALU instructing it on how to execute instructions, issue control
instructions to the operating system, determines the operation to be performed by the
instruction, where the results are to be stored, and where the next instruction is located. The
CU fetches data from the main memory and puts it in the proper order for the processor. It also
sends the processed results back to the main memory. The CU also locates any data needed by
the instruction and sees that the instruction is followed.

 Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations (the basic data transformation in a
microprocessor). Arithmetic operations include addition, multiplication and division. Logical
operations includes comparing two quantities or more numbers to determine which is greater
or equal to or less than the other. It also involves testing for existence of a condition
encountered during the processing of an application. The ALU carries out all the logical and
arithmetic processing on data as directed by Control Unit. It decodes the instructions and then
processes the data. Data to be executed by ALU is temporarily held registers inside the
processor.

 Main memory
It is also called primary memory storage. It provides storage location for data and instructions
accessed by the control unit. The primary memory or the main memory is part of the main
computer system. The processor or the CPU directly stores and retrieves information from it.
This memory is accessed by CPU, in random fashion. That means any location of this memory
can be accessed by the CPU to either read information from it, or to store information in it.
o The primary memory itself is implemented by two types of memory technologies. The first
is called Random Access Memory (RAM) and the other is read only memory (ROM). A more
appropriate name for RAM is RWM (Read Write Memory), the CPU can write and read
information from any primary memory location implemented using RAM. The other part of

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 primary memory is implemented using ROM which stands for Read Only Memory.

Its two main functions are:

i). Holding data just before and after processing
ii). Holding instructions just before and execution

Classification of Computer Memory

The different types of memories are

 Primary storage
 Secondary storage

The primary memory is used for temporarily holding data and instructions required
immediately by the CPU and contents are lost once the power is switched off. Secondary
storage is used for permanently storing information by the CPU and is not lost when power is
switched off.

Primary storage Secondary storage

- Data can be processed directly from storage - Data cannot be processed directly but must
be moved into main memory first
- Located within CPU - Located outside CPU
- More expensive - Less expensive
- Lower capacity - Higher capacity
- Faster access time - Slow access time

Primary memory
Is of two types Read Only Memory (ROM) and Random Access Memory (RAM).

A). Read Only Memory (ROM)

Used to store firmware from hardware manufacturers and/or programmed instructions and
data permanently or semi-permanently. Data stored in ROM cannot be modified, or can be
modified only slowly or with difficulty, so it is mainly used to distribute firmware
(software that is very closely tied to specific hardware, and unlikely to need frequent
updates). ROMs are used in computers for permanent storage of instructions such as
- Power On Self Test (POST)
- The Basic Input Output System (BIOS)
- The bootstrap loader (the automatic program that finds and loads the operating system
program from disk) so that the computer has something to do when power is first
applied.
NB: Ordinary users can’t change ROM.

Types of ROM

i). Mask Read Only memory (ROM)

Contents are written once by the manufacturer and cannot be changed afterwards.

ii). Programmable Read Only Memory(PROM)

Can be programmed directly by the user using a special PROM programmer. PROMs come as
blanks having nothing programmed or recorded on them. Once programmed it cannot be

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 changed therefore it allows user to program (write) it only once. After programming it
assumes the characteristics of Mask ROM..

iii). Erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM)

Is a special type of ROM that can be erased and reprogrammed again by exposing it to ultra-
violet light for 5 to 10 minutes, thus reducing the contents of all the memory cells to zero by
discharging them.
Advantage: contents can be erased and reprogrammed for another use.

iv). Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM)

EEPROM can be erased and reprogrammed using electricity under software control and can
support selective modification of its contents. A BIOS chip found on a microcomputer’s
motherboard is an example of EEPROM..

v). Electrically alterable ROM

Can be read from and written to. However, since the processes are significantly different, the
EAROM can be called a “read-mostly” memory. in order to write into EAROM you require a
millisecond, while the read operation can be performed in microseconds. The application of
EAROM is limited to critical industrial and military applications.
Advantage:
It is non-volatile and does not require an auxiliary power source such as battery.
Disadvantage:
- Cannot be used as a general purpose read/write memory because it takes much time to
write to than read from.
- EAPROM has limited application only to critical industrial and military applications

Characteristics of ROM
- Can only be read and cannot be written to unless it’s a special ROM e.g EAROM
- Its non-volatile
- High bit density
- Stores permanent or semi permanent instructions from manufacture although some can be
programmed according to users specification.
- Are intended for large production volumes

Disadvantages of ROM
- Are not cost effective because of large production volumes
- A ROM cannot be changed, once manufactured.
- Delay in production of the ROM.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is mostly referred to as working storage. RAM holds the programs being run and the
data being used by the CPU at the current time. Its contents can be read directly regardless of
the sequence in which it was stored. RAM can be written to and retrieved from. RAM is the
memory used in large quantities in Main Memory and every computer must specify its size.
Ram holds the programs being run and the data being used by the CPU at the current time.

Characteristics of RAM
- Data can be read and written in it.

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 - It’s temporary (volatile) storage , its contents are lost/ disappears when the computer is
switched off.
- It’s contents is user defined.

Types of RAM

There are two types of RAM namely Static RAM (SRAM) and Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
i). Static RAM (SRAM)
SRAM is a fast type of memory found inside a microprocessor.
Characteristics
- Stores a bit of information within a flip-flop
- It’s a very fast memory and holds its contents as long as there is power.
- Its content does not require refreshment
- Its expensive
- Its very fast compared to DRAM
- Its mostly used to make special types of memories known as Cache memory
- Used for smaller memories
- Has low packing density

ii). Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

The term dynamic refers to the tendency for stored charge to leak away, even with constant
power supply. Due to this DRAM requires periodic recharging referred to as refreshing to
maintain its data storage.
- Stores a bit of information in a charge and (a disadvantage) additional logic is needed
for refreshing the memory.
- It holds its contents for a short while even when the power is on. To maintain its content
it must be refreshed severally per second.
- Packing density is much higher than SRAM
- Is less expensive than SRAM

Disadvantages of RAM
- It is expensive
- It loses its mind when you turn the power off
- It is very difficult to archive information or pass it along to someone else, if everything
is kept in RAM.

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Summary of Computer memory

Computer Memory

Primary Memory Secondary Memory

RAM ROM

MROM
SRAM PROM
DRAM EPROM
EEPROM
EAROM

Special purpose memories

Are memories embedded in a microprocessor in order to enhance its processing speed and are
found inside the CPU or in the input and output devices. These memories increase the overall
performance of data and instructions moving in and out of the CPU. They increase the hit
ratio (the availability of data and information when required) and reducing the wait time when
the CPU searches for data and instructions from memory. Slower memories like DRAM make
the CPU to wait longer when it needs data stored in them.

These memories include: Buffers, Registers and cache memory.

i) Buffers
Is a temporary holding place that may be part of the CPU or built in an I/O device.. Acts as
interface between very fast processor and slow input/output devices. Since the CPU is very
fast compared to the I/O devices, buffers provide temporary storage so that the CPU is set free
to carry other activities instead of waiting for all data entered or information to be output.
Input data is held in the input buffer while processed data is held processed data is held in
output buffer. Examples: computer printers have buffers where they can store massive
documents sent by the CPU for printing hence freeing the CPU to perform other urgent tasks
as the printer continues to print in the background.
NB: Buffers can hold more than one piece of data at a time.

{a buffer is a region of memory used to temporarily hold data while it is being moved
from one place to another. Typically, the data is stored in a buffer as it is retrieved from an
input device (such as a Mouse) or just before it is sent to an output device (such as
Speakers). However, a buffer may be used when moving data between processes within a
computer. This is comparable to buffers in telecommunication. Buffers can be
implemented in either hardware or software, but the vast majority of buffers are
implemented in software. Buffers are typically used when there is a difference between the

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rate at which data is received and the rate at which it can be processed, or in the case that
these rates are variable, for example in a printer spooler or in online video streaming.}

ii) Registers
Are high speed temporary memory locations within the CPU that holds data and instructions just
before and after processing in the ALU. They hold one piece of data a time and are located inside
the CPU. Registers are temporary memory units that store words. The registers are located in the
processor, instead of in RAM, so data can be accessed and stored faster.
Types of registers
 Program counter (PC)
Holds the memory address of the instruction to be fetched next.
 Instruction register (IR)
Temporarily holds an instruction just before it is interpreted into a form that CPU can
understand it.
 An accumulator (AC)
Temporarily holds the results of the last processing step of the ALU e.g 3 + 4 = 7 is held in the
accumulator.
 An address register (AR)
Temporarily holds the address of the next piece of data to be fetched for processing.
 Storage register (SR)
Temporarily holds a piece of data that is on its way to and from the CPU and
main memory.

iii) Cache memory

Cache memory is random access memory (RAM) that a computer microprocessor can access more
quickly than it can access regular RAM. As the microprocessor processes data, it looks first in the
cache memory and if it finds the data there (from a previous reading of data), it does not have

to do the more time-consuming reading of data from larger memory.

Cache memory is sometimes described in levels of closeness and accessibility to the

microprocessor. An L1 cache is on the same chip as the microprocessor. (For example, the
PowerPC 601 processor has a 32 kilobyte level-1 cache built into its chip.) L2 is usually a
separate static RAM (SRAM) chip. The main RAM is usually a dynamic RAM (DRAM)
chip.

In addition to cache memory, one can think of RAM itself as a cache of memory for hard
disk storage since all of RAM's contents come from the hard disk initially when you turn
your computer on and load the operating system (you are loading it into RAM) and later as

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you start new applications and access new data. RAM can also contain a special area
called a disk cache that contains the data most recently read in from the hard disk.

Cache memory (pronounced as cash) is a very high speed type of SRAM whose purpose is to
allow the processor to access data and instructions faster i.e. speeds up processing (fetch
cycle).
There are three types of cache memory namely:

 Level one cache memory (called L1 Cache, for Level 1 Cache) is directly
integrated into the processor. It is subdivided into two parts:
o the first part is the instruction cache, which contains instructions from the
RAM that have been decoded as they came across the pipelines.
o the second part is the data cache, which contains data from the RAM and
data recently used during processor operations.
Level 1 caches can be accessed very rapidly. Access waiting time
approaches that of internal processor registers.

 Level two cache memory (called L2 Cache, for Level 2 Cache) is located in the
case along with the processor (in the chip). The level two cache is an intermediary
between the processor, with its internal cache, and the RAM. It can be accessed
more rapidly than the RAM, but less rapidly than the level one cache.
 Level three cache memory (called L3 Cache, for Level 3 Cache) is located on
the motherboard.

All these levels of cache reduce the latency time of various memory types when
processing or transferring information. While the processor works, the level one cache
controller can interface with the level two controller to transfer information without
impeding the processor. As well, the level two cache interfaces with the RAM (level three
cache) to allow transfers without impeding normal processor operation.

What is virtual memory?

If you have limited memory or you have many programs open, your computer may need to use
part of the hard drive to simulate more memory. This simulated more memory is called virtual
memory and allows the computer to continue operating but at much slower speed. Therefore a
virtual memory is simulated memory from hard drive which makes the computer operate at a
much slower speed.

If your computer lacks the random access memory (RAM) needed to run a program or
operation, Windows uses virtual memory to compensate.

Virtual memory combines your computer’s RAM with temporary space on your hard disk.
When RAM runs low, virtual memory moves data from RAM to a space called a paging
file. Moving data to and from the paging file frees up RAM to complete its work.

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 The more RAM your computer has, the faster your programs will generally run. If a lack
of RAM is slowing your computer, you might be tempted to increase virtual memory to
compensate. However, your computer can read data from RAM much more quickly than
from a hard disk, so adding RAM is a better solution.

Virtual memory and error messages

If you receive error messages that warn of low virtual memory, you need to either add
more RAM or increase the size of your paging file so that you can run the programs on
your computer. Windows usually manages the size automatically, but you can manually
change the size of virtual memory if the default size is not enough for your needs.

Memory capacities
Memory and storage capacity is measured in special units called bytes. A byte is equivalent to
a single character, which can be numbers 0 – 9, letters A – Z or a special symbol e.g. a number
2341 has 4 bytes, while words ‘My school’ has 9 bytes.

Memory quantities can be expressed in:

1. Kilobytes (KB) – Approximately one thousand bytes (103)
2. Megabytes (MB) – Approximately one million bytes (106)
3. Gigabytes (GB) – Approximately one billion bytes (1012)
4. Terabytes (TB) – Approximately one trillion bytes (1024)

Overall organization of the CPU

The ALU, CU and Main Memory use electrical pathways or links called buses. A bus is an
electrical path for signal to flow from one point to another in a circuit. There are three types of
computer buses namely:

a). Control bus

This is a pathway for all timings and controlling functions sent by the control unit to other
parts of the system.

b). Address bus

This is used to locate the storage position in memory of the data to be executed or an
instruction to be decoded.

c). Data bus

This is the pathway where the actual data transfer takes place.

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Summary of the overall organization of the CPU
The central processing unit exchanges data with the main memory and input/output devices.

The control unit fetches data and instructions from the main memory then sends to ALU for
execution in a process called fetch execute cycle. The program counter (PC) holds the address
of the instruction to be fetched next. The fetched instruction is loaded into instruction register
(IR). The control unit interprets the instruction and directs the ALU to perform the necessary
execution.

Processors
A processor consists of an inbuilt set of instructions called instruction set.

Types of processors
A microprocessor is a complete CPU where ALU and Control unit has been combined into
tiny single processor. The microprocessor chips use many different internal designs, and the
chips vary in appearance and capability.

Three basic characteristics that differentiate microprocessors are:

 Bandwidth: Which is the number of bits that can be processed by one instruction
 Clock speed or Clock Rate: Which is the speed of the internal timer that determines
how many instructions per second the processor can execute. The internal clock regulates the
rate at which instructions are executed and synchronizes all the various computer components.
The faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU can execute.
 Instruction set: is an inbuilt set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.

There are two types/ classes of Microprocessors namely:

 Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
 Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)

- Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) is the name given to types of processors that
use a large number of complicated instructions microcoded into the processor, to try to do
more work.

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- Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) is the name given to processors that use a small
number of simple instructions meant to do less work with each instruction but execute them
faster.

Processor Clock speed

Clock speed is measured in units called Hertz (Hz), where 1 Hz equals 1 cycle (tick) per
second. A Hertz is a unit of frequency which measures the number of cycles in a signal.
The clock/clock rate – refers to how many instructions per second the processor can execute.
Quantities of clock speed can be expressed in :
i) Kilohertz (kHz) : approximately one thousand hertzs.
ii) Megahertz (MHz): approximately one million hertzs
iii)Gigahertz (GHz) : Approximately one billion hertzs.
- Modern CPUs reach over 3 GHz.

Summary of microprocessors and their clock speeds

Processor Year Manufacture Clock Speed & remark

1. Intel 8086 1978 Intel 5Mhz - 10Mhhz
2. Intel 8088 1979 Intel Like 8086
3. Intel 80186 1980 Intel 25 Mhz
4. Intel 80286 1982 Intel 6 – 12.5 Mhz
5. Intel 80386 1985 – 1990 Intel 16 – 33Mhz
6. Intel 80486 1990 Intel Upgradeable
7. Intel 80486 1990 Intel 60, 66, 75, 90, 100, 120,
133, 150, 166, and 200 Mhz
8. Pentium Pro 1995 Intel Used on 150, 166, 180 & 200 Mhz
servers
9. AMD K5 1995 AMD 75, 90, 100 & 116 Mhz
10. Pentium 1997 Intel 166, 200, and 233 MHz with
MMX MMX technology
11. Pentium II 1997 Intel Plugged on to Single-edge
contact (SEC)
12. AMD K6 1997 AMD 166-266 MHz
13. Cyrix 6x86 1997 Cyrix 150, 166, or 187 Mhz
14. Pentium III 1999 Intel 450MHz to 1.13 GHz
15. AMD 1999 AMD 500Mhz to 2.33Ghz
Athron
16. AMD Duron 2000 AMD 600 MHz – 1.8 GHz
17. Pentium 4 Nov. 2000 Intel 1.4 Ghz to 3.2 Ghz
18. Intel Core 2 2006 Intel >1.6GHz x 2
Duo
19. AMD 2005 AMD >2.0Ghz x 2
Athron Dual
Core

Review questions 2.2

1. What is the meaning of CPU.
2. Describe three functions performed by CPU.
3. What is a microprocessor

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4. Explain the functions performed by :
a) the Control Unit
b) the Arithmetic and Logic Unit
c) the Main Memory
5. Define the terms: volatile memory and non-volatile memory
6. Define and explain the difference between RAM and ROM.
7. How many characters (Bytes) of data are held in each of the following memories? 4KB,
640KB, 16MB and 20BG.
8. Name three special purpose memories found either inside or outside the microprocessor,
and explain what each does.
9. In reference to arithmetic and logic unit, explain the meaning of logic operations and give
an example of this processing operation.
10. What is the difference between mainframe computers CPU and that of a microcomputer?
11. Explain the purpose of the system clock.
12. What is the meaning of BIOS, and what role does it play in a computer?
13. List three buses found in the CPU.

Practical activity
With the help of the teacher, find out the following:
1. The type of processor in one of the computers in your computer laboratory.
2. The clock speeds of all the computers in the computer laboratory.
3. What is the size of RAM in MB of the computer you are currently using?

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 2.4 Output Devices
An output device is a peripheral device that a computer uses to give out information produced
after processing. The most common types of output data include text, pictures, sound and
video.

Types of output devices

Are classified as either softcopy or hardcopy.

Softcopy
Refers to intangible output displayed on the screen or listened to through devices like
speakers. Softcopy output devices include monitors, speakers, LCD Projectors and light
emitting diodes.
Example of softcopy output devices:

A). Monitors (VDU)

Also known as Visual Display Unit or Screen. It displays information in form of text, pictures
and video on the screen thus helping the user to monitor operations carried out by the
computer.

Types of monitors
There are three namely Cathode Ray Tube (CRT), Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and Gas
Plasma Display(GPD). Monitors that display sharp clear images are said to have high
resolution.

CTR monitor
The screen is curved slightly outward forming a convex shape. A CRT monitor consists of a
long glass tube with an electron gun on one end and a screen on the other end. The screen is
coated with tiny phosphorus dots that illuminate red, green and blue to make a pixel. The
CRTs are too bulky to carry around, consume a lot of power and are cheap to buy.

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 Flat Panel Display
Are Gas plasma and LCD
The screen is flat, they are portable, consume less power, comfortable to use, occupy less
space, are expensive and provides high quality output.

Examples of flat panel displays

(i). Liquid crystal display (LCD)
Are made from a tiny special liquid crystals that reflect light falling on them from the
environment. Are less bulky, consume less power and have very little effect on eyes. There are
two technologies used to make LCDs that is passive matrix and Active matrix. In Passive
matrix LCDs create images by scanning the entire screen, requires little power and have poor
clarity. Active matrix use thin Film Transistor technology (TFTs), consume more energy and
offers better clarity.

(ii). Gas Plasma

They use gas that emits light when electric current is passed through them. They contain
millions of pixels that are illuminated by charged neon gas. Gas Plasma panels do not suffer
from angle distortion and the technology is popularly used in producing high definition Tvs
(HDTV) with large screens used in homes and entertainment places.

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Gas Plasma Monitor with belter clarity

Terms associated with computer display include:

Pixel: Picture elements are tiny dots which are used to form the images displayed on the
screen. In colour monitor, a pixel has three primary colours namely red, green and blue.

Colour depth: refers to number of colours which can be displayed by a pixel. It is measured in
bits.

Resolution: is the number of pixels per inch on the screen usually given in dots per inch (dpi)
or bits. The higher the resolution, the more the number of pixels per inch, hence the clearer the
images.
Refresh rate
Since the CRTs cannot hold an image for a long time, image in the video RAM is used to
refresh the one on the screen as long as necessary. If a screen has a low fresh rate, images tend
to flicker hence causing eyestrain.

Display size: is measured in inches as the diagonal length of the screen measured from top to
bottom left.

Video adapter

Also referred to as graphic adapter or video card. The monitor is connected to the system unit
through the video port to a video adapter. The video adapter determines the resolution and
clarity of the monitor. Graphic Adapter / Video card is a piece of circuit board plugged to the

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 motherboard that connects a monitor to a computer and allows the computer to show images
and text on its screen.

Examples of Graphic Adapters

- Monochrome Displays Adapter (MDA) which displays text only in one colour.
- Hercules Graphic Card (HGC) – displays both text and images in one colour.
- Colour Graphic Adapter (CGA) – displays text and images using up to 16 colours.
- Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) – displays text, graphics and video using 16
colours.
- Video Graphic Array (VGA) – offers at most 256 colours.
- Super Video Graphic Array (SVGA) – Offers over 256 colours with a minimum
resolution of 800 x 600 pixels.
- Extended Graphics Array (XGA) – Has a high resolution of 1024 x 768 and its popular
with 17’ and 19’ monitors.
- Super Extended Graphics Array (SXGA) has a resolution of 1280 x 1024 pixels and is
popular with 19 and 21 inch monitors.
- Ultra Extended Graphics Array (UXGA) is the latest and has the highest standard.

Sound output devices

These devices produce sounds such as beeps, audio or digital. Speaker is an example of sound
output device. This output is in form of spoken words. Speakers are used to output sound from
a computer. Sound may be output inform of music, warning, video, interactive communication
with the computer or to give messages in emergency situations. Speakers can be external or
internal. Some computers have internal speakers like Compaq. An external speaker should be
connected to a sound card through the jacks on the system unit or on a multimedia monitor.

Sound output has the following advantages:

- No reading is needed
- Useful in situation where you can’t look at the screen or where you are too busy

Disadvantage
Not suitable for noisy situations
Inappropriate for lengthy or permanent information.

Applications of sound output

- Learning Aids e.g. Computer Aided Learning
- Lift where messages are used to greet visitors and tell them the floor they are in.
- Emergency massages i.e. Public address systems, in cars when running out of petrol.
- Text speech translation for blind people.

B). LCD Projectors (Data Projectors)

An LCD projector is a type of video projector for displaying video, images or computer
data on a screen or other flat surface. It is a modern equivalent of the slide projector or
overhead projector.Are used to display output from a computer on plain white paper screen

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 like a wall or whiteboard. It’s actually a creative and interesting technology way of presenting
computer output to an audience unlike traditional overhead projectors.

C). Light Emitting Diodes (LED)

They are components (indicators) that display light when electric current is passed through
them. It is used mainly for warnings. Example: a red or green light displayed by the system
unit to help user know is ON or OFF, warnings given by motorists to indicate when overtaking
or taking a turn.

Hardcopy Output Devices

Hardcopy refers to tangible output that can be seen and touched and recorded on a physical
media. Hardcopy output devices are printers, plotters and facsimile (fax).

1. Printers
Produce a hard copy of information on papers. The printing mechanism determines the quality
of hardcopy. They are two types of printers namely impact and non-impact.

Impact printers

Impact printers print using striking mechanism, they strike the paper in order to form an
imprint on it. Impact printers are cheap to run, slow, use inked ribbons, produces multiple
copies, uses cheap technology, are noisy because of impact, produce low quality printout and
print for long periods without breaking down. They produce characters by using special light
hammers with characters or pins held on the printing head. When the hammer strikes on the
head, character mark is stamped. In impact printing, the printing head comes into physical
contact with the stationery. An inked ribbon placed between the stationery and the printing
head element creates the imprints when the printing head strikes.

Types of impact printers

i) Dot Matrix Printer
Has a set of pins which strikes on an ink ribbon placed over the paper and provide character
prints in terms of dots.

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 ii) Daisy Wheel Printer
Works like a typewriter, and has a removable flower-like wheel consisting of spokes with
embossed characters. When printing, the wheel is rotated to align the required character and
then hit with a hammer on an inked ribbon against a sheet of paper, leaving an image of the
letter.

iii) Golf Ball Printer

The character images are incorporated on the surface of a gold ball like Print head, which is
either rotating or pivoted.
iv) Drum printer
It provides one whole line print at a time. The characters are incorporated on circular bands
that move round the surface of the drum.
v) Chain printer
It’s an impact line printer that incorporates engraved characters printing slugs on a moving
chain or belt. The chain moves the character printing slugs at high constant speed past printing
positions.

Non-impact printers
Are fast, use thermal and electrostatic principles, produces single copies, are costly due to
technology involved and quiet because of non-impact. They print using ink, toner catridge ,
thermal or laser mechanisms. In non-impact the printing head does not come into physical
contact with the stationery but by other means like thermal or electrostatic.

Types of non-impact printers

i). Thermal printer

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 Use heat principle to transfer characters onto a piece of paper. Work by heating solid ink
which is normally in wax or resin form to
melting point then transferring it onto the paper
to form characters. A thermal printer (or
direct thermal printer) produces a printed
image by selectively heating coated
thermochromic paper, or thermal paper as it
is commonly known, when the paper passes
over the thermal print head. The coating
turns black in the areas where it is heated,
producing an image.Thermal printers are
mostly used on point of sale terminals to print
receipts and bar codes. Thermal printers
produce high quality printouts. They are
inexpensive alternative to inkjets.

ii). Inkjet printer

Use the concept of spraying ink onto the paper, from tiny holes on the ink cartridge onto the
paper. A colour inkjet printer may
have two cartridges, one for black
and a tricolour that contains cyan,
magenta and yellow (CMY)
compartments. The cartridge has
nozzles that do the actual spraying of
ink on the paper

Advantages
- Are cheaper and produce better
quality printouts
- Inkjets printers use smaller
mechanical parts than laser
printers
- Provide inexpensive way to
print full-colour document.

Weaknesses
- Are slow
- Expensive to run because they require special type of ink
- An inkjet printout is easily gets smudged when water drops on it.

iii). Electrostatic printer

Uses electrostatic charges to form characters in a line on a special paper

iv). Photo printers are special purpose printers designed to print photographs.

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v). Laser printer
Prints by passing laser beam back and forth over a rotating drum, just the same technology as
photocopy machine. As the beam hits the drum, it ionizes some regions which attract ink toner
particles. They are cheaper to run, faster, produce high quality printouts but are expensive to
buy than inkjets.

fig. laser printer and drum

Deference between impact and non-impact printers

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 Impact Non-impact
- Slow - Fast
- Cheaper - Costly
- Use striking mechanism - Use thermal or electrostatic
principles
- Noisy - Quiet
- Multiple copy production - Multiple copy production almost
possible impossible
- Use inked ribbon - Use ink cartridge or toner
cartridge, resin or wax.

Factors to consider when selecting a printer

- Initial cost and subsequent costs of maintenance

- Volume of printing expected
- Colour printing coloured laser printers are very expensive, so depending with the volume
of print one can decide to buy Laser or Inkjet.
- Nature of reports to be generated
- Range of capability for selected printers e.g. multiple copier, print styles etc.
- Interface with the computer system
- Speed: the speed of a printer is measured in Pages per minute
- Quality of prints (print quality).

Plotters
These are output devices that are mostly used in engineering and architecture field for
production of graphical outputs e.g. diagrams, photographs, maps, architectural designs and
such outputs. The most common commercially available graph plotters are the Flatbed Plotter
and Drum Plotter.

Review questions 2.3

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1. Differentiate between softcopy and hardcopy.
2. What is the difference between CRT monitor and a flat-panel display.
3. Give three examples of flat panel monitors available in the market today.
4. Name four criteria used when selecting a printer.
5. Distinguish between impact and non-impact printers and give two examples of each.
6. State one advantage and disadvantage of laser and inkjet printers respectively.
7. Give two advantages of sound output devices.
8. Karuri road construction company CKRCC) intends to buy an output device they can use
to produce road maps. Which device would one advice the company to buy and why?

2.5 Secondary (Auxiliary) Storage and Media

Are alternative long-term storage devices that are not part of the Main memory. These
devices are not directly accessed by the CPU and are not housed inside the system unit. Can
be carried around to be used with another computer hence the name removable storage
devices and media. A drive is needed in order to read and write data into the storage media.
The data and instruction held in these devices must first be moved into RAM before
processing. They are used to store information for longer period, data stored in them is
permanent unless erased by user. Stores large volume of data. Stored data can be erased and
the media reused to store fresh data and programs.

What is a drive ?

A computer device for reading data from or writing data into a storage media e.g. a tape, or
disk.
Types / examples of computer drives
- Hard disk drive (HDD)
- CD-ROM drive
- USB Port
- Floppy disk drive (FDD)
- DVD – ROM drive
- Zip drive

You need device driver to use some secondary storage medias.

Device driver

A device driver is a program that controls a particular type of device that is attached to
your computer. There are device drivers for printers, displays, CD-ROM readers, diskette
drives, and so on. When you buy an operating system, many device drivers are built into
the product. However, if you later buy a new type of device that the operating system
didn't anticipate, you'll have to install the new device driver. A device driver essentially
converts the more general input/output instructions of the operating system to messages
that the device type can understand.

Examples of computer auxiliary storage devices

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 Magnetic tapes, floppy disks, cassette tapes, Hard disks, zip disks, jaz , Flash disks, video
compact disks (VCD), digital video disks (DVD’s), Punched cards, optical disks e.g CDs, LS-
120 Super Disks, optical card, optical tape.

Classification of Secondary Storage Devices

Can be classified in two ways by:
1. Portability as removable and fixed.
2. Technology used to store and retrieve data (magnetic, optical, magneto-optical and
solid state).

It is important to have a backing storage for long – term storage of data and programs and also
when there is limited storage capacity in the main memory. Backing store is a non-volatile
(permanent) memory outside the CPU such as floppy disks, CDs and USB flash Disks.

Characteristics of a Backing store

- Data is usually accessed using read/write heads.
- Access to backing storage is slower than main storage
- Are non-volatile i.e. the data is stored on the medium until it is deleted.

REMOVABLE STORAGE

Magnetic Disks
Magnetic storage media use magnetic technology to store data.

Tape Drives

Tape drives are another type of magnetic computer storage devices. Instead of platters, the
tape drives use magnetic tape to record data. Tape drives are not commonly used in
consumer computers, but the low cost and reliability of tape drives allows them to be used
by companies making long-term backups. One major difference between tape drives and
hard disk drives is that a hard disk drive can read data from any part of its platters. A tape
drive must read through the data from start to finish, as the read/write heads cannot move
to a specific part of the tape. Once the tape drive reaches the data point, read speeds are
faster than the average hard disk drive.

i). Magnetic tapes

A magnetic tape is made using a thin ribbon of mylar (plastic) coated with a thin layer of
magnetic material composed of iron oxide on which data can be stored using magnetic
process. The tape may be housed inside a plastic as a cassette or coiled around an open wheel.
It uses serial access where all proceeding data is read before the required data can be accessed.

Advantages
- Store large amount of data
- Light and easy to carry
- Effective when to store sequential files for batch applications

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 - High capacity and backup storage at relatively low cost

Disadvantages
- Slow due to sequential reading of data
- Wastage of recording surface because of Inter-block gaps left for stopping purposes.
- Easily distorted by environmental factors such as dust, moisture, humidity etc.

ii). Floppy disks

Developed by IBM, floppy disks in 3.5-inch (89 mm), 5.25-inch (133 mm) and 8-inch
(200 mm) forms were a ubiquitous form of data storage and exchange from the mid-1970s
to the 2000s.[1] While floppy disk drives still have some limited uses, especially with
legacy industrial computer equipment, they have been superseded by data storage methods
with much greater capacity, such as USB flash drives, portable external hard disk drives,
optical
discs,

memory cards, and computer networks.

Are made of a thin plastic disc with a magnetisable iron oxide coating and enclosed in a
plastic case. Inscription of data is done on the magnetic coating around the plastic. The floppy
disk is inserted inside a floppy drive which has a read /write that runs over the magnetized
spots.
There are two types of disks:
 3 ½ which has storage capacity of 1.44MB and 5 ¼ inch which has a storage capacity of
1.2MB.3 ½ inch floppy store more data and are better protected as opposed to 5 ¼ inch floppy.

Parts of a floppy disk

Recording window - used to read and write data to the diskette
Hub – used for rotating the diskette

Index (spindle) hole – assists in

rotating the diskette
Plastic case – protects the mylar
coated with iron oxide that stores
data.
Sectors – concentric circles
where data is written.

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The structure of a disk platter

A block
Tracks

The surface is divided into tiny invisible concentric circles called tracks that store data. The
tracks are further divided into units called sectors. The area within the same track bound by
the two edges of a sector forms a block which forms the unit for the read/write operations.
Data can be written to and read from the disk.
Note:
To write data means to move it or copy it from the main memory to backing storage.
To read data means to move it or copy it from the backing store to the main memory.
Disks are direct access storage media.

Disadvantages of floppy disks

- Storage area is limited to 1.44MB
- Easily damaged
- Are short-lived
- Slow access time. Access time is the time taken to read the data from disk to the Main
storage.

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 Comparison of Floppy disk and Flash disk

- Size comparison of a flash drive and a 3.5-inch floppy disk

- Floppy disk drives are rarely fitted to modern computers and are obsolete for normal
purposes, although internal and external drives can be fitted if required. Floppy disks
may be the method of choice for transferring data to and from very old computers
without USB or booting from floppy disks, and so they are sometimes used to
change the firmware on, for example, BIOS chips. Devices with removable storage
like older Yamaha music keyboards are also dependent on floppy disks, which
require computers to process them. Newer devices are built with USB flash drive
support.

Removable Magneto-Optical Storage

Magneto – optical media stores data both magnetically and optically. i.e write using magnetic
and read using optical beam. Some examples are: Zip, Jaz, HiFD and LS-120 Super disk.
i). Jaz Disk
Is a high storage floppy disk with a storage capacity of up to 2GB. They are read using an
internal or external jaz drive.

ii). Zip disks

Resemble floppy disk but are slightly larger and thicker in size. Have a storage capacity which
can hold up to 250MB. It is stable, inexpensive and easy to work Have either internal or
externally portable Zip drive. Are mainly used for backing up and archiving personal
computer files.

iii). High capacity floppy disk: simply known as HiFD disk stores upto 200MB of data. HiFD
drive can also read the 1.44MB floppy disk.

iv). Laser Servo 120 SuperDisks

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 Laser Servo 120 SuperDisks simply known as LS-120 Super disk. It resembles 3 ½ floppy
disk but uses optical technology instead magnetic technology to read data. It has a greater
storage capacity of 120MB and greater speed of data retrieval.

Fixed storage
Refers to storage devices that are housed inside the system unit. E.g. Hard disk.
NB: Some hard disks especially those in small computers such as laptops are removable.

v). Hard disk (Winchester)or hard drive

Hard Drives

 Hard disk drives are magnetic, non-volatile computer storage devices. A hard disk
drive stores data on two spinning platters inside the drive. The data is read with a
read/write head that uses magnetic technology to write the data. The non-volatile
nature of a hard disk drive means the data does not get erased when the drive loses
power, as is the case with random access memory. Desktop hard drives are 3.5
inches in width and the equivalent laptop hard drive is 2.5 inches. Common hard
drive speeds are 4200 RPM to 7200 RPM. Faster 10,000 RPM drives are available
but not as common. Consumer drives with capacities of one terabyte (1,000
gigabytes) are becoming more common as of 2010.

Care of hard disk

- Keep it away from smoke and dust
- Switch off the computer using the correct procedure to avoid crashing on rotating disks.

Advantages of hard disk

- It’s cheap
- Store very large volume of data
- Very reliable than floppy
- Does not deteriorate as floppy disks

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 - Has faster access time
Disadvantages
- Are usually fixed and cannot be removed without opening the system unit.
- They can suffer a head crash resulting to loss of data
- Are sensitive to dust, humidity, magnetism which can corrupt the data stored
- They are inflexible i.e cannot be changed.

Care for magnetic and magneto-optical media

- Do not expose them to strong magnetic fields because the magnetically recorded data on
disk will be erased
- Keep them away from excessive heat because heat energy weakness magnetic media’s
ability to store data
- Do not drop magnetic media on the ground.
- Do not bend or fold magnetic media or put heavy weights on the to avoid breaking or
damaging them
- Do not touch the magnetic surfaces
- Do not remove media from drive when it is still being accessible by the computer
because this may result in data loss.

Removable Optical storage media

Data is written and read from using a laser beam.

Optical Disc Drives

 Optical disc drives are storage devices that use lasers to read or write discs. Optical
disc drives include CD, DVD, and Blu-ray. When a disc is inserted into an optical
drive, the drive's laser is focused on the disc by the lens on the drive. The laser
reads the pits burned into the disc and sends that data to the computer. Optical
drives also have a laser that adjusts the calibration of the beam to switch between
reading and writing functions.

Laser disks
Data is recorded using a very concentrated light (laser beam). They store very large volumes
of data. Data stored in them is more stable and permanent than the magnetic media. Examples
are: Compact disks (CD), Digital Versatile Disk (DVD), Optical Card and Optical tape.

i. Compact disk (CD)

CD is made of a small plastic disk with a reflective aluminium coating on one side. They hold
large quantities of data and information, as much as 700MB.

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 Forms of CDs:
a). Compact Disk – Read Only Memory (CD-ROM)
When data is recorded on them one cannot change or add anything on them. Mostly used to
store music recordings.

b). Compact Disk – Recordable (CD-R)

They are initially blank but with a CD- Writer (Drive), the user can record data, programs or
information on it. Once data has been written on it, one can only read but not change it i.e. it
becomes read only.. Are coated with special dye which changes colour to represent data when
burned using a laser beam.

Both CD-ROMs and CD-Rs are referred to as WORM (Write Once Read Many) because they
allow the use to write (record) data on them once but read them many times.

c). Compact Disk – Rewriteable (CD-RW)

Data written to them can be erased (overwritten) and rewrite new information.

Digital Versatile Disk / Digital Video Disk (DVD)

Resemble CDs but have higher storage capacity of upto 17GB, approximately 26 CDs of
capacity 640MB! Are suitable for recoding motion pictures like videos because of they offer
better sound and quality pictures. There are three common types of DVDs namely read only,
recordable and rewriteable DVDs.

ii. Optical card

Computer memory that uses optical techniques which generally involve an
addressable laser beam, a storage medium which responds to the beam for writing and

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 sometimes for erasing, and a detector which reacts to the altered character of the
medium when it uses the beam to read out stored data
Resemble MICR, but it has optically recordable stripe that store information. Mostly used in
Banking to store customer details.

Optical tape
An instrument used for video or computer data storage in which a laser optical head is
used to write digital information onto a tape. Depending on the size of the reel, the tape
may be capable of storing more information than an optical disc, but has a much slower
access time.
Similar to magnetic tape, but data is stored on it using optical technology.
Advantages of optical storage
- Have massive capacity
- Stores data permanently
- Accessing of data is fast
- Secured i.e. it’s hard to copy
- High quality pictures and sound
- Portable

Disadvantage
- Expensive
- Costly hardware and software for reading
- It can break easily
- Very sensitive to things like dust, water, heat, scratches which easily damage them.

Solid state storage devices

Is a kind of non-volatile storage media that employs integrated circuits rather than mechanical,
magnetic or optical technology. They are regarded as solid state because they do not have
moving parts but everything is electronic as the case of RAM or EEPROM. Examples include
flash disks, Flash pen drives and memory cards.

Memory cards

A memory card or flash card is an electronic flash memory data storage device used for
storing digital information. They are commonly used in many electronic devices, including
digital cameras, mobile phones, laptop computers, MP3 players, and video game consoles.

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They are small, re-recordable, and able to retain data without power. Memory Stick is a
removable flash memory card format

A memory stick

Flash disk
It is small in size but with massive storage capacity of as much as 32GB. Its more portable and
convenient to carry around than other secondary storage medias.

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Advantages of solid state storage over other removable
- Are noiseless since they have no mechanical parts
- Offer faster access to stored data
- Are very small hence more portable

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages

- Data stored on flash drives is impervious to scratches and dust, and flash drives are
mechanically very robust making them suitable for transporting data from place to
place and keeping it readily at hand. Most personal computers support USB as of
2010.
- Flash drives also store data densely compared to many removable media. In mid-
2009, 256 GB drives became available, with the ability to hold many times more
data than a DVD or even a Blu-ray disc.
- Compared to hard drives, flash drives use little power, have no fragile moving parts,
and for most capacities are small and light.
- Flash drives implement the USB mass storage device class so that most modern
operating systems can read and write to them without installing device drivers. The
flash drives present a simple block-structured logical unit to the host operating
system, hiding the individual complex implementation details of the various
underlying flash memory devices. The operating system can use any file system or
block addressing scheme. Some computers can boot up from flash drives.
- Specially manufactured flash drives are available that have a tough rubber or metal
casing designed to be waterproof and virtually "unbreakable". These flash drives
retain their memory after being submerged in water, and even through a machine
wash. Leaving such a flash drive out to dry completely before allowing current to
run through it has been known to result in a working drive with no future problems.
Channel Five's Gadget Show cooked one of these flash drives with propane, froze it
with dry ice, submerged it in various acidic liquids, ran over it with a jeep and fired
it against a wall with a mortar. A company specializing in recovering lost data from
computer drives managed to recover all the data on the drive. [38] All data on the other
removable storage devices tested, using optical or magnetic technologies, were
destroyed.

Disadvantages

- Like all flash memory devices, flash drives can sustain only a limited number of
write and erase cycles before the drive fails. [39][40] This should be a consideration
when using a flash drive to run application software or an operating system. To
address this, as well as space limitations, some developers have produced special
versions of operating systems (such as Linux in Live USB)[41] or commonplace
applications (such as Mozilla Firefox) designed to run from flash drives. These are
typically optimized for size and configured to place temporary or intermediate files
in the computer's main RAM rather than store them temporarily on the flash drive.
- Most USB flash drives do not include a write-protect mechanism, although some
have a switch on the housing of the drive itself to keep the host computer from

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 writing or modifying data on the drive. Write-protection makes a device suitable for
repairing virus-contaminated host computers without risk of infecting the USB flash
drive itself.
- A drawback to the small size is that they are easily misplaced, left behind, or
otherwise lost. This is a particular problem if the data they contain are sensitive (see
data security). As a consequence, some manufacturers have added encryption
hardware to their drives—although software encryption systems which can be used
in conjunction with any mass storage medium achieve the same thing. [citation needed]
Most drives can be attached to keychains, necklaces and lanyards. The USB plug is
usually fitted with a removable and easily lost protective cap, or is retractable.
- USB flash drives are more expensive per unit of storage than large hard drives, but
are less expensive in capacities of a few tens of gigabytes as of 2011.[42][43] Maximum
available capacity is increasing with time, but is less than larger hard drives. This
balance is changing, but the rate of change is slowing.

Review questions 2.4

1. Distinguish between primary memory and secondary storage devices.
2. Distinguish between removable and fixed storage
3. Compare three types of removable disks i.e. Floppy, zip and jaz disks in relation to size.
4. What is a hard disk? How does it differ from the floppy disks?
5. Give four examples of optical disks and how they differ from each other in term of storage
capacity and mechanism.
6. Give four examples of optical disks and how they differ from each other in term of storage
capacity and mechanism.
7. What are the advantages of a digital versatile disk over a typical compact disks.
8. Define the term multimedia and list down the components required to make a computer
multimedia.
9. Why are CD-ROM and CD-R referred to as WORM?
10. Describe the different between magnetic and optical storage media.
11. Jets publishers is a company that specializes in production of news papers. One of the
editors wanted to transfer a 50MB document from the hard disk of one computer to
another using removable storage media. Give four examples of the devices he/she could
use.
12. Describe three precautions you would take to avoid damaging the hard disk.

2.6 Power supply and peripheral device Interface

Computer Port

Is a special kind of connector (socket) on the system unit usually at the back which a cable
from an external peripheral device e.g. mouse, keyboard etc is plugged to facilitate transfer of
information.

Power cable

They supply power to the device. Power cables connect the computers power supply unit to
mains outlet.

Power supply and adapter

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Power supply unit is a special unit inside the system unit that supplies power to the
motherboard and other internal devices. Computers are
connected to AC power while internal components
require DC power. The work of a power supply unit and
adapter is to convert AC to DC.

Peripheral device interfacing

Interface cables: Transmit data signals. Connect the device on one end, and to the
motherboard via ports on the other end.

Parallel interface

A parallel port is also called the Centronics port and the computer refers to a parallel port as
LPT1 (Line Printer One). Parallel cables transfer
data in parallel 8-bits at a time using a set of many
conductors. Parallel ports (the 25-holes, D-shaped
holes) mainly connect printers, scanners, portable
CD-ROM drives, tapes and network adapters.
Parallel cables transmit data faster over short
distances.

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Serial interface and ports

The serial port is also called COM1 or COM2 and sometimes COM3 and COM4. Can also be
referred as RS-232 port. Serial interfaces
have 9-pins. Serial cables transmit data 1-bit
at a time. Are generally slower than parallel
cables. Allow for two way communication
( i.e. communication to and from the
computer and the device connected to it),
whereas parallel cables offer one-way
communication. Serial interface is widely
used for many interconnections like
connecting of computers to external modems
and some mice. Serial ports are more reliable
than parallel ports for long distances.

Comparison between parallel and serial cables and ports

Serial cable and port Parallel cable and port
- Transmits 1-bit at a time - Transmits 8-bits at a time
- Slow - Fast
- Connect modems, a mice & - Connect printers, scanners, network
keyboards adapters etc.
- Ports consist of 25-pin and 9-pin - Ports consist of 25-pin D-shaped holes
- More reliable for long distance - More reliable for short distances
- Allow two way communication - Only one way communication

VGA port

This is where monitor is connected to LCD projectors. It is shaped like a letter D with 15 holes
and colour coded in blue.

Universal serial bus (USB) cables and ports

They transmit only 1-bit of information at a time at a very high speed than parallel cables.
Provides quality data transmission over long distance. It has become the standard connectivity

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for most of the peripheral devices from printers to mobile phones. It can be used to connect as
many as 127 peripheral devices to a computer. To use USB port, the devices should be
specifically made to work with the USB. There are two types of USBs namely low speed USB
1.1 and a relatively faster high speed USB 2.0

Advantage of USB cable & ports

- The USB port allows connection of many different types of devices such as printer,
modem, mouse, keyboard, digital cameras etc.
- USB allow devices to be daisy chained on it i.e. plug a modem into the port, and then plug
a keyboard into the modem, then plug a printer into the keyboard to use .

Firewire ports

Firewire or IEEE 1394 has the same features as the USB but transmits data faster than USB. It
is mostly used for streaming video from a digital video camera.

Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)

- They transmit data in parallel but are faster than parallel cables. Its ports allows connection
upto 7 peripheral devices. Small
Computer System Interface
(SCSI, is a set of standards for
physically connecting and
transferring data between
computers and peripheral

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 devices. The SCSI standards define commands, protocols, and electrical and optical
interfaces. SCSI is most commonly used for hard disks and tape drives, but it can
connect a wide range of other devices, including scanners and CD drives. The SCSI
standard defines command sets for specific peripheral device types; the presence of
"unknown" as one of these types means that in theory it can be used as an interface to
almost any device, but the standard is highly pragmatic and addressed toward
commercial requirements.

Other Ports and Connections

Infra-red and bluetooth

Infrared is a wireless interface that uses infrared to connect to infrared-enabled devices. Used
for wireless communication between the CPU and a device which is
infrared – capable e.g. cordless mouse as shown in the diagram below.
Infrared, also to as infrared data association (IrDA), uses the infrared
waves to transmit data. Infrared-enabled devices must be at a line of
sight of infrared rays in order to transmit data.
Bluetooth is a wireless interface that uses short range radio broadcast to
connect any Bluetooth-enabled device. It just broadcasts a radio signal
within the surrounding. Any Bluetooth device when turned on will be
detected.

Personal System 2 (PS/2 Port)

Also known as mini-DIN connectors. Is used to connect the mouse and keyboard

D-type ports (Video graphics array (VGA)

The two most common connectors used for monitors or video are the 9-pin D and the 15-pin
Hi-D connector. The 25-pin port can be used for both serial and parallel devices. When used
to connect serial its labeled COM1 or COM2 and only 10 of its pins are used. For parallel its
labeled LPT1 or LPT2.

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Centronic ports

This is a parallel port that uses metal clips mounted into cells in place of pins.

Audio ports (connectors)

Are jack plugs used to connect speakers, microphone and other portable audio equipment.

Modem port

Used for plugging an external modem into the computer.

2.7 Basic Computer Setup and Cabling

The basic computer system consist s of the system unit, monitor, keyboard and mouse.
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The following precautions should be observed before attempting to carry out any setup
activity.
1. Disconnect all devices from power source before starting to work on them to prevent
electrical shock.
2. Follow teachers instructions strictly when working on any peripheral device
3. Never work alone because you may need help incase of an emergency.

Tools and materials required

- Screw drivers
- Pliers
- Motherboard
- Manufacturers manual
- Required peripheral devices
- Dismantled system unit
- Power and interface cable.

Connecting external devices

To connect external devices to the system unit identify its port and interface cable.
Components connect to the system unit via the ports at the back of the computer. The mouse
and the keyboard connect via the PS/2 ports. The monitor connects via the 15-holes port on
the video card. Some printers via 25-hole port or USB port.

Each of the components will have a cable attached with a connector at the end that will plug
into the appropriate port on the back of the computer. The mouse, keyboard and optionally the
monitor are powered by the power unit within the system box. The monitor may have its own
power source, in which case it will plug directly into the mains power supply. Check the
power ratings at the back of the computer before connecting to power supply. In Kenya it
should be 250 volts. The system unit may connect to UPS.
(i) Gently and carefully connect the interface cable of each devices to the correct port and
to the device if it is not fixed permanently.
(ii) Connect the computer to the power source and switch it on.
(iii)Observe boot up information on the screen to see whether Power On-Self – Test
(POST) displays any error message.
(iv) A successful boot means that the computer was properly set.

Though computers are connected to AC power outlet, internal components require DC power.
Desktop PCs use Power Supply Unit while portable computers use adapters to convert AC to
DC

System Components Interconnection

The basic microcomputer system consists of the motherboard, the power supply unit,
hard disk drive, floppy disk drive, I/O interface card, optional CD-ROM drive, disk controller
card, video card, and optional sound and network interface cards. These components are
housed in the system unit (case).

Mounting internal devices

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 While external devices are connected to the motherboard through ports, internal devices are
connected through slots and sockets.

Mounting hard drives and optical drives

Internal devices are connected to the motherboard using special ribbon cables. Hard disks and
optical drives are connected to the motherboard through controllers. Three types of controllers
are ;
- Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics (EIDE)
- Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA)
- Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)

SATA and EIDE are more efficient and supports hot – swapping,. Hot-swapping means that a
drive can be removed or inserted while the computer is still on. EIDE controller supports up to
two drives on a single ribbon cable attaining a master/slave configuration because the
controller directs activities of both drives.

Installing floppy drives

There is no master/slave configuration for a floppy drive, you can attach two floppy drives in
the same ribbon cable. One floppy drive will be automatically assigned A while the other
drive will be B.

Review questions 2.6

1. What are the safety precautions to be observed before one starts installing devices in
the system unit.?
2. In relation to cabling, give two reasons why a printer may not print work sent from the
computer as expected?
3. Naliaka connected new multimedia speakers to her computer and tried to play her
favourite music CD but no sound came out. What might have been the problem?

Computer Software
Computer software refers to a set of instructions that direct a computer on what to do. The
computer software can be classified into three ways according to purpose, acquisition and
End– user – License (EUL).

Classification according to purpose

Computer software is classified into two main categories:
- System software
- Application software

1) System software
Manages the operation of the computer itself, and makes sure that the computer works
efficiently.
It enables the user to communicate with the computer and its hardware e.g. mouse.

Example of system software:

i). Operating system: It’s a set of programs that control and supervise the hardware resources
of a computer during processing. Examples are: Microsoft Windows
95/98/2000/XP/Vista/NT, Macintosh OS, OS/2, CP/M, VMS, UNIX, MS-DOS

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ii). Firmware: also referred to as stored logic, It’s a combination of both hardware and
software etched on a single silicon chip which accepts and interprets external commands from
the user.

iii). Utility software: also called service programs, is a software that provides support to the
application software. It perform commonly used services that make certain aspects of
computing to go on more smoothly. Can also be defined as special programs used to enhance
performance of the system.

Functions of the utility software

- Formatting disk s
- Repairing diskettes
- Renaming files
- Sorting files
- Copying and deleting files
- Repairing damaged files, etc.
Examples of utility software:
system level, application utility, program translator, settings editor, test editor, sort editor,
graphics editor, file manager, calculator, time, backup utility, recovery utility,
compress/decompress utility, defragment utility, antivirus utility, diagnostic utility, sound
player utility, internet browsing utility, calendar utility.

iv). Networking software: It’s used to establish communication between two or more
computers by linking them using a communication channel e.g cables to create network. Also
it enables computers and other peripheral devices connected on a network to communicate and
share resources. Examples: Novel Netware and Linux

2) Application Software (Application Packages)

Are designed to help the end - user to accomplish specific tasks.
Application software are classified according to purpose and acquisition
Classification according to purpose
Application software can be either a general purpose or special purpose software. The general
purpose software such as word processors, spreadsheets, database and presentation software
are packaged and made available for general use.
Special purpose applications such as DTP, video editing and photo editing software are used
to carry out specific tasks.

Examples of application software are:

1. Word processor – for typing documents like letters e.g. Ms Word, Lotus, Word Pro,
WordStar
2. Database – for keeping records e.g. Ms Access, Dbase, FoxPro, Paradox
3. Spreadsheets –for calculations e.g. Ms Excel, Lotus 1-2-3, Quattro Pro.
4. Desktop Publishing (DTP) – designing publication like cards, pamphlets, magazines
e.g. Adobe PageMaker, Ms Publisher
5. Computer Aided Design – for technical drawing e.g. AutoCAD
6. Graphics software – for designing and manipulating graphics e.g. Corel Draw, Adobe
Photoshop.

Summary of computer software

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

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Application Software
System Software
 Classification according to Acquisition
An application software can be either in-house developed or an off-shelf software.
a). In-house developed (Custom program/ bespoke/ tailor – made / standard software )
These programs are designed/tailored to meet specific needs within the organization. e.g in
banks for managing their operations, airlines for booking, school for grading and test analysis
etc.

b). Standard software (off the shelf) packages

These programs are developed by software engineers, packaged and made available for
purchase through a vendor or directly from developer e.g Microsoft office. Off-the –shelf
software are widely used because;
 It takes less time to assess company’s needs, buy and install them
 They are less expensive to acquire and maintain
 They are readily available for almost any task
 They are thoroughly tested before being released hence less chances of errors
 Easily modified to meet specific user needs

Disadvantages
 May not meet special needs
 They are not as efficient as user made programs
 When changes occur extra costs is usually needed from user
 Not all packages are compatible with all computer system
 They may have some features not needed by user which may take extra storage
c). General purpose software – are not written to solve any particular problem, and can be
used in different ways depending on the problem to be solved

Classification according to End – User Licence (EUL)

Software may be classified as open source(non-proprietary), proprietary or freeware.
Open source software – is a software whose source code (programmed set of instruction) is
freely made available to users. Users are encouraged to modify and distribute the modified
product.
Proprietary software – are software whose source code is hidden from users. Modifications
can only be made by the software manufacturer. They are licensed to users at a fee or applied
freely. Examples are; Microsoft Operating Systems, Microsoft Office, Adobe PageMaker and
CorelDraw suit.

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 Freeware are software products that are freely made available to the user. Some may be
malicious software.

Review questions 2.7

1. Differentiate between system software and application software.
2. What is the importance of an operating system?
3. Give five examples of standard software over in-house programs and integrated software?
4. What are the advantages of standard software over the in-house developed software?
5. What is the difference between single-purpose programs and integrated software?
6. Why do computers need network software?
7. Give three examples of operating systems?

Criteria for Selecting a Computer System

Hardware considerations
i). Processor type and speed
The price of a computer is dictated by the type of microprocessor installed and its clock speed.
A good computer must have high processor speed of over 4GHz

ii). Memory capacity

Should have a sufficient memory to handle the heavy applications that require a lot of memory
space in order to run. A computer with at least 128MB of RAM is recommended. Memory
capacity dictates the operating system and the application that can run efficiently on the
computer.

iii). Warranty
The hardware bought must have a warranty cover and must be guranteed for a specific period
of time. Warranty is an agreement between the buyer and the seller that spells out terms and
conditions of, after selling a product in case of failure or malfunction
A good warranty should cover the following:
o Duration e.g. six months, one year, etc. the least warrant period should be at least 1
year. In most cases, the longer the warranty the better the hardware.
o How comprehensive is the warranty? Does it cover all the parts of a computer?
o Whether the warranty offer onsite support, so that you don’t need to take the computer
back to the seller / manufacturer in case something goes wrong.
o Call-out response and liability agreement e.g. how long should the supplier take to
repair a fault or replace the product and if he/she delays who bears the cost.
o Preventive maintenance for example regularity of service at intervals etc.

iv). Cost
The cost of computers is related to the size and additional components that may come with the
computer. The cost depends on:
- Its processing capability
- Whether it is branded or a clone. Branded computers are more expensive than their
equivalent clones because of the reliability and good after sale services

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 - Its size – portable computers are more expensive than desktops because of the superior
technology involved to manufacture smaller computer components without losing
performance abilities.
Do market survey from magazines, newspapers and electronic media or visit a number of
vendors to compare prices to enable you purchase genuine components at a reasonable cost.

v). Upgradeability and compatibility

Buy a computer than can easily be upgraded to accommodate emergent technologies. NB:
You upgrade an existing computer when you either add to it a new device or memory or when
you replace one or more of the computers processor or peripheral device with its faster
equivalent. E.g.
- Replacing a 1GHz processor with a 2.4 GHz processor, a 1oPPM laser printer with a
16PPM laser printer
- Increasing RAM from 64MB to 128MB, 10GB hard disk drive with 20GB.
Some older computers cannot support large had disks or USB devices (USB and firewire) in
the market today, hence difficulty in upgrading them because smaller hard disks are no longer
in circulation.

vi). Portability
Look for a computer that you carry with you incase you wish to access your computer and
files wherever you are. Smaller devices enhance portability.

vii). Special User needs

Focus around the unique user needs for buying the computer system e.g. a point of sale (POS)
terminal is most suitable for record transactions in the supermarket, physically challenged,
consider buying voice input devices.

Other considerations
- Monitor
Your choice of monitor may depend on size, resolution and technology used to make it.
Currently flat panel displays are replacing CRTs.
- Multimedia capability
Refers to the ability for as computer to process and output text, sound, video and pictures.
Multimedia system consists of speakers, CD/DVD drive, sounds card and SVGA monitor.
Also a software that supports multimedia capability.
Other considerations include available ports, wireless connectivity, and the system unit form
factor (whether tower type or desktop).

Software Considerations
Authenticity
This is genuineness, validity or legitimacy of an item. Software is an intangible product, and
its quite easy to pirate software (make illegal copies of software). When purchasing software,
get the original software that will be supported by the developer’s license and certificate of
authenticity. This is because some people illegally produce pirated copies which are an
offense.

Documentation
It include user manuals, trouble shooting and installation guides as well as on-line help. A
good software product must be accompanied with these documentation.

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User needs
It must meet users need e.g. if the user needs to type documents most often would go for a
word processor.

User friendliness
This is how easy the users can be able to operate the computer. The ease of use of a program
will (most likely) influence whether the user will prefer it or not.

System requirements
Are basically the hardware specifications required to run a particular program and are usually
indicated on the package e.g. you need a minimum of 16MB of RAM to run an Access Dbase,
but 32MB is recommended. The system requirements will usually include the amount of Ram,
Hard disk space, monitor type, processor type and peripheral.

Cost
Software tend to be more expensive than the hardware. The cost of acquiring software product
must be carefully considered before acquiring it against the benefits that it is likely to bring.
The cost of software is a major contributing factor in deciding whether to purchase it or not. It
is usually cheaper to purchase general purpose software if it can meet the users need.

Compatibility and system configuration

Software compatibility refers to the ability of a computer to run the software depending on the
system setup (configuration). The new package should read and process files created by the
existing package. When upgrading software the upgrades are backwards compatible e.g. Ms
Access 2000 can convert MS Access 97 files to Access 2000 format and use them. It often
does not work the other way round e.g. Ms Access 2000 file cannot be opened in Access 97.
Therefore, a software product must be compatible with the existing hardware, operating
system or application programs and should be readily upgradable.

Portability
Software portability refers to ability of a program to be copied or installed in more than one
computer. Data is said to be portable if it can be transferred from one application to another in
electronic form. Most software’s in the market are portable.

Reliability
Good software must be reliable and secure.

Review questions 2.8

1. What factors would you consider before purchasing a new computer in reference to:
a) Hardware
b) Software
2. Why is it important to carefully study a warranty before committing yourself by signing it?
3. Do you need to do window-shopping before you actually buy your computer or any
computer accessory? If yes, explain why.

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4. Using newspaper cuttings such one shown below prepare a requisition form for ten up to
date multimedia computers to be used in the computer room.

FULL MULTIMEDIA, PENTIUM 4,

128 KB Cache, 2.8 GHZ, 256 MB RAM,
40 GB HDD, 14’SVGA

Review Questions
1. Write the following abbreviations in full:
a) CPU
b) ALU
c) CU
d) ROM
e) RAM

2. Give examples of special purpose memories found in the CPU.

3. What do the following abbreviations in relation to storage capacity stand for:

a) KB
b) MB
c) GB

4. Describe the various video cards used in computers.

5. Differentiate between MICR and OCR scanners.
6. What is the market name given the most recent types of processors?
7. Explain the internal mechanism of the hard disk in reference to disk platters and the
read/writer head.
8. Describe the structure of a hard disk in reference to cylinders, tracks and sectors.
9. What are pixels? What role do they play in screen display?
10. Explain the steps you would follow to set up a new computer.

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 3.0 OPERATING SYSTEM
3.1 Definition:
 What is an operating system? An operating system (sometimes abbreviated as
"OS") is the program that, after being initially loaded into the computer by a boot
program, manages all the other programs in a computer.An operating system (OS)
is a set of programs that manage computer hardware resources and provide common
services for application software.
 Is a group of programs that manage all activities on the computer.
 Main program that controls the execution of user applications and enables the user to
access the hardware and software resources of a computer.
 A program that controls the execution of an application programs and acts as an
interface between the user of a computer and the computer hardware.

The operating system provides a software platform on top of which other programs
(application programs), can run. Examples of Operating Systems: Microsoft Windows
95/98/2000/XP/Vista/NT, Macintosh OS, OS/2, CP/M, VMS, UNIX, MS-DOS

3.2 Devices under the control of an operating system

i). The processor
The CPU can only execute one program at any one time and several tasks may require
processing hence creating competition. The OS decide which program will be performed
and for how long. It has also the ability to stop a particular task to allow the processor to
service another one.

ii). Main memory

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 The OS must keep track of what parts of memory are in use and by who and what parts are
free. The OS determines which task will remain in memory awaiting for execution and
which one will be sent back to secondary storage to wait.

iii). Secondary storage devices

The OS keeps track of the information on the storage devices and controls how the
information is written to and read from the storage device. It also utilizes the free space on
hard disk by temporarily holding tasks on it that were in RAM ready for processing but
have to wait for some time.

iv). Input / output devices

Since the input/output devices are slower than the processor, the OS will control allocation
of I/O devices and attempt to resolve any conflicts which arise. It will too monitor the state
of each I/O device and signal any faults detected.

v). Communication devices and ports

The OS controls the overall communication process between various tasks and computers.
These devices include modems, network interface cards, etc, which connect via ports.

3.3 Functions of Operating System

Operating system basically consists of two main parts namely;
Shell – the outer part of an operating system used to interact with operating system
Shell is a computer program that simplifies the interface between a
user and the operating system by allowing the user to pick from a set of
menus instead of entering commands

Kernel – (the key portion of operating system).kernel is the core of a computer's

operating system that resides in the memory and performs essential
functions such as managing and controlling the processor, main
memory, storage devices, input devices, output devices,
communication devices, files and allocating system resources

i). Processor/ job Scheduling(CPU)

Processor scheduling refers to allocating each job waiting for execution processor time at
each given interval. The processor can only handle one task at a time. A job is a group of
tasks taken as a unit of work for a computer which may include one or more computer
programs, files and instructions to the Operating System. The [OS] scheduler decides
which of the jobs is allocated to the CPU for processing first.

ii). Resource control and allocation

Includes controlling the use of computer resources by other system software and
application programs being executed. The resources include I/O devices, CPU and
processing time. The OS strives to avoid deadlocks by allocating resources wisely to tasks
or programs that are competing for them. Each device has unique identification number
called an interrupt number. So when two tasks request to use a resource at the same time,
the one with higher4 priority interrupt is granted control. Deadlock a situation where a
particular task holds a needed resource and refuses to release it for use by other tasks.

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 Analogy: John has a pen but needs a book to write on while Mary has a book but needs a
pen to write with. Neither of the two wants to release whatever they have for the other to
use first. Hence a deadlock occurs because neither is able to write.

iii). Input / Output management

The OS coordinates between I/O devices and other peripheral devices making sure that
data flows properly between them and sorting out any possible confusion. It will also
monitor the state of I/o devices and signal any faults detected. It also governs the
input/Output of data and their location, storage and retrieval.

iv). Memory management

Since data and instruction entered into the computer are temporary held in the main
memory before and after processing. Since RAM is a scarce resource, the OS determines
which task remains in memory awaiting for execution and which one will be kicked out
back to secondary storage.
The OS organize the main memory into partitions called page frames. Processes are
equally divided into pieces that can fit into the frames called pages. The OS swaps pages
between the main memory and the secondary storage. and ensures that each program and
the data it requires are allocated adequate space in memory To access data or instruction,
the OS knows where to find each piece of data as long as the correct address of the
partition is used. In the hard disk where pages are held is referred to as Virtual memory.

v). Communication control and management

The OS manages various communication devices and provide protocols that governs
communication between devices on a network.

vi). Error handling

The operating system alerts the user of errors that may arise out of illegal operations,
hardware or software failure. The OS deals with errors produced during program
execution by expressing what the error is and provides the error correction routines to
ensure smooth operations within the CPU.

vii). Security
Modern operating systems implement security policies such that unauthorized users
cannot get access to a computer or network resource.

viii). Job sequencing

The OS keeps a list of tasks currently being run and arranges them in a particular order to
make it easy for the processor to execute them and to know how and when to fetch
instructions and data for each task. i.e. clocks them in and out of the processor.

v). Interrupt handling

An interrupt is a break from the normal sequential processing of instructions in a program.
The OS determines the cause of the interrupt and transfer the control to the most
appropriate program.
An external request causes the processor to stop executing the current task, and do
something else before returning the control back to the program that was interrupted. Each
hardware device communicates to the processor using Interrupt Request Number (IRQ
number) which is a special number.

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 To display the IRQ
1. Click start button then select control panel
2. Double click Systems icon to open
3. In the system properties dialog click Hardware tab and select the Device manager
option from the system properties dialog.
4. Click view and select in the drop down list Resources by Connection then select IRQ.
Click + sign on the left of the IRQ to display in a tree structure of the devices.

3.4 Types of Operating Systems

Operating system can be classified according to:

a) Number of users
i). Single user OS
Used only by one person and runs one user application at a time.
ii). Multi-user OS (multiprogramming)
Enables two or more users to run a program simultaneously. Examples are UNIX, Linux ,
Windows XP, Novell, OS/2, Windows 3.11, Windows NT & Windows 2000.

b) Number of tasks
i). Single program/tasking OS
Allows processing of only one program in the main memory at a time e.g Ms – DOS.

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ii). Multitasking OS
The OS allows a single CPU to execute more than one program at a time e.g. Windows
Vista, XP, etc.

c)Interface
i). Command line
User interacts with a computer by typing a command at the dot prompt found on a
command line. The computer reads the typed command at the command line and executes
it. Examples of command line OS are Ms-Dos, UNIX and OS/2. To apply: Click Start
menu>All Programs>Accessories>Command Prompt.
For example you can copy a file called Fruits.Dat from a hard disk C to floppy disk A type
the following at the command prompt:
COPY C:\ FRUITS.DatA:\
This interface is hard to learn or remember the commands, they cannot process complex
graphics and they hardly make use of emerging hardware and software technologies.

ii). Menu driven

Allows the user to select commands / options from a list or menu using keyboard or
pointing device e.g. mouse. The use needs not to remember commands since is
represented with choices.

iii). Graphical user interface

Enables the user to choose commands, start programs and see lists of files and other
options by pointing and clicking at objects icons or pictures that appear on the screen.
Besides menus, GUI make use of rectangular frames called windows, graphical objects
called icons, most commands are executed using a pointing device. These features are
given an acronym WIMP which stands for windows, icons, menus and pointer. Examples
GUI operating systems include Microsoft Windows 95/98/2000/XP/Vista, MacOS and
Linux.

3.5 Factors to consider when choosing an operating system

 Hardware configuration of the computer such as the memory capacity, processor
speed and hard disk capacity
 The type of computer in terms of size and make.
 Basic design of the computer is it IBM Compatible or Apple Computer.
 Applications intended for the computer
 User friendliness of the operating system, GUI will be preferred.
 Cost of the operating system
 The documentation available
 Availability in the market e.g. Microsoft Windows based OSs are very common.
 Reliability and security provided by the OS– can it run without crashing or hanging.
Hanging is to stop responding to commands.
 The number of users it can support

Review Questions 3.1

1. Give examples of two multi-user operating systems.
2. Describe four functions of operating system.
3. What is an interrupt?
4. Name and explain four types of human computer interfaces.

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5. What are the advantages of GUI based operating system over the command-line?
6. Differentiate between Multitasking and Multi-user operating system.
7. Outline the factors you would consider if you were to buy an operating system.
8. What is deadlock in reference to the operating system?
9. Outline the factors you would consider if you were to buy an operating system.

3.6 How an Operating System Organises Information using

Introduction:
Some of the OSs from Microsoft Corporation which is a software company are: Windows
95/98/2000/NT/Me/XP/FD/VISTA/Windows 7. Others which are not from Ms
Corporation are Linux, UNIX, Mac OS and OS/2.
The following factors dictate how an Operating system organizes information:
Rapid acces - the organization should allow quick access of stored data.
Ease of update - the method should allow ease of update and the operating system should
be able to keep a record of the date of modification.
Economy of storage – the method should use the least storage possible because memory is
a scarce resource.
Simplicity of maintenance – the method should enable quick navigation through the file
system and make it easy for it to be maintained.
Reliability - the file organization method should be reliable.
Windows organize information in three tier hierarchy i.e;
 Files
 Folders and subfolders
 Drives.
1. File
It’s a collection of related data or information given a unique name for ease of access,
manipulation and storage on a backing storage and stored in one location. A file has
details that indicate:
- A unique name and an optional extension
- Its size, date and time the file was created or modified.

Types of files
There are three `types namely; system, application and data files.
 System files : contain information that is critical for the operation of the computer.
 Application files: these files hold programs or application files that are executable.
 Data files contain user specific data.
The are some file extension;
Extension File type Description
.doc Data A Microsoft Word document file
.txt Data A plain text file created using note pad or DOS editor.
.exe Application file The file that launches a particular application e.g. PM
7.0 .exe, Winword.exe, etc
.bat System files File containing a series of commands loaded during
boot up.
.sys System files System files that perform fundamental operation in a
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 computer.

Function of file
- Storage of data
- Organization of information

2. Folder / Directory
It’s a named storage area where the user can store related files for easy access. All folders
or directories originate from a special directory called the root directory or folder. The
root directory is represented by a back slash (\).
Sub-folder is a folder or directory within another folder/directory. In Windows folders and
sub-folders icon appear in yellow colour while file icons are mostly white with a fold at
the top right hand corner.

File icon

Folder icon

All folders or directories originate from a special directory called the root directory or
folder. The root directory is represented by a back slash ( \ ).

3. Drives
The Operating System views storage media or devices as drives. When creating folder or
saving a file identify a storage location which is more reliable e.g Floppy disk, Compact
Disk, Hard disk, Flash disk etc. Drives may be given labels such as letters A-Z to identify
them.
Storage location Drive Remarks
Floppy drive A and B If a computer has two drives, one will be assigned letter
A the other B.
Hard disk C, D, E, F If a computer has 4 hard drives, they may be assigned
letters C – F.
Optical drives D, E, F, G If a computer has one hard disk and three or more
CD/DVD drives, may take any number between D and Z
Other D, E, …Z If a computer does not have an optional drive, any
Removables removable drive attached to the computer can take any
letter between D and Z.
Network drive Logical Network drives takes D – Z depending on the number of
physical drives installed or attached.

3.7 Getting started with Microsoft Windows

Windows Desktop
Desktop is mostly an empty screen that appears when windows starts, and has some
standard icons that show that the computer is ready for use.

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Desktop features
Icons – are small images representing objects such as files, application programs,
peripheral devices, operator tools in programs, etc. Are manipulated using pointing
devices. Examples icons on the desktop are My Computer, Recycle bin, Internet Explorer,
My Documents, Antivirus, etc.

The task bar

A long bar that runs across the desktop. Enables the user to switch between programs and
documents (tasks) that are currently running.
It has three main parts:
Start button: Left most button on the taskbar that the user clicks to display the start
menu.

Task manager: Plain stripe that displays buttons of all currently running tasks.

System tray: Right most part of the taskbar. It has icons of the tasks running in the
background but are not displayed on the screen e.g. Time and Calendar etc. To display the
task simply double click its icon.

Task Manager System Tray

Start Menu

The Start Menu

When you click the Start button, a Start Menu appears which a list of choices is. When
you click any choice in the Start Menu, the list of choices displayed is called Sidekick
Menu.

Sidekick
menu

Start Menu

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Common Start Menu Items:
All Programs – which displays a list of all programs installed in the computer.
My Recent Documents – which lists the last 15 recently accessed files.
Control Panel – provides tools which user can use to maintain and make changes to the
computer setup.
Control panel – provides options for you to customize the appearance and functionality of
your computer, add or remove programs, and setup network connections and user
accounts.
My computer – give access to, and information about, the disk drives, cameras, scanners
and other hardware connected to your computer.
Search –opens a window where you can pick search options and work with search results
incase the user forgets file or folder name or its location.
Help and support – opens a central location for help topics, tutorials, troubleshooting and
other support services..
Run – enables the user to: Install programs on the hard disk, open files and folders from a
storage location, and Run programs from removable media. It also opens a program, folder
document or a web site.
Log on / log off: Log on is a security measure that restricts unauthorized users from
accessing computer resources. It prompts the user for a User name and Password in order
to gain access. After using the computer Log off the computer before leaving.

Review Questions 3.2

1. Explain the following mouse concepts:
a) Click
b) Double click
c) Drag and drop

2. Define the following terms:

a) Desktop
b) Icon
c) Sidekick menu
d) Taskbar
3. List and explain the three parts of a taskbar
4.Why is it important to first shut down the computer before you turn it off?
5.Explain how you would move the taskbar to the top of the desktop.
6.With the help of the teacher and a computer running Windows, customize the
taskbar such that:
a) The start menu is displayed in small icons.
b) The clock is not displayed.
c) The taskbar is hidden.
d) A program is added on or removed from the start menu

3.8 Managing Files and Folders

Windows Explorer
Lets the user display the drives and folders in a hierarchy or trees structure. The explorer
divides the window into two panes.

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The left pane displays a tree of drives and folders while the right pane displays a list of
files and subfolders contained in a particular open drive or folder.

Fig. above shows the Windows Explorer window

To display Windows Explorer, Right click Start button then click Explore from short cut
menu or Right click My Computer icon then select Explore.

Creating a folder
1. Display the Explorer window
2. From the folder tree on the left pane, select the location in which you want to
create a new folder e.g Local C
3. From File menu, click New then select Folder. A new folder with a temporary
name Newfolder appears on the right pane.
4. Type a new name for the folder to replace the temporary name then press enter
key.
Note: To create a subfolder, follow the steps above but select a folder as the location.

The application window

Title bar

Menu bar

Toolbar

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Parts of an application window
Title bar – displays the name of the current application program or task.
Menu bar – provides a drop down list of commands that can used to manipulate tasks.
Toolbars – are buttons of commands arranged in a row that are shortcuts to menu
commands.
Work area – is the working area where you can create your documents.

Creating a new file

Work
To create a file for a specific application area installed in your computer proceed as
program
follows:
a. Display the Explorer Window Status bar
b. From the From the folder tree on the left pane, select the location in which you want
to create a new folder e.g. Local C, 3 ½ etc
c. From File menu, click New then select the Application Program e.g Microsoft Word,
Microsoft Excel Worksheet etc. . A new file with a temporary name of the application
appears on the right pane.

d. Type a new name for the file to replace the temporary name then press enter. To work
in the file double click and the application program opens, as shown in the figure
below.

NB: A file can be contained in a folder or subfolder and subfolder and a file can be
contained in the same folder.

 Renaming Files and folders

Renaming is changing the original name to a new name.
To rename right click the file or folder icon then select rename. Type a new name to
replace the existing.

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 Sorting files and folders
Refers to organizing files and folders in a particular way. To sort select the location, or
folder then in the View menu select Arrange Icon by option to choose either by name,
size, type or date modified.

 Deleting files and folders

When you delete an item from the hard disk, it is temporary held in the recycle bin.
Recycle bin is a special folder which temporarily holds items deleted from the hard disk.
NB: Items deleted from removable storage devices are not held in the recycle bin and are
completely lost. Don’t attempt to delete system and application files from the hard disk.

To delete file or folder

In the folder tree, right click the file or folder and then select delete from the shortcut
menu.
NB: Holding down Shift key as you command delete, the deleted file or folder is
completely discarded bypassing the Recyclebin folder.

Restoring deleted files and folders

 double click the Recycle bin icon
 select the deleted items to be restored
 Click File then Restore or right click each item individually then select restore in the
shortcut menu.
 The restored items are automatically restored in their location and application
programs.

Emptying the recycle bin

This is completely discarding files and folders deleted to free up disk space occupied. To
empty right click the recycle bin and select empty option.
To empty the recycle bin
- In the folder tree or on the desktop select the Recycle Bin icon
- Right click then select empty option from the shortcut menu
- click Yes if prompted to confirm deletion of the files

Copying and moving files and folders

Copy or cut commands are used to create a duplicate of an item or move it respectively.
Copying is duplication of files and folders tom another location. Cut or Copied items are
temporarily held in temporary storage called Clipboard.

To copy/ move a file or folder

 Display the Explorer Window
 From the From the folder tree right click the file or folder and select copy / cut then on
the left pane right click the location in which you want to copy or move the file / folder.
 Right click the location then select paste

Manipulating files and folders by Drag and Drop

 To copy file/folder – Hold down Ctrl key while you drag the icon to the new location.
 To move file/folder from one location to another just press down the mouse button and
drag
 To delete any file or folder drag it into the Recycle Bin.

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 Searching for specific files and folders
Incase you are not sure where you stored or the name you gave a file or folder, use the
search menu.
(i). Right click Start, point to Search then click For Files or Folders.
(ii). In the Search dialog box, specify the search criteria
(iii). Click the Search button.

Review Questions 3.3

1 Define the following terms:
a) Click
b) Double click
c) Drag and drop
2 Distinguish between system files and application files
3 Describe the two functions of a file
4 In reference to Windows operating system, what does the term application window
mean?
5 Explain each of the following commands used to manage files and folders
a) Rename
b) Sort files
c) Copy
d) Move
e) Delete
6 Of the five commands in Question5, which two must be used with a lot of caution
when manipulating files?
7 Briefly explain the importance of each part of a window
8 Why is it important to give descriptive names to file or a folder
9 Draw a directory tree showing how files and folders are organized by an
operating system.
10 Explain how you would:
a. Minimize
b. Close and exit an application window.
c. Move a window from one location to another .
d. Access the folder/the directory tree.

3.9 Disk Management

 Formatting a disk
It is the creation of tracks and sectors in a new disk in preparation for use. It can also be
referred to as writing tracks and sectors on a disk to make it ready for data storage. Other
devices which are not disks can also be formatted to create a file system. Formatting a new
disk enables the OS to recognize it for reading and writing data.
Formatting process of 3 ½ floppy
- Insert the unformatted disk into floppy drive
- Double click my computer icon
- Right click the icon 3 ½ floppy
- Select the capacity 1.44MB
- Give label and click start to begin formatting
- Click close once the process is over

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  Partitioning
Process of dividing the physical disk into two or more logical drives. Each partition is
treated as a separate drive installed on its own partition.
Reasons: to install more than one Operating System and for the purpose of backup.
Windows 2000/XP allow up to 4 partitions on a single physical drive while Ms Windows
98/Me Operating System allows a maximum of one primary and one extended partition .

Choosing a file system

Before partitioning a disk, you need to decide how files are stored on each partition. The
following file systems are used on Windows operating systems:
 File Allocation Table (FAT) is primarily used in MS DOS and Windows 95.
 File Allocation Table 32 bit (FAT32) is primarily used in Windows 98 and Me.
 New Technology File System (NTFS) is primarily used in Windows NT, 2000, XP,
2003 and Vista.

Partitioning a disk using NTFS

Ms Windows 98/Me startup disk has an FDISK utility that lets the user partition
andformat a disk using FAT or FAT32 file systems.

To partition a disk:
(i). Reboot the computer using a start up disk
(ii). Type FDISK at the command prompt. Select yes to partition the drive using the
FAT32. the FDISK screen is displayed.
(iii). Choose ‘create a DOS Partition or logical DOS Drive.”
(iv). Restart the computer once more using the startup disk
(v). Format each partition by typing Format <drive letter>
Note: partitioning a disk in Windows 2000, XP, 2003 and Vista is done during
installation process.

 Compressing files, folders or a drive

Compressing files or folders reduces the amount of space they occupy on a drive;
compressing a drive decreases the amount of space used by all of the files and folders
stored on that drive (i.e creates more space on a disk by squeezing files into a smaller
storage location on the disk). This results to reduced performance and therefore it is not
recommended unless your computer cannot accommodate a large capacity disk.

To compress a disk:
 In My Computer window, right-click the drive
 Click Properties, then the General Tab
 Check “Compress drive to save disk space”.
 Click OK. Another dialog box is displayed.
 Click OK to apply changes.

 Defragmentation
Arranging of scattered folders and files on a storage media for easy access. Disk
Defragmentation can also be referred as the process removing the unused spaces on the
disk caused by repeated deletion of small file or insertion of large files onto the disk.

To defragment a disk:
 In My Computer window, right click the drive

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 From the Shortcut menu, click Properties.
 In the Properties dialog box, click Tools Tab
 Click Defragment Now. Disk defragmenter window is displayed
 Select the volume to defragment

Fragmentation is the condition of a disk in which the files and folders are scattered.

 Disk clean up
Is the process of detecting and removing files on the hard disk drive that may no longer be
needed. Disk cleanup frees and improve the system performance.

 Backing up data
Creating copies of data and programs on separate storage areas to avoid losing of data and
programs incase the storage device fails, gets lost or crashes (permanent destroyed).

To back up data from Hard disk:

 In My Computer window, right click the hard drive
 From the Shortcut menu, click Properties
 In the Properties dialog box, click Tools tab
 Click Backup Now.
 The backup wizard guides you through the process

 Scanning storage media

This tool helps the user to check up and repair minor storage problems like damaged
storage.
To scan a drive
 Right click the device icon in My Computer window then select Properties
 In the Properties dialog box, select the Tools Tab
 Under the Tools Tab, click Check Now
 In dialog box, select a fix disk option then click Start.

 Scanning for viruses (malware)

Malware are harmful programs deliberately intended to make a computer fail or
malfunction. Three common types of malicious programs are Viruses, Trojan horses and
Worms. Scanning is checking your system for viruses and removing them. A computer
must be installed with the latest antivirus program such as Norton, McAfee, Kaspersky
and AVG.
To scan for viruses right click the storage media then select Scan for Viruses option if an
antivirus software is installed.

 Startup (boot up) disk

Is a floppy disk that was created using the operating system and it has booting instructions.
It is used for minimal bootup in case a computer fails to load an operating system

To create a Startup Disk Using Windows XP

- insert the floppy right click My computer icon then select format. In the dialog box
displayed select Create an Ms – DOS Startup Disk option then click start.

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Review questions 3.4
1. Define the following terms as used in disk management
a) Formatting b) Partitioning c) Compressing
d). Defragmenting
2. Explain how you would format a used disk in Windows.
3. You have realized that your floppy disk is limited in storage space and you would
wish to create more space.
a) Which tool in Windows would you use.
b) Write down the procedure of doing (a) above.
4. Explain how you would create backup using Windows back-up using utility.
5. When you switch on your computer, and realize that it is not loading the Operating
System. This means that you have to boot up your computer using a startup disk.
a). What is a startup disk
b). using a new diskette, create a Windows Startup disk and label it Windows –System
Disk. (the dashes represent the version of Windows you are using).
6. Why is hard disk partitioned?
7. Explain how you can partition a 30GB hard disk into 2GB partitions.

3. 9 Installing Windows Operating System

Before installing an operating system, read the manual, Readme or html file provided in
the disk that comes with the operating system. The documentation contains details of the
minimum hardware requirements a computer must meet.
 The OS must be installed into the computers hard disk before installing any
other program.

Definition of installation: Process of copying program files onto the hard disk.

Installation differs from copy paste process in that it is specifically meant to copy
executable files in a format that allows the computer to run the program.

Installation Process of Windows XP

Most of the Windows operating system comes on CD-ROM, were you must boot the
computer with CD-ROM support in order for the computer to recognize the CD-ROM
Drive. The computer BIOS should be setup so that the computer boots from a CD/DVD
first.

To start the installation process:

1. Insert the CD/DVD ROM into the CD/DVD drive
2. Turn on the computer. The installation process proceeds from the booting steps to
the CD/DVD installation phase.
3. Partition and format the drive into either FAT32 or NTFS file system
4. Windows XP copies all the files into the hard disk
5. Windows XP will reboot and take you through the installation process.
6. Accept the End User Licence Agreement (EULA) then product key. Invalid key
activation may display unauthorized product key message.
7. Configure network settings if the computer is on a network. Windows XP will
successfully beinstall4ed and you may be required to setup user accounts and
connect to the Internet for updates.

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Trouble Shooting Windows Related Problems
Troubleshooting is the process of diagnosing and trying to fix (resolve) hardware or
software related problems.

Some problems may crop up after installing Windows Operating system like failure to
boot or function properly due to hardware, malware, improper installation or missing
system files, computer hangs now and then, abnormal restarting, etc.

The problem may be due to one of the following:

1. Invalid system disk: this error may occur if the drive configured as the active
partition no longer contains essential systems files required to load the operating
system.
2. Missing operating system files such as CONFIG.SYS, HIMEM.SYS AND
Autoexec.bat may result in boot failure. If the files have been deleted reinstall the
OS or start up a computer using startup disk.
3. Corrupted system registry – registry is the Windows database that keeps details
about all system and application programs installed in the computer. If the registry is
corrupted, the computer may fail to boot. Repair the registry using emergency repair
disk or restore the registry backup if you created one or reinstall the OS.
4. Failure to load the GUI desktop – may be due to infection by malware, missing or
corrupted display drivers. If the system can start in Safe Mode, scan for viruses or
locate the malfunctioning device in the Device Manager and disable it.
5. Windows protection error – is displayed during startup before GUI is loaded. It
occurs when the 32-bit virtual driver fails to load. Restart the computer in safe
mode. If the OS loads properly, use the Device Manager to reinstall corrupted or
missing drivers.
6. Runtime problems – may be characterized by the system’s failure to respond to
command, behaviour commonly referred to as hanging. Use the restart keys Ctrl +
Alt + Del to display the Task Manager and try to close the non-responding
applications. If this fails, shutdown the computer and turn it on again.
7. Insufficient system memory
8. Problem with hard disk boot sector, may be due to virus attack/infection. Scan with
the latest antivirus software

NB:- You can read more information on troubleshooting and fixing an operating system
related problems by reading the online help and support utility.

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Answers to Review Questions

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Review questions 1.1
1) A computer is an electronic device that accepts user input, also referred to as data, and
transforms it under the influence of sets of special instructions called programs to
produce the desired output referred to as information.
2) Monitor, system unit, mouse, keyboard, etc.
3) a) A supercomputer is large and has more processing power and memory than a
mainframe.
b) A minicomputer is large in physical size and more powerful than a PC .PC was
designed to be used by one person only.
4) A digital computer processes discrete data while an analog computer processes
continuous data.
5) a) The technology of producing smaller devices is expensive.
b) Convenience because of their portability.
6) Special purpose (dedicated) general purpose.
7) B 8).C 9).A
10).C 11).B 12).D
13).D 14).C 15).A
16).D 17).A, C and D 18).C

Review Questions 1.2

1) First-vacuum tubes
Second - Transistors
Third-integrated circuits
Fourth-very large integrated circuits
2) Supermarket, airport, hospital, offices, banks, industries etc.
3) a)large in physical size
b) used vacuum tubes
c) Produced a lot of heat
d) Consumed a lot of power.
4) Charles Babbage
5) Programs that make computers to mimic human intelligence.
6) ENIAC-Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator.
VLSI-Very Large Scale Integrated.
IC- Integrated Circuit.
8).Supermarket-Stock control
Hospital-Life support machines
Bank-Processing cheques
Hotel-Booking rooms
Home-Entertainment
School-Analyzing academic data
Industry-Manufacturing process control
Police station-Matching fingerprints

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Review Questions 1.3
1. C 2. B 3.C 4.B 5. C
6. A 7.D 8.A and B 9. D 10. A

Review exercises
1. Dust and smoke settles on storage devices scratching them during read/write operation.
2. PCs are becoming small and portable e.g. Personal Digital Assistant (PDA).
3. Free from dust, water, magnets, well ventilated rooms, medium humidity, etc.
4. This is the casing that houses the CPU and storage devices. Components in the system
unit includes CPU, Motherboard and storage devices.
5. Starting up a computer. Internally it first checks whether all the components are in
good working condition then loads the operating system.
6. To avoid damage and loss of data.
7. Mobile phones, calculators, robots etc.
8. Water causes rusting of metallic parts and short circuits if used.
9. Clicking-pressing and releasing the left mouse button once.
Double clicking-pressing the left mouse button twice in a quick succession. Double
clicking usually opens a file or starts a program.
Right clicking-pressing the right mouse button once displays a list of commands from
which the user can make a selection. This list of commands is called a shortcut menu or
context sensitive menu. It is called a context sensitive menu because the commands on it
apply to the right-clicked item.
10. (a) Install humidifiers in the room,
(b)Improve furniture to avoid bending when using the computer.

2.0 COMPUTER SYSTEM

Review questions 2.1
1. A computer system refers to a collection of entities that work together to process and
manage information.
2. A computer is made up of both hardware and software while a computer system
integrates hardware ,software and user
3. Barcode reader
4. Data capture
5. Optical mark reader (OMR)
6. a). The users need
b). Type of data to be input
c). Volume of data entry
d). Cost, availability, e.t.c.
7. (a) Optical- OMR ,OBR and OCR.
(b) Magnetic-MICR and Magnetic strip.
8. Special magnetic characters are written on cheques that can only be detected by
MICR reader.
9. (a) For people with special needs (disabilities)
(b) In language translator programs
(c)Voice tags for call dialing
10. Supermarkets and superstores. To capture prices of goods from bar codes.

Review questions 2.2

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1. Central processing unit.
2. (a) Processing data
(b)System control
(c)Provide temporary storage (RAM) and permanent storage (ROM)
3. It is a tiny processor, mainly a combination of the ALU and control unit on a single
silicon chip.
4. a) (i) Interpreting instruction,
(ii) Issuing control instructions to the O/S
b). (i) Performing arithmetic calculations,
( ii)Performing logical operations.
c). i) holding data just before and after processing,
(ii) holding instructions just before execution.
5. volatile memory is temporary while non-volatile is permanent
6. RAM – temporary and rewriteable memory
ROM – permanent and read only memory
7. 4KB – Approximately 4000 characters
640KB –approximately 640,000 characters
16MB –approximately 16 million characters
20GB –approximately 20 billion characters
8. Cache memory – speeds up processing (fetch cycle)
Buffer – acts as interface between very fast and processor and slow I/O devices.
Register – temporarily holds data / instructions just before and after processing.
9. Comparison include: =,<, >, and < >
10. The CPU of a microcomputer is smaller and less powerful than that of a mainframe
11. Determines the processing speed of the CPU
12. Basic Input Output System – holds hardware setup and configuration information.
13. Data bus, address bus and control bus.

Review questions 2.3

1. Hardcopy – printed copy, e.g. printout on paper like letters, while softcopy is
intangible information, e.g. screen display or music.
2. CRT monitor uses a cathode ray tube while a flat panel does not. CRT has protruding
back while flat panel does not.
3. a). Liquid crystal display (LCD)
b). Thin Film Transistor (TFT)
c). Gas Plasma
d). Electroluminescent (EL)
4. Cost, print quality, availability, speed, purpose and print technology.
5. Impact printer – print by striking mechanism and are noisy e.g. dot matrix and daisy
wheel
Non-impact printer – print by either laser, ink or thermal transfer mechanism e.g. laserjet,
inkjet and thermal printers.
6. advantage of:
Laser printers – cheap running cost, good print quality.
Inkjet printers – cheap to purchase, cheaper multiple colours printing, high quality print.
Disadvantage of :
Laser printers – expensive to purchase, expensive multi-colour printing
Inkjet printers – expensive to buy cartridges (run), water based print easily fades.
7. a).Enable reception of output even when a few meters away from computer
b). Makes computing interesting and entertaining.

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c). Suitable for the blind and people with poor sight
8. A plotter – it draws lines and big charts.

Review questions 2.4

1. Primary is accessed directly by CPU while secondary is not.
2. Removable are portable while fixed are mounted inside the system unit
3. Floppy – physically small in size and capacity.,
4. It is a hard magnetic platter used to store data and encased in a metallic housing
(casing). It differs from a floppy because it is metallic, shiny and non flexible.
5. a). It is large in storage capacity
b). more reliable
c). Faster access to data and information
6. CD-ROM, CD-R, CD-RD, LS-120, Superdisk, DVD, Optical card, optical tape.
7. a). DVD has a larger storage capacity than CD
b). Offers better data storage quality
8. multimedia is an integration of sound, video and text processing and output.
Components – optical drive, speakers, sound adapter, VGA monitor.
9. Write Once Read Many (WORM) – recorded once but can be accessed many times
without changing content.
10. Magnetic – data recorded using magnetism.
Optical – data recorded using a beam of light (laser)
11. Jaz, Zip, Flash disk, CD-R, CD-RW.
12. a). Do not drop the disk drive
b). Do not expose it to strong heat
c). do not expose it to dust/smoke particles
d). Do not unprocedurally switch off the computer.

Review questions 2.5

1. a). special socket for connecting peripheral devices
b). Cable for data transmission
c). Cable for power supply to devices
2. To supply stable power to system unit internal devices and the motherboard.
3. Parallel cables transmit several bits simultaneously while serial transmits one bit at a
time.
4. a). It is light
b). it offers fast transmission
c). Its serial nature enable it to connect devices a longer distance away
d). The USB port can be used to connect different peripheral devices due to its common
universal interface.

2.6 Review questions

1. a). Disconnect all devices from power source before attempting to work on them.
b). Do not work on any peripheral device without the guidance of the teacher
c). Never work alone because you may need help incase of any emergency
d). Discharge any static electricity that might have built up on your hands touching an
earthed metallic object and then wearing an antistatic wrist member.
2. a). loose printer interface cable
b). Printer still off
c). Printer not installed
3. a). Volume control too low

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b). Loose or improper connection to the sound card
c). Speakers not powered
d). Multimedia not supported
e) Absence of analog cable connecting the optical drive to the motherboard or sound card.

Review questions 2.7

1. System software performs fundamental operations like initializing hardware during
boot up while application software meets user specific needs.
System software – operating system, firmware, utilities.
Application software – word processor, spreadsheets etc.
2. Supervises all the hardware and software operations of the computer system.
3. a). Word processor – typing documents
b). Spreadsheets – calculations
c). Database management systems – record management.
d). Desktop publishing – creating and manipulating images.
e). Graphics software – creating and manipulating images.
4. a). Standard software is thoroughly tested hence few errors
b). Readily available
c). Easily portable
5. Single purpose software is developed for only one purpose while integrated software is
a suit of more than one programs and can be used to carry out a variety of tasks.
6. To enable communication between computers over a channel (media)
7. UNIX, Windows, DOS, LINUX, Mac operating system

Review questions 2.8

1. a). Cost, compatibility, upgradability, warranty, memory capacity, portability, user
needs, processor type and speed.
b). Authenticity, documentation, user friendliness, cost, compatibility, portability.
2. In order to negotiate on sensitive items like duration, after sales service etc.
3. Yes, in order to compare quality and prices.

Revision questions
1. a). Central Processing Unit
b). Arithmetic logic unit
c). Control unit
d). Read only memory
e) Random access memory
2. Cache, registers
3. a). Kilobyte b). Megabyte c). Gigabyte
4. MDA, HGA, EGA, VGA and SVGA
5. MICR uses magnetic technology to read magnetic characters while OCR uses laser
technology to read characters.
6. Pentium processor
7. The drive is made up of several disks platters that are mounted on a common axis with
read/write heads on both sides of the platters. The heads move in and out as they
write/read data. The outer case is hard and metallic.
8. The hard disk is divided into concentric circles called tracks. Parallel tracks on several
platters are called cylinders. The tracks are further subdivided into sectors. Several sectors
can be grouped to form clusters.

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9. Pixels (picture elements) are dots on the screen that form characters and images. They
determine the clarity of image.
10. a). Gently and carefully connect the interface cable of each device to the correct
port and to the device,
b). connect the computer to the power source and switch it on,
c). Observe boot up information to see whether Power On-Self Test (POST) displays any
error massage. A successful boot means that the computer was properly setup.

3.0 OPERATING SYSTEM

Review questions 3.1
1. Multi user O/S-UNIX, Windows NT/2000, Novell, Linux
Single user- MS-Dos, PC-DOS.
2. (a) Resource control and allocation.
(b) Job scheduling
(c) Input/output handling
(d) Memory management.
(e) Interrupt handling.
(f) Error handling
(g) Job scheduling
3. It is a break from the normal sequential flow of instructions processing in a program.
4. (a) Command line-user types commands.
(b) Menu driven-user selects an option
(c) Graphical user interface-user selects commands in form of icons with a pointing
device.
5. (a) User friendliness.
(b) Easy to learn.
6. Multitasking - can run more than one Program simultaneously while multi- User O/S
allows more than one user to make use of the CPU concurrently.
7. It a situation in an O/S when a particular task holds a needed resource and refuses to
release it for use by other tasks.
8. (a) User friendliness
(b) Cost.
(c) Availability
(d) Portability.
(e) Hardware configuration/compatibility
(f) User need.

Review questions 3.2

2. (a) Is a mostly an empty screen that appears when Windows start and had some
standard icons that show that the computer is ready for use.
(b) Is a graphical representation of a command, file ,folder or storage location.
(c) A submenu that appears either on the or left of a main menu.
(d) A long strip/icon that runs across the desktop and displays active tasks.
3. (a) Start button-provides access to start menu.

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 (b) Task manager-displays buttons of currently running systems.
(c) System tray-displays icons of applications that automatically start and run in the
background.
4. (a) To avoid damaging storage devices that may still be in use.
(b) To avoid damaging system and application files.
(c) To avoid loss of data and Information.
5. Right click task bar then select properties. In the taskbar properties dialog, check the
appropriate options then click Apply button then OK.

Review questions 3.3

1. a). A label that represents a logical or physical storage location.
b). the rectangular area on the screen covered by a running program.
c) Interactive strip at the bottom of an application window that acts as a communication
link between the user and the application program.
d). Is a row of buttons / icons that represent shortcut commands
e). is the hierarchical arrangement of folders and storage locations from the root
downwards.
2. System files hold critical system information while application files hold programs
data.
3. Storing related data / information records. It is a rectangular area that i8s opened in the
application program when one wants to enter data in the new file.
4. a). Change name of file / folder.
b). Arranges files / folders in a particular order.
c). Makes a duplicate of existing file / folder.
d). Removes file / folder from storage
5. Rename – renaming an application or system file may make the computer or program
fail.
6. title bar – displays title
toolbars – display shortcut commands
work area – allow user to enter data.
Menu bar – provides a list of commands
Status bar – provides a communication interface between user and the application.
7. For easy location or identification.
8. a). Minimize – click minimize button
maximize – click maximize
b). click the close button or Exit from file menu.
c). Point to Title bar and grad
d). right click My computer icon or Start button then select Explore command.

Review questions 3.4

1) a). It is creation of tracks and sectors on a disk
b). creating volumes by subdividing a large physical disk.
c). creating more space on a disk by squeezing files into a smaller storage location on a
disk.
d). Consolidating files into one area on the disk.

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2) Right click its icon on the screen then select format command.
3) A). Compression agent or Drive space.
b). The teacher to give appropriate answer depending on the version of Windows.
4) Right click My Computer icon then properties. Click tools tab than click Backup now
button.
5) a). A special disk that has boot up files.
b). teacher to help pupil to create startup disk.
6) a). To install more than one operating system
b). For backup purposes
7) boot in MS – DOS mode using a startup disk then at the prompt type FDISK and follow
the on-screen instructions.

Revision questions
1) It stores related data and information records into files and related files into folders and
subfolders
2) Because it does the basic functions of enabling other programs access the hardware
resources.
3) Compressing – squeezing files to create more space while defragmenting consolidates
files and folders in a contiguous space or location on the disk. .
4) When one partition fails, the other can still be used.
5) To create tracks and sectors that can be recognized by a particular operating system
6) a). Processor
b). Memory
c). I/O devices and ports.
d). Communication devise and ports secondary storage devices
7) Read the manufacturers manual or Readme.text file form Windows folder.
8) Scheduling determines which task will be processed first , while sequencing arranges
the task and keeps a list of currently running tasks.

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