The prehistoric period of India refers to the time before written records were developed.

Historians have
categorized the study of the past into three main periods: Prehistory, Protohistory, and History.
1. Prehistory refers to the era before the invention of writing. Knowledge about this period is derived
from archaeological evidence such as stone tools, artifacts, and cave paintings.
2. Protohistory indicates a period where written records exist but their scripts remain undeciphered.
3. History begins when written records are available and decipherable.

Prehistoric Period of India

The prehistoric period in India spans roughly from 2,000,000 BCE to 2500 BCE and is divided into the Stone
Age, which is further categorized into:

1. Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age)

• Timeframe: 2,000,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE
• Features:
• Humans were hunter-gatherers and nomads, relying on stone tools for survival.
• Tools like hand axes, cleavers, and choppers were unpolished and crude.
• Significant discoveries:
• Robert Bruce Foote, known as the “Father of Prehistoric Archaeology,” discovered the first
Paleolithic tools in Pallavaram, Tamil Nadu (1863).
• Key sites: Bhimbetka caves (Madhya Pradesh), Narmada Valley, Belan Valley (Uttar Pradesh), and
Deccan Plateau.
• Bhimbetka caves also feature early rock paintings depicting hunting and dancing.

2. Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age)

• Timeframe: 10,000 BCE – 6,000 BCE
• Features:
• Transition period marked by climatic changes and the gradual shift from hunting to animal
domestication.
• Tools: Microliths (miniature stone tools) made from fine-grained rocks like quartz.
• Humans began fishing, gathering plant resources, and living in semi-permanent settlements.
 • Significant advancements:
• Domestication of animals like dogs, sheep, and goats.
• Early agriculture and food storage began.
• Rock art flourished, with themes of wild animals and community activities.
• Key sites: Bagor (Rajasthan), Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh), and Mirzapur (Uttar Pradesh).

3. Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)

• Timeframe: 6,000 BCE – 1,000 BCE
• Features:
• Marked by the Neolithic Revolution – humans shifted from food gathering to food production.
• Polished stone tools and advanced techniques like pottery and weaving emerged.
• Settlements became permanent with rectangular or circular mud houses.
• Early agriculture included crops like wheat, barley, and rice.
• Key sites: Mehrgarh (Pakistan), Chirand (Bihar), and Burzahom (Kashmir), where pit dwellings were
found.

4. Chalcolithic Age (Copper-Stone Age)

 • Timeframe: 2500 BCE – 1000 BCE
• Features:
• A transition period between the Stone Age and the Bronze Age.
• Use of copper tools alongside stone tools.
• Development of village-based societies with evidence of social inequalities.
• Pottery, particularly black-and-red ware, became widespread.
• Key sites: Gilund (Rajasthan), Kayatha (Madhya Pradesh), and Daimabad (Maharashtra).

Significance of Prehistoric Period in India:

The prehistoric period laid the foundation for human civilization in the subcontinent. From rudimentary
stone tools to permanent settlements, it showcases the gradual evolution of human ingenuity and
adaptation. The archaeological discoveries from these periods provide critical insights into early human life
and the beginning of societal organization.

Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) - History, Geography, and

Features
Introduction
• IVC Timeline: Existed around 2600 BCE, over 4500 years ago. It was one of the oldest urban
civilizations globally.
• Colonial Impact: Challenged colonial cultural superiority, breaking the myth of the “White Man’s
Burden” used to justify British rule.
• Discovery: Major discoveries began in the 19th century. Dayaram Sahni discovered Harappa in
1921, and RD Banerjee discovered Mohenjo-daro in 1922.

Key Features
1. Urban Organization:
• Well-planned cities with an advanced drainage system.
• Social stratification: Citadel for ruling class; brick houses for commoners.
• Not caste-based stratification but divisions based on status and power.
2. Trade Relations:
• Evidence of trade with Mesopotamia via sea and land routes.
• Mercantile economy with significant exports.
3. Geographical Spread:
• Spanned Punjab, Haryana, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Western UP.
• Sites located along the Indus River and tributaries like Ravi.

Major Excavations
1. British India:
• Alexander Cunningham initiated research on ancient Indian history.
• Harappa and Mohenjo-daro discoveries were pivotal.
• Key archaeologists: Dayaram Sahni, RD Banerjee, G Majumdar, ML Ghosh.
1. 2. Post-Independence India:
• 1990: RS Bisht discovered inscriptions and an Indus signboard at Dholavira.
• 1997: Amarendra Nath excavated Rakhigarhi.
• 2014: Vasant Shinde expanded Rakhigarhi, making it the largest Harappan site.
Phases of IVC
1. Pre-Harappan (before 3300 BCE):
• Nomadic settlements; introduction of agriculture.
2. Early Harappan (3300–2600 BCE):
• Emergence of large villages transitioning into urban towns.
3. Mature Harappan (2600–1900 BCE):
• Peak of urbanization, with advanced cities and structures.
4. Late Harappan (1900–1300 BCE):
• Decline due to environmental changes; transition to Ganga Valley civilizations.

Geographical Extent
• Largest Sites: Rakhigarhi (India) and Mohenjo-daro (Pakistan).
• Easternmost Site: Alamgirpur.
• Westernmost Site: Sutkagan Dor (Pakistan).
• Port Cities: Lothal, Dholavira (India); Sutkagan Dor, Balakot (Pakistan).

Town Planning and Architecture

1. Town Planning:
• Grid pattern with streets intersecting at right angles.
• Advanced drainage with vertical pipes and sediment traps.
• Houses with waste-water management systems.
2. Architecture:
• Great Bath: Mohenjo-daro; used for ritual bathing. Made waterproof with bitumen.
• Granaries: Largest in Mohenjo-daro; used for grain storage and taxation.
• Stonemasonry: Prominent in Dholavira; unique citadel structures.

Art and Craft

1. Stone Sculptures:
• Famous pieces: Bearded Priest (steatite), male torso (red sandstone).
2. Bronze Casting:
• Lost wax technique used.
• Iconic artifacts: Dancing Girl (Mohenjo-daro).
3. Terracotta Figures:
• Crude but symbolic. Most notable: Mother Goddess figures.
4. Seals:
• Used for trade, often depicting animals and deities. E.g., Pashupati Seal.
5. Pottery:
• Wheel-made with angular shapes and painted designs.
6. Clothing:
• Evidence from spindle whorls indicates textile production.

Significance
• Social and Cultural Impact:
• Inspired modern urban planning (e.g., Chandigarh, New Raipur).
• Early examples of sanitation and waste management.
• Legacy:
• Rakhigarhi’s discoveries emphasize India’s significant contribution to ancient civilizations.
• Decline theories connect IVC to the rise of later kingdoms in the Ganga valley.
This comprehensive study of the Indus Valley Civilization highlights its advanced urban planning, robust
trade networks, and cultural richness, providing valuable insights into early human history. Further
discussions on its politics, economy, religion, and decline will enrich our understanding.

Indus Valley Civilization: Part 2 – Important Sites and Decline

Major Sites of Indus Valley Civilization (IVC):
1. Harappa:
• Location: Ravi River, Punjab (Pakistan).
• Importance:
• Access to trade networks, aquatic resources, and cultivation due to proximity to the river.
• Meeting point of trade routes from the east.
• Key Excavations:
• Granaries with raised platforms, workers’ quarters, and bronze smelting evidence.
• Coffin burials (unique to Harappa).
2. Mohenjo-Daro:
• Translation: “Mound of the Dead.”
• Location: Sindh, Pakistan (near Larkana).
• Importance:
• UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Key Discoveries:
• The Great Bath, Great Granary, bronze statue of the “Dancing Girl,” seals of “Pashupati,” and statue
of a bearded priest.
• Evidence of cotton pieces and most unicorn seals.
3. Dholavira:
• Location: Rann of Kutch, Gujarat (India).
• Importance:
• Famous for massive reservoirs and elaborate water harvesting systems.
• Recently included as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
4. Kalibangan:
• Location: Rajasthan, India.
• Importance:
• Fields showing evidence of double cropping.
5. Lothal:
• Location: Gulf of Khambhat, Gujarat.
• Importance:
• Major port facilitating trade.

Political System
• Centralized System Theory:
• Architecture, uniform town planning, and massive structures suggest centralized power.
• Seals found in cities indicate administrative or ruling authority.
• Great Granary at Mohenjo-Daro possibly served as the state’s treasury.
• Decentralized System Theory:
• Cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro may have had different rulers, similar to medieval Italian
city-states like Florence and Milan.
• Notable Points:
 • Absence of organized military evidence; possible presence of a standing army.
• No temples or religious structures indicate a secular polity.
• Focus on trade and commerce over conquest.

Economy
1. Agriculture:
• Major crops: Wheat, barley, mustard, sesame, peas.
• Evidence of rice at Lothal and Rangpur.
• First civilization to produce cotton (evidence from Mohenjo-Daro).
• Wooden plows and stone tools used for farming and harvesting.
• Double cropping evident at Kalibangan.
2. Animal Domestication:
• Animals: Ox, buffalo, sheep, goat, pig, and camel.
• No conclusive evidence of horses.
3. Trade and Commerce:
• Extensive water-based trade.
• Key Trade Items:
• Copper from Khetri mines, lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, silver from Central Asia, and gold from
South India.
• Standardized weights and measures used for trade.

Society
1. Social Hierarchy:
• Evident in the differentiation of residential structures (small and large).
• Valuable materials and rare artifacts found in major settlements like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.
2. Fashion:
• Jewelry: Necklaces, bangles, earrings, and rings made from gemstones, metal, and clay.
• Evidence of cosmetics like lipstick, face paint, and intricate hairstyles.

Religion
• No temples except for the Great Bath.
• Evidence suggests:
• Worship of fertility goddess (terracotta figurines of women).
• Pashupati seal depicting a three-headed figure in a yogic posture.
• Worship of trees (e.g., peepal) and animals (e.g., unicorn seal).
• Use of amulets indicates belief in evil forces.

Language and Script

• Script: Pictographic and undeciphered.
• Writing style: “Boustrophedon” (right to left, then left to right).

Burial Practices
• Types:
• Complete burials, fractional burials, and post-cremation burials.
• Common Practice: Extended burials with the head facing north.
• Notable Evidence:
• Wooden coffins found in Harappa.
• Double burials at Lothal.
• Artifacts like pottery and ornaments buried with bodies indicate belief in the afterlife.
Decline of Indus Valley Civilization
• Theories on Decline:
1. Aryan Invasion or Migration Theory:
• Suggested invasion or migration around 1700 BCE.
• Skeletal remains at Mohenjo-Daro indicated possible violence, but evidence remains inconclusive.
• Recent genetic studies challenge this theory.
2. Environmental Factors:
• Drying up of rivers (e.g., Saraswati) and shifting courses of Yamuna and Sutlej reduced water
supply.
• Climate change and reduced rainfall led to decreased agricultural output.
3. Earthquakes:
• Tectonic activity disrupted settlements and trade networks.
4. Political and Economic Decline:
• Collapse of trade networks and urban centers.
• Aftermath:
• By 1900 BCE, cities began to decline, and people migrated to other regions, leading to the
development of post-Harappan cultures like Malwa and Jorwe.
• The gap between IVC and Mahajanapadas is about 1500 years, during which Indian society
remained largely village-based.

Legacy
• The achievements of the Indus Valley Civilization continue to inspire modern society through their
urban planning, water management, and cultural richness.

Early Vedic Period (Rigvedic Age) Notes

Timeline
• 1500 BCE - 1000 BCE: Early Vedic Period (Rigvedic Age).
• Compilation of the Rigveda, the earliest Vedic text.

Arrival of Indo-Aryans
1. Indo-Aryans migrated to India around 1500 BCE through Khyber Pass (most accepted theory).
2. Settled in regions around:
• Eastern Afghanistan.
• Northwest Frontier Province.
• Punjab.
• Western Uttar Pradesh.
3. Region initially inhabited by Aryans was called Sapta Sindhu (Land of Seven Rivers), which
included:
• Sindhu (Indus River) and its five tributaries: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Satluj.

Key Text: Rigveda

• Earliest Vedic text, classified as World Heritage by UNESCO.
• Contains 1028 hymns divided into 10 Mandalas.
• Composed by priests and families, offering prayers to gods like Agni, Indra, Mitra, and Varuna.
• Early Mandalas (2–7) are the oldest; Mandalas 1 and 9 are later additions.
Political Features
1. Tribe (Jana): Basic political unit.
• King (Rajan): Leader of the tribe, also responsible for rituals and prayers.
• Some kings were elected by tribal assemblies (Samiti).
2. Administrative roles:
• Purohit: Conducted rituals in exchange for gifts (Dana/Dakshina).
• Senani: Head of the army.
• Gramin: Village leader.
• Pati/Gopa: Responsible for territorial control.
3. Assemblies:
• Sabha: Small elite council.
• Samiti: General public assembly.
• Vidhata: Tribal council; included women.
• Gana: Troops for defense.
4. Armies:
• No standing army; temporary militias formed during wars.
• Battles were fought with bows, arrows, and chariots.

Conflicts
1. With Indigenous Tribes:
• Mentioned in the Rigveda (e.g., King Divodasa defeating Sambhalas).
2. Among Aryan Tribes:
• Battle of Ten Kings (Dasarajna):
• Fought on the banks of Ravi River (Parushni).
• King Sudas (Bharata tribe) defeated ten other tribes, including Aryan and non-Aryan tribes.
• Result: Formation of Kuru Tribe, allied with Panchalas to dominate the Ganges plain.

Social Features
1. Kinship (Kul):
• Family (Kula) was the basic unit, led by the Kulapa (head).
• Families grouped into Vis (clans), and multiple Vis formed a tribe (Jana).
2. Marriage:
• No child marriage, Sati, or purdah system.
• Polygamy existed but was rare.
3. Caste System:
• Not rigid; occupation was not birth-based.
• Early references to Varna (based on color) emerged but were flexible.
• Strict hierarchy developed only later (10th Mandala).
4. Social Mobility:
• Allowed movement between social groups.

Economic Features
1. Pastoral Economy:
• Cattle were the primary wealth; wars were fought for cattle.
2. Land Ownership:
• Private property in land was not well established.
3. Trade and Currency:
• Barter system was common.
• Gold coins (Nishka) used for large transactions.
 4. Crafts and Technology:
• Mentioned crafts include carpentry, pottery, weaving, leatherworking, and chariot making.
• Copper and bronze were used, but no evidence of iron technology.
5. Transportation:
• Bullock carts, chariots, and boats were common.

Religious Features
1. Nature Worship:
• Worshipped natural forces like Earth, Fire, Wind, Rain, and Thunder as gods.
• Key deities:
• Indra: God of war and rain.
• Agni: Intermediary between humans and gods.
• Varuna: Upholder of cosmic order.
2. Yajnas (Sacrifices):
• Performed to appease gods for material benefits like cattle, food, and children.
3. Absence of Temples:
• Worship involved prayers and sacrifices; no idol worship or temple structures.
4. Women Deities:
• Aditi and Usha were mentioned but less prominent.
5. Cultural Influence:
• Some similarities with Iranian and Indo-European traditions (e.g., horse rituals and chariot
warfare).

Significance of Early Vedic Period

• Laid the foundation for Indian civilization.
• The tribe of Bharatas, mentioned in the Rigveda, gave the name Bharatvarsha to India.

Early and Later Vedic Period: Transition from Primitive Lifestyle

to Organized Society
Sources of Information
1. Based on post-Rigvedic texts such as:
• Sama Veda: Modifications of Rigvedic hymns for chanting.
• Atharva Veda: Ritualistic and social-religious meanings.
• Brahmanas: Compilation of ritualistic formulas.
2. Archaeological findings:
• Painted Grey Ware (PGW): Bowls and dishes found in the region.
• Evidence of iron weapons usage.

Early Vedic Period (1500 BCE – 1000 BCE)

• Region: Primarily Punjab and western Uttar Pradesh (Ganga-Yamuna Doab).
• Society:
• Nomadic lifestyle transitioning to settlements.
• Tribes like Bharata and Purus merged into new clans, e.g., Kurus.
• Iron Usage: Began around 1500 BCE in Karnataka and Rajasthan.

Later Vedic Period (1000 BCE – 500 BCE)

 1. Expansion:
• Spread eastwards to Kosala (eastern UP) and Videha (northern Bihar).
• Use of iron tools and weapons expanded to these regions.
• Black-and-red pottery and copper implements were prevalent.
2. Political Life:
• Emergence of large kingdoms (Janapadas and Rashtra).
• Kingship became hereditary, but instances of elections were noted.
• Titles for kings varied:
• North: Virat
• East: Samrat
• West: Swaraj
• South: Bhoj
• Important rituals increased king’s prestige:
• Rajasuya Yajna: Established supreme power.
• Ashvamedha Yajna: Territorial expansion.
• Tribal assemblies lost importance as royal power grew.
3. Social Life:
• Society divided into four varnas:
• Brahmins: Performed sacrifices and rituals.
• Kshatriyas: Warriors and rulers.
• Vaishyas: Farmers and traders.
• Shudras: Servants, faced social disabilities.
• Social mobility: Rare but possible (e.g., Rathakaras wore sacred threads).
• Women:
• Lower social status but participated in some philosophical discussions and coronation ceremonies.
• Practices like Sati and child marriage emerged.
• Institution of gotra developed:
• Prohibited marriage within the same gotra.
4. Economic Life:
• Shift from barley to rice and wheat cultivation.
• Iron tools revolutionized agriculture.
• Craftsmanship:
• Copper tools used for ornaments and hunting.
• Weaving was confined to women.
• Pottery:
• Black-and-red ware and painted pottery.
• Barter system prevalent, but nishka became a unit of value.
• Tax collection became systematic.
5. Religious Life:
• Decline of early Vedic deities like Indra and Agni.
• Rise of Prajapati (the Creator) as the supreme deity.
• Emergence of new gods like Rudra (god of animals).
• Worship shifted from prayers to elaborate sacrifices:
• Public sacrifices: Involved the king and community.
• Domestic sacrifices: Performed at the household level.
• Major sacrifices: Ashvamedha, Rajasuya, Vajapeya.
• Rituals became complex, enhancing the dominance of Brahmins.

Key Developments in Later Vedic Period

 1. Transition from tribal society to territorial kingdoms.
2. Rise of agricultural society:
• Tribal pastoralists became farmers.
3. Introduction of varna-based social order:
• Division into rigid hierarchies.
4. Territorial expansion by kings supported by Brahmins.
5. Economic advancements:
• Use of iron tools, pottery, and crafts.
• Beginning of systematic taxation.

Conclusion
• The Later Vedic Period marks the evolution of Indian society:
• From tribal nomadism to settled agricultural life.
• Formation of a rigid varna system.
• Expansion of political and religious institutions.

Jainism: Overview and Historical Context

Origin and Context
1. Time Period: Emerged in 6th and 5th Century BCE when Vedic rituals and priestly dominance were
at their peak.
2. Social Conditions:
• Opposition to ritualistic practices and Brahmanical dominance, especially in regions like Panchala
and Videha.
• Transition from pastoral to agricultural society.
• Rise of territorial kingdoms called Janapadas.
• Increasing social tensions due to the rigid Varna system.
3. Political and Economic Context:
• Iron tools enabled deforestation and widespread agriculture in North-Eastern India.
• Rise of cities like Kaushambi, Kushinagar, Varanasi, Vaishali, Rajgir, and Champa.
• Increased trade and commerce with the introduction of punch-marked coins.
• The merchant class (Vaishyas) supported Jainism to improve their social standing.

Key Figures
1. Mahavira:
• Born in 540 BCE in Vaishali, Bihar, into a royal family.
• Renounced worldly life at 30 to pursue spiritual enlightenment.
• Attained Kevala Jnana (omniscience) at 42 and propagated Jainism for 30 years.
• Passed away in 468 BCE at Pavapuri (Bihar).
2. Tirthankaras:
• Mahavira is the 24th Tirthankara.
• First Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha, is considered mythical due to lack of historical evidence.

Core Principles (Five Vows)

1. Non-violence (Ahimsa).
2. Truth (Satya).
3. Non-stealing (Asteya).
4. Non-possession (Aparigraha).
 5. Celibacy (Brahmacharya) – introduced by Mahavira.

Doctrines
1. Ahimsa: Central principle advocating non-injury to living beings.
2. Theory of Karma: Belief in rebirth based on one’s actions in previous lives.
3. Liberation (Moksha): Can be achieved through right knowledge, right faith, and right conduct
(Triratna).
4. Critique of Rituals: Liberation is attainable through self-discipline, not rituals.

Spread of Jainism
1. Mahavira’s Efforts: Formed an order including both men and women, using Prakrit to communicate
teachings.
2. Challenges in Growth:
• Did not strongly differentiate from Brahmanical religion.
• Relatively smaller follower base (~14,000).
3. Geographical Spread:
• Gradual spread to South and West India.
• Migration to Karnataka led by Bhadrabahu post-Magadha famine.
4. Division:
• Shvetambaras (clothed sect).
• Digambaras (nude sect).

Contributions to Society
1. Language and Literature:
• Promoted Prakrit, leading to the growth of regional languages like Marathi, Kannada, and
Shauraseni.
• Religious literature compiled in Magadhi Prakrit.
2. Art and Architecture:
• Early Jain architecture evolved alongside Buddhist and Hindu styles.
• Famous examples include Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves, Gomateshwara statue, and Dilwara
Temples.
3. Social Reform:
• Challenged caste-based inequalities.
• Advocated simple living and ethical conduct.

Decline of Jainism
1. Reasons:
• Lack of political patronage compared to Buddhism.
• Rigid principles like extreme non-violence prohibiting agriculture.
• Strict ascetic practices were difficult for householders.
• Division into sects weakened unity.
2. Contrast with Buddhism: Jainism survived as a minor religion due to its strong ethical foundation,
whereas Buddhism virtually disappeared from India.

Conclusion
• Jainism emerged as a reaction to Vedic rituals and Brahmanical dominance.
• Despite challenges, it survived through centuries, contributing significantly to Indian culture,
literature, and philosophy.
• It remains an integral part of India’s religious landscape.
Introduction to Buddhism
• Buddhism is considered a watershed moment in Indian ancient history, emerging alongside Jainism
in the 6th–5th century BCE.
• While Jainism remained confined to India, Buddhism became a globally widespread religion,
influencing regions far beyond India.

Causes of the Origin of Buddhism

• Societal structure: The rigid Varna system based on birth led to social discontent.
• Economic changes: The rise of agriculture-based economies in the mid-Ganga plains and the use of
coins boosted trade, elevating the importance of the Vaishya class, which sought better social status.
• Conservatism: Conservative individuals yearned for simpler lifestyles, leading them to explore new
religious paths.

Founder of Buddhism: Gautama Buddha

• Born as Siddhartha in 567 BCE in Lumbini, near Kapilavastu (modern-day Nepal), into a noble
Shakya family.
• At 29, he renounced his luxurious life after encountering the “Four Sights” (an old man, a sick man,
a dead body, and a meditating ascetic), which inspired him to seek liberation from human suffering.
• At 35, under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, Bihar, he attained enlightenment and became “Buddha,”
meaning “The Enlightened One.”
• For 40 years, Buddha traveled and preached his teachings through simple methods, making his
ideas accessible to all.

Teachings of Buddhism
1. Four Noble Truths:
• Life is full of suffering.
• Suffering is caused by desires.
• Suffering can end by eliminating desires.
• Following the Eightfold Path can lead to liberation (Nirvana).
2. The Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marg):
• Right Observation
• Right Determination
• Right Speech
• Right Action
• Right Livelihood
• Right Effort
• Right Awareness
• Right Concentration
3. Middle Path: Advocated a balanced life, avoiding extremes of luxury and asceticism.
4. Buddha emphasized equality, non-violence, and personal responsibility for one’s happiness.

Spread of Buddhism
• Buddha’s charisma, simple teachings, and the use of the Pali language helped Buddhism spread
rapidly.
• The formation of the Sangha (monastic order) made the religion accessible to people from all
social classes, including women and marginalized groups.
• Emperor Ashoka’s missionary efforts after 200 years of Buddha’s death took Buddhism to Central
Asia, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia.

Councils of Buddhism
• First Council: 483 BCE, Rajagriha, led by Mahakassapa. Compilation of Buddha’s teachings into the
Tripitaka.
• Second Council: 383 BCE, Vaishali, led by Sabakami. Addressed doctrinal disputes.
• Third Council: 250 BCE, Pataliputra, led by Moggaliputta Tissa. Promoted Buddhist missionary
activities.
• Fourth Council: 72 CE, Kashmir, under King Kanishka. Buddhism divided into Mahayana and
Hinayana sects.

Decline of Buddhism in India

• Internal Factors:
• Monasteries became centers of corruption.
• The Buddhist Sangha distanced itself from common people by adopting Sanskrit instead of Pali.
• Rise of Vajrayana Buddhism with rigid rituals alienated the masses.
• External Factors:
• Revival and reforms in Brahmanism weakened Buddhist influence.
• Hindu rulers, like Pushyamitra Shunga, persecuted Buddhists.
• Invasions by Hunas led to the destruction of monasteries and killings of monks.
• Competition from Shaivism and Vaishnavism in South India further marginalized Buddhism.

By the 12th century CE, Buddhism had almost disappeared from India, though it continued to flourish in
other parts of Asia.

Major Sects and Texts of Buddhism

1. Sects:
• Mahayana: Views Buddha as a deity and emphasizes idol worship.
• Hinayana: Focuses on original teachings of Buddha and rejects idol worship.
• Vajrayana: Tantric Buddhism with strict rituals.
2. Texts:
• Vinaya Pitaka: Rules for monks and nuns.
• Sutta Pitaka: Buddha’s teachings (divided into five Nikayas).
• Abhidhamma Pitaka: Philosophical analysis of teachings.

Legacy of Buddhism

Buddhism revolutionized Indian religious traditions by rejecting the caste system and emphasizing equality.
While it declined in India, its principles continue to inspire millions worldwide.

Notes on Mahajanapadas
Introduction
• Mahajanapadas: Literal meaning “large territorial states.”
• Emerged during the 6th Century BCE.
• Mentioned in ancient texts like Buddhist texts (Anguttara Nikaya) and Jain texts (Bhagavati Sutra).
• Located north of the Vindhya mountains, stretching from the northwest frontier to Bihar.
List of 16 Mahajanapadas (As per Anguttara Nikaya):
1. Kashi
• Location: Modern-day Varanasi district.
• Capital: Varanasi (between Ganga and Gomti rivers).
• Famous for cotton textiles.
• Associated with Jain and Buddhist histories.
2. Kosala
• Location: West of the Gomti River to the east of the Sadanira River.
• Capital: Shravasti.
• King: Prasenjit (contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira).
3. Anga
• Location: Modern Munger and Bhagalpur districts.
• Capital: Champa.
• Known for trade and commerce.
• Annexed by Magadha in the mid-6th century BCE.
4. Magadha
• Location: Around Patna and Gaya in South Bihar.
• Capital: Rajagriha/Girivraja (surrounded by five hills).
• Protected by rivers Son and Ganga.
• Became the most powerful Mahajanapada.
5. Vajji
• Location: Around Vaishali district, Bihar.
• Confederation of eight clans (e.g., Videha, Licchavi, Jnatrikas).
• Capital: Vaishali.
• Known for its republican system.
6. Malla
• Location: Kushinagar area (where Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana).
• Governed by a group of 500 chiefs.
7. Chedi
• Location: Eastern Bundelkhand and Malwa Plateau.
• Capital: Shuktimati.
• Mentioned in the Mahabharata (King Shishupala).
8. Vatsa
• Location: Around modern Prayagraj.
• Capital: Kaushambi.
• Descendants of Pandavas (shifted their capital due to floods in Hastinapur).
9. Kuru
• Location: Delhi and Meerut region.
• Capital: Hastinapur.
• Known from the Mahabharata; Hastinapur linked to archaeological excavations.
10. Panchala
• Location: Rohilkhand and central Doab region.
• Divided into Northern Panchala (capital: Ahichhatra) and Southern Panchala (capital: Kampilya).
• Linked with the Mahabharata (Draupadi was from Panchala).
11. Matsya
• Location: Jaipur, Bharatpur, Alwar regions in Rajasthan.
• Capital: Viratnagar.
• Famous as the hiding place of Pandavas.
12. Shurasena
 • Location: Mathura.
• Capital: Mathura.
• Ruling family referred to as Yadavas in the Mahabharata.
13. Assaka (Asaka)
• Location: South of Vindhyas near modern Paithan (Maharashtra).
• Capital: Pratishthana.
14. Avanti
• Location: Modern Ujjain (Northern capital) and Mahishmati (Southern capital) in Madhya Pradesh.
• King: Pradyota.
15. Gandhara
• Location: Kabul and Rawalpindi region.
• Capital: Taxila (famous for trade and learning).
• Linked with Mahabharata (Gandhari and Shakuni).
16. Kamboja
• Location: Present-day Poonch area.
• Capital: Rajapura.

Factors for the Rise of Mahajanapadas

1. Agricultural Developments:
• Iron tools enhanced agricultural surplus.
• Rich iron mines in eastern UP and Bihar.
2. Migration:
• Movement towards fertile Gangetic plains.
3. Religious Developments:
• Rise of Buddhism and Jainism promoting non-violence and cattle wealth.
4. Political Changes:
• Surplus production led to tax collection, enabling military and administrative expansion.

Urbanization
• 6th Century BCE marks the “Second Phase of Urbanization.”
• Towns became centers of operations for these states.
• First phase: Indus Valley Civilization.

Republics (Gana-Sanghas)
• Gana-Sanghas: Non-monarchical states ruled by a group.
• Examples: Vajji and Malla.
• Characteristics:
• Tribal oligarchy where power rested with a group.
• Chiefs elected but only from specific Kshatriya families.
• Restricted participation in governance.
• Not fully democratic but oligarchic.

Comparison: Monarchies vs. Gana-Sanghas

Feature Monarchy Gana-Sangha

Power Center Hereditary king Oligarchic assembly
Revenue Collection By the king Shared among tribal leaders
Military Standing army Small private armies
Brahmin Influence High Minimal
KingshipHereditary Elected chiefs

Were Gana-Sanghas Democratic?

• Chiefs were elected, but participation was limited to elite Kshatriya families.
• Not fully democratic; leaned towards oligarchy.

Monarchies
• Dominant political system by the end of the 6th Century BCE.
• Features:
• Hereditary kingship.
• Strong armies for expansion and protection.
• Supported by officials like ministers and generals.

Conclusion
• The Mahajanapada period (6th–4th Century BCE) marked the foundation of political history in
India.
• It laid the groundwork for later empires like Magadha, which became the most powerful kingdom.

Rise of Magadha and Its Geography

Magadha, one of the 16 Mahajanapadas, was located in present-day Bihar, covering districts like Patna,
Gaya, Nalanda, and Shahabad. Its fertile soil, abundant iron mines, and geographical location made it
strategically significant. Early rulers like Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty expanded its territory through
marriage alliances and conquests, followed by Ajatashatru, who further strengthened Magadha.

Nanda Dynasty

The Nanda dynasty, founded by Mahapadma Nanda, was known for its military strength and extensive
conquests, annexing several northern Indian kingdoms. However, Dhana Nanda’s oppressive taxation
policies led to dissatisfaction, paving the way for Chandragupta Maurya to overthrow him.

Alexander’s Invasion

Alexander invaded India in 326 BCE, defeating King Porus at the Battle of Hydaspes but was impressed by
his bravery and reinstated him as an ally. Alexander’s soldiers refused to march further due to harsh
conditions and reports of Magadha’s formidable army. His invasion opened new trade routes between India
and Greece and influenced cultural exchanges.

Founding of the Mauryan Empire

Chandragupta Maurya, with the guidance of Chanakya, defeated Dhana Nanda in 321 BCE, establishing the
Mauryan Empire. He expanded the empire across northern India and even into Afghanistan. Chandragupta
eventually embraced Jainism and spent his final years at Shravanabelagola.

Bindusara’s Reign

Bindusara, Chandragupta’s son, extended Mauryan control into the Deccan. Known as the “Slayer of
Enemies,” he maintained diplomatic relations with the Seleucid Empire and was inclined towards the
Ajivika sect.

Administrative System

The Mauryan Empire was highly centralized, divided into four provinces with capitals at Tosali, Ujjain,
Suvarnagiri, and Taxila, governed from the central capital, Pataliputra. This centralized administration laid
the foundation for a unified Indian empire.

This historical narrative emphasizes the strategic rise of Magadha, Alexander’s invasion’s long-term effects,
and the establishment and administration of the Mauryan Empire. Let me know if you’d like further details
on any specific section!

Ashoka the Great: Comprehensive Notes

Introduction
• Historical records are filled with stories of great kings and empires.
• Ashoka, ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, transformed his empire into one of the most powerful
kingdoms in India.
• Ashoka’s unique life trajectory makes him stand out among rulers.

Early Life and Background

• Ashoka was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya and the second son of Bindusara.
• Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Empire in 320 BCE after overthrowing the Nanda
dynasty.
• Ashoka’s capabilities were evident early on. At 18, he quelled a massive rebellion in Taxila.
• Succession conflict arose after Bindusara’s death, leading to Ashoka’s victory in 270 BCE.
• Contested accounts suggest Ashoka may have killed 99 brothers to secure the throne.

Ashoka’s Rule and Expansion

• Adopted an expansionist policy to manage rising military expenditures and poor communication
technologies.
• The empire stretched from the Himalayas to Mysore and from the Hindu Kush to the Brahmaputra.
• The Kalinga War (260-261 BCE):
• A prosperous coastal state south of Pataliputra, Kalinga resisted Ashoka’s invasion.
• Result: 100,000 deaths, 150,000 displaced, and thousands starved to death.
• Witnessing the destruction profoundly changed Ashoka.

Conversion to Buddhism
• The horrors of the Kalinga War led Ashoka to abandon violence and embrace Buddhism.
• Conversion was gradual; influenced by monks like Moggaliputta Tissa or Upagupta (debated).
• Sri Lankan texts suggest Ashoka was already a Buddhist lay disciple.
• Pilgrimage to Buddhist sites: Bodhi Tree, Sarnath, Lumbini, Kushinagar.
• Promoted Buddhism aggressively through his Dhamma policy.

Buddhist Influence and Third Buddhist Council

• Organized the Third Buddhist Council (240 BCE) to reform the Buddhist Sangha.
• Key decisions:
• Reorganization of the Sangha.
 • Compilation of scriptures by Moggaliputta Tissa.
• Missionaries sent globally to spread Buddhism.
• Significant missions: Ashoka’s children Mahinda and Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka.

Ashoka’s Dhamma (Code of Conduct)

• Influenced by Buddha’s Middle Path but broader than Buddhist teachings.
• Key principles:
• Non-violence, truthfulness, respect for elders, humane treatment of animals.
• Religious tolerance was a cornerstone despite Ashoka being a Buddhist.
• Appointed Dhamma Mahamatras to oversee welfare policies.
• Welfare initiatives:
• Medicinal treatment, plantation of medicinal plants, food, and shelter for travelers.
• Promoted inclusivity by donating generously to all religious sects.

Architectural Contributions
• Pioneer of stone structures, leaving a lasting architectural legacy.
• Major constructions:
• Ashokan pillars (national emblem), lion capital, Ashoka Chakra (national flag).
• Sanchi Stupa, Dhamek Stupa, Bharhut Stupa, Amaravati Stupa.
• Mahabodhi Temple, UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Grand Mauryan Palace in Pataliputra.

Inscriptions and Communication

• Ashokan edicts engraved on pillars and rocks in local languages (Prakrit, Pali, Aramaic).
• Major themes:
• Major Rock Edicts:
• Edict 4: Rules of morality.
• Edict 12: Religious tolerance.
• Edict 13: Reflection on the horrors of war.
• Minor Edicts: Declaration of Ashoka as a Buddhist lay disciple.

Ashoka’s Legacy
• Ashoka promoted Buddhism to regions like Sri Lanka, Tibet, China, Japan, and Southeast Asia,
making it a global religion.
• His policies ensured peaceful borders and established India’s foreign contacts.
• His governance emphasized welfare and religious tolerance, inspiring future generations.
• Legacy recognized globally:
• Amartya Sen highlights Ashoka’s relevance in addressing war, violence, and communalism.
• H.G. Wells praised Ashoka’s name as shining “like a star.”

Death and Decline of the Mauryan Empire

• Ashoka’s death: Around 232 BCE (debated causes).
• The empire’s decline began after his death due to:
• Weak successors.
• Bactrian invasions.
• Lack of militaristic focus post-Ashoka.
• 185 BCE: Pushyamitra Shunga assassinated the last Mauryan king, ending the dynasty.

Key Takeaway
Ashoka’s transformation from a ruthless conqueror to a messenger of peace is a beacon of inspiration,
emphasizing values of tolerance, welfare, and non-violence that remain relevant to modern society.

The transcript provided appears to be part of a lecture or study material related to ancient Indian history,
specifically covering the period from 200 BCE to 300 CE. Here’s an English translation and summary of the
main content:

Developments during 200 BCE to 300 CE

This period in Indian history, often referred to as a “dark age” due to the absence of a major imperial
dynasty, is marked by the rule of several regional dynasties. Let’s examine these dynasties, trade
developments, and cultural contributions during this time.

Key Dynasties and Developments

1. Shunga Dynasty
• Founded by Pushyamitra Shunga (180 BCE) after assassinating the last Mauryan ruler Brihadratha.
• Pushyamitra was a Brahmin and performed the Ashvamedha Yajna.
• Buddhist sources, like the Divyavadana, accuse him of destroying Buddhist monasteries.
• Notable rulers: Agnimitra (featured in Kalidasa’s Malavikagnimitram), Bhagabhadra (interacted
with Greek ambassador Heliodorus).

2. Kanva Dynasty
• Began with Vasudeva Kanva around 75 BCE after the assassination of the last Shunga ruler,
Devabhuti.
• The dynasty was short-lived, ending around 30 BCE.

3. Indo-Greek Kingdoms
• Known as Yavanas in Indian texts.
• Originated from the Greek satraps of Bactria after the decline of the Seleucid Empire.
• Prominent ruler: Menander (Milinda), who converted to Buddhism after discussions with
Nagasena (Milindapanha).
• Introduced gold coins and Greek-influenced art, such as the Gandhara School.

4. Shakas (Scythians)
• Migrated to India due to pressure from Central Asian tribes.
• Established control in northwestern India and western regions like Gujarat and Malwa.
• Significant ruler: Rudradaman I (130–152 CE), who repaired the Sudarshana Lake and issued
inscriptions in Sanskrit.

5. Parthians
• Referred to as Pahlavas in Indian sources.
• Important ruler: Gondophares, under whom Saint Thomas is said to have come to India to spread
Christianity.

6. Kushan Empire
• Central Asian tribe also known as Yuezhi.
 • Founded by Kujula Kadphises; expanded under rulers like Vima Kadphises and Kanishka.
• Kanishka (78–101 CE) is notable for:
• Establishing the Fourth Buddhist Council.
• Patronizing the Gandhara and Mathura Schools of Art.
• Controlling the Silk Route, boosting trade with Rome and China.

7. Satavahanas
• Known as Andhras in Indian texts, they ruled in the Deccan region.
• Important rulers: Gautamiputra Satakarni (defeated the Shakas) and his successor Vashishthiputra
Pulumavi.
• Supported the Amaravati School of Art.

8. Ikshvaku Dynasty
• Emerged in Andhra after the decline of the Satavahanas.
• Founder: Shri Shantamula.
• Veerapurushadatta, the greatest ruler, was a patron of Mahayana Buddhism.

Trade and Commerce

This period saw a flourishing of trade, both internal and external.

Internal Trade
• Major routes: Uttarapatha (connecting north India to Champa) and Dakshinapatha (linking the
Ganga valley to the Godavari valley).

External Trade
• Key trade partners: Roman Empire and China (Han Dynasty).
• Exports: Spices, pearls, silk, precious stones.
• Imports: Glassware, wine, tin, and linen.
• Indian merchants acted as intermediaries in the silk trade between China and Rome.

Role of Trade Guilds

• Merchant guilds, such as Shrenis, played a significant role in organizing trade and financing
infrastructure.

This period, often dismissed as “dark,” was actually vibrant in terms of cultural synthesis, regional political
developments, and economic prosperity, laying the foundation for subsequent historical epochs.

Sangam Age: Notes

Introduction
• Historical Period: Begins with the Sangam Age (post-Megalithic period).
• Geographical Region: South of the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers.
• Timeline: 3rd Century BCE to 3rd Century CE.

Why is it Called Sangam Age?

• Named after Sangam Assemblies (Academy of Tamil Poets).
• Organized under the patronage of the Pandya kings in Madurai.
 • Three Sangams (as per Tamil legends):
1. First Sangam: Madurai – attended by gods and sages (no literary works survived).
2. Second Sangam: Kapatapuram – Tolkappiyam is the only surviving work.
3. Third Sangam: Madurai – produced numerous surviving literary works.

Sangam Literature
• Compiled between 300 CE and 600 CE.
• Divided into two categories:
1. Narrative (Melkanakku): Includes 18 major works (e.g., Ettuthogai, Pathupattu).
2. Didactic (Kilkanakku): Includes 18 minor works (e.g., ethical texts like Tirukkural).

Major Works
1. Tolkappiyam:
• Written by Tolkappiyar.
• Earliest Tamil grammatical text.
• Provides insights into political and socio-economic conditions.
2. Ettuthogai (Eight Anthologies):
• Key texts: Tirumurugarruppadai, Purananuru, Akananuru, etc.
3. Pathupattu (Ten Songs):
• Includes Tirumurugarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Pattinappalai, etc.
4. Kilkanakku (Minor Works):
• Ethical and moral texts.
• Tirukkural by Thiruvalluvar is the most significant.
5. Epics:
• Silappatikaram: By Ilango Adigal; story of Kovalan and Kannagi.
• Manimekalai: By Sathanar; adventures of Kovalan and Madhavi’s daughter.

Other Sources
1. Greek Writers:
• Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy provide details about South India’s trade.
2. Ashokan Edicts: Refer to South Indian kingdoms.
3. Kalabhra Inscriptions: Mention Chera rulers and their achievements.

Key Dynasties

1. Cheras
• Controlled Kerala (central/northern parts) and Kongu region of Tamil Nadu.
• Capital: Vanchi; Major ports: Muziris and Tondi.
• Symbol: Bow and arrow.
• Key ruler: Senguttuvan (Red Chera) – led a Himalayan expedition.
• First South Indian ruler to send an embassy to China.

2. Cholas
• Controlled Cauvery Delta (later called Cholamandalam).
• Capital: Urayur; Major port: Puhar (Kaveripattinam).
• Symbol: Tiger.
• Maintained an efficient navy.
• Famous ruler: Karikala – constructed 160 km embankments along the Cauvery.
3. Pandyas
• Capital: Madurai; Major port: Korkai.
• Symbol: Fish.
• Famous for pearl fishery and patronage of Tamil Sangams.
• Declined after Kalabhra invasions, rose again in the 6th century CE.

Sangam Polity and Administration

• Hereditary Monarchy: Kingship passed from father to son.
• Royal Symbols:
• Cholas: Tiger
• Cheras: Bow and arrow
• Pandyas: Fish
• Administrative Bodies:
• Five councils: Ministers (Amaichar), Priests (Antanar), Envoys (Thuthar), Military Commanders
(Senapathi), and Spies (Oorar).
• Military Administration: Well-organized; booty from wars funded the state.
• Roads and highways maintained; guards prevented robbery and smuggling.

Sangam Society
1. Land Division:
• Kurinji: Hill tracts
• Mullai: Pastoral land
• Marudam: Agricultural land
• Neidhal: Coastal land
• Palai: Desert land
2. Caste System:
• Arasar: Rulers
• Andanar: Priests
• Vanigar: Traders
• Vellalar: Farmers
• Tribal groups: Nagas, Veddars, etc.
3. Position of Women:
• Treated with respect; allowed intellectual pursuits.
• Famous women poets: Avvaiyar, Nachchelliyar.
• Women could choose life partners, but widows faced hardships.

Religion During Sangam Age

• Primary Deity: Lord Murugan (Tamil God).
• Six abodes of Murugan (Arupadai Veedu).
• Other gods: Vishnu (Mayon), Indra, Varuna, and Kotravai.
• Hero Stone (Nadu Kal) worship: Commemorated warriors’ bravery.

Economy of Sangam Age

1. Agriculture:
• Chief occupation; rice was the staple crop.
2. Handicrafts:
• Industries: Weaving, metalworks, shipbuilding, bead-making, ivory carving.
3. Trade:
• Internal and external trade flourished.
 • Ports: Puhar, Muziris, Korkai, Tondi, Alangadu.
• Exports: Cotton fabrics, spices, ivory products, pearls, and precious stones.
• Imports: Horses, glass, wine, and luxury goods.
• Roman gold and silver coins found in Tamil Nadu indicate robust trade links.

Decline and Legacy

• Post-Sangam period (300–600 CE): Occupied by Kalabhras (known as the “Dark Age”).
• Legacy:
• Development of Dravidian languages.
• Classical literary heritage (Sangam Literature).
• Foundations of South India’s political, social, and cultural life.

Gupta Empire: Political History, Administration, and Social Life

Political History
1. Sources of Information:
• Literary Sources: Puranas, Vishakhadatta’s Devi Chandraguptam and Mudrarakshasa.
• Epigraphical Sources: Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription, Allahabad Pillar Inscription.
• Numismatic Sources: Coins.
2. Founders:
• Sri Gupta: Considered the dynasty’s founder.
• Chandragupta I (319–334 AD):
• First to use the title Maharajadhiraja (Great King of Kings).
• Married Licchavi princess Kumara Devi, strengthening his power.
• Established direct control over UP, Bihar, and Bengal.
• Regarded as the real founder of the Gupta Era (319–320 AD).
3. Samudragupta (335–380 AD):
• Known as the “Napoleon of India” due to extensive conquests.
• Achievements recorded in Prayag Prashasti (Allahabad Pillar).
• Conquests:
• Northern India: Defeated Nagas and Kota rulers.
• Southern India: Subdued 12 rulers, including rulers of Vanga and Devarashtra.
• Consolidated control over Aryavarta (North India).
• Expanded the empire to the Kushana territories in the west and Vakataka kingdom in the south.
4. Chandragupta II (380–414 AD):
• Overthrew his brother Ramagupta and married Dhruvadevi.
• Used diplomacy and marriage alliances for expansion.
• Married Kubera Naga (daughter of a central Indian Naga ruler).
• Married his daughter Prabhavati to Vakataka prince Rudrasena II.
• Conquered the western Shaka Satraps (Malwa, Gujarat).
• Declared Ujjain as the second capital after Pataliputra.
• Took the titles Shakari (Destroyer of Shakas) and Vikramaditya.
• Controlled Arabian Sea trade through Bharuch, Sopara, and Cambay.
5. Kumaragupta I (415–455 AD):
• Focused on consolidation and peace.
• Established Nalanda University.
• Faced Huna invasions toward the end of his reign.
6. Skandagupta (455–467 AD):
 • Last great Gupta ruler.
• Successfully repelled the Hunas.
• Huna invasions weakened the empire economically and militarily.
7. Decline (After 467 AD):
• Successors like Purugupta, Buddhagupta, and others were weak.
• Huna invasions continued under rulers like Toramana and Mihirakula.
• By 540 AD, Gupta Empire disintegrated due to invasions and the rise of local powers like
Yashodharman in Malwa.

Administration
1. Inspired by Mauryan Administration:
• Less centralized than the Mauryan system.
• Bureaucracy evolved with hereditary land grants promoting feudalism.
2. Central Administration:
• King assisted by a Council of Ministers.
• Key officials:
• Chief Minister (Mahamatya).
• Military Commander (Senapati).
• Justice Minister (Mahadandanayaka).
• Foreign Affairs Head (Sandhi Vigrahaka).
• Palace Caretaker (Mahapratihara).
• Police Chief (Dandapasika).
• Elephant Army Chief (Mahapilupati).
3. Provincial Administration:
• Provinces called Bhuktis governed by Uparikas (often royal princes).
• Districts (Vishayas) led by Vishyapatis.
• Cities managed by Nagar Sreshtis.
• Villages led by Gramikas.
4. Revenue System:
• Land revenue was the primary source of income.
• Taxes:
• Sena Bhakta: Villagers supported the army during its movement.
• Visti: Forced labor for royal services.
• Land grants:
• Agrahara: Given to Brahmins for personal use.
• Devagraha: Given to temples for maintenance.
5. Public Welfare:
• Roads were safe, and crimes were negligible.
• Punishments were lenient, mainly fines.

Social Life
1. Caste System:
• Transition from Varna to rigid caste system.
• Factors:
• Rise of Brahmin dominance (Gupta rulers were patrons).
• Integration of foreign invaders into Indian society (e.g., Kshatriyas).
• Occupational guilds turning into castes (e.g., potters as Kumhars).
• Untouchability rose (e.g., Chandals segregated).
2. Status of Women:
 • Decline in status.
• Early marriages and loss of property rights.
• Sati practice emerged (e.g., Eran inscription).
3. Religion:
• Gupta rulers were patrons of Brahmanism (Vaishnavism and Shaivism).
• Decline of Buddhism in the Gangetic plains but sustained in the west and south.
• Jainism thrived in western and southern India (e.g., Jain Council in Vallabhi).
4. Foreign Accounts:
• Chinese traveler Fa-Hien praised Gupta administration for safety, personal freedom, and minimal
state interference.

This summary outlines the political, administrative, and social aspects of the Gupta Empire, showcasing
why it is considered a Golden Age in Indian history. Further discussion on economic life, art, and scientific
achievements will provide a complete picture.

Gupta Empire: Economy, Art, Culture, and Achievements

Introduction
• Gupta Empire known for economic prosperity, art, culture, and scientific advancements.
• Era referred to as the “Golden Age” due to overall progress.

Economic Life
1. Agriculture and Trade:
• Prosperous economy due to agriculture, trade, and crafts.
• State owned all land; regular land surveys conducted.
• Officials like “Pustapala” maintained district land transaction records.
2. Trade and Commerce:
• Export of Bengal’s fine cloth, Bihar’s indigo, Banaras silk, South’s sandalwood and spices to Rome
and Southeast Asia.
• Key ports:
• East coast: Tamralipti, Ghantasala, Kadura (Southeast Asia trade).
• West coast: Bharuch, Sopara, Cambay (Mediterranean and West Asian trade).
3. Coins:
• Famous for gold coins called Dinar with artistic and numismatic excellence.
• Symbol of prosperity and socio-economic life.
• Examples:
• Chandragupta I: Kumara Devi type coins.
• Samudragupta: Various coins (Garuda, Archer, Ashwamedha, Tiger Slayer, Veena Playing).
• Chandragupta II: Horse Rider, Umbrella Bearer types.
• Kumaragupta I: Coins featuring deities like Kartikeya.
• Skandagupta: Fewer coin types due to economic decline.
• Use of silver and copper coins, but fewer copper coins compared to Kushanas.

Art and Culture

1. Temple Architecture:
• Evolution of structural temples (brick/stone).
• Development of Nagara style of architecture.
• Examples:
 • Dasavatara Temple, Deogarh (Panchayatan plan).
• Bhitargaon Temple (brick construction).
2. Stupas:
• Decline in stupa construction but notable renovations (e.g., Dhamek Stupa at Sarnath).
3. Sculpture:
• Indigenous Mathura and Sarnath schools replaced Gandhara school.
• Mathura School: Red sandstone, indigenous style (e.g., Abhaya Mudra Buddha statues).
• Sarnath School: More refined; minimal drapery folds (e.g., Standing Buddha at Sarnath).
• Other notable sculptures:
• Vishnu, Shiva, and other deities.
• Varaha sculpture at Udayagiri Caves.
4. Metallurgy:
• Delhi’s Iron Pillar (resistant to rust for 1600 years).

Literature
1. Religious Literature:
• Puranas like Bhagavata, Vishnu, Vayu, Matsya compiled.
• Final touches to Mahabharata and Ramayana.
• Buddhist texts (e.g., Visuddhimagga by Buddhaghosa).
• Jain texts (e.g., Nyayavatara by Siddhasena).
2. Secular Literature:
• Kalidasa: Classical dramas (Abhijnanashakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram), epics (Raghuvamsa), and
poems (Meghadutam).
• Vishakhadatta: Mudrarakshasa, Devichandraguptam.
• Other works:
• Panchatantra (Vishnu Sharma), Kamasutra (Vatsyayana), Amarakosha (Amarasimha).
3. Scientific Literature:
• Aryabhata: Aryabhatiya (Earth’s rotation, value of π = 3.14, zero concept).
• Varahamihira: Pancha Siddhantika, Brihat Jataka (astronomy, astrology, weather).
• Vagbhata: Ashtanga Sangraha (medicine).

Gupta Period: Golden Age or Myth?

1. Achievements:
• Peace, economic prosperity, low taxes, religious tolerance, art, literature, and scientific
advancements.
2. Limitations:
• Decline in women’s status (sati and untouchability).
• Rise of feudal tendencies and caste rigidity.
3. Conclusion:
• Despite social injustices, Gupta Empire remains one of ancient India’s most glorious periods.

Harshvardhan - Political and Administrative History

• Background:
• After the Gupta Empire’s decline, India was divided into smaller provinces.
• Harshvardhan (a ruler of the Pushyabhuti dynasty) successfully unified Northern India.
• He is known as “Sakalottara Patheswara” or “Lord of the North”.
• Rise of Harshvardhan:
• Harshvardhan’s father, Prabhakar Vardhana, was the ruler of Thanesar (modern Haryana) and
protected the empire from foreign threats.
• In 605 AD, Prabhakar Vardhana died, and his wife, Yashomati, committed Sati.
• Harshvardhan’s brother, Rajyavardhan, ascended the throne but was killed by Shashanka, the ruler
of Bengal.
• Harshvardhan, at a young age, took over after his brother’s death, guided by his maternal uncle,
Bhāṇḍī.
• Harshvardhan’s military prowess and leadership quickly expanded his power.
• Geography of Thanesar:
• Thanesar was located in present-day Haryana, with neighboring regions including Kannauj (east),
Kashmir (north), Malwa (southwest), and Gauda (Bengal).
• Political Expansion:
• Harshvardhan annexed regions such as Kannauj and defeated Shashanka (Bengal), Bhaskar Varman
(Assam), and Dhruvasena II (Malwa).
• His empire stretched from the Himalayas in the north to the Narmada River in the south and from
the Arabian Sea in the southwest to the Brahmaputra Valley in the east.
• The most significant setback was in the south, where he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler
Pulakeshin II.
• This battle is recorded in the Aihole inscription, which describes Pulakeshin II’s victories.
• Administration:
• Harshvardhan adopted decentralized administration, influenced by Mauryan and Gupta systems.
• His capital was shifted to Kannauj, making it a major political center.
• The administration was headed by a council of ministers with key positions such as military heads,
civil administrators, and war department officers.
• The empire was divided into “Bhuktis” (provinces), and each was further subdivided into districts.
Villages were the smallest administrative units.
• Revenue was mainly sourced from land tax (Bhag), and the tax burden on the population was kept
minimal.
• Other sources of income included sales and toll taxes.
• Military:
• Harshvardhan maintained a large and well-equipped army, including 60,000 elephants, 500 cavalry,
and 100,000 infantry.
• To maintain this large army, he granted land to feudal lords.
• Social Conditions:
• The caste system was rigid, and untouchability became prevalent.
• Women’s status declined, and Sati became more widespread, although Harshvardhan saved his
sister from the practice.
• There were restrictions on women’s movement, though the practice of “purdah” (veil) had not yet
begun.
• Religious Tolerance:
• Harshvardhan was a devoted follower of Lord Shiva but was also a patron of Mahayana Buddhism.
• He built several Buddhist stupas, especially around the Ganges.
• He followed Ashoka’s example by prohibiting animal slaughter, promoting charity, and giving alms.
• He organized major religious assemblies in Prayag and Kannauj, promoting interfaith dialogue and
offering financial support to scholars.
• Literature and Learning:
• Harshvardhan was a patron of literature and authored three Sanskrit plays: Ratnavali, Priyadarsika,
and Nagananda.
• His court poet, Banabhatta, authored works like Kadambari and Harshacharita, which are
considered significant in Indian literature.
 • The famous Nalanda University reached its peak during his reign, attracting students from across
the world.
• Harshvardhan contributed land for the maintenance of Nalanda University.
• Decline of the Empire:
• Despite his efficient administration, Harshvardhan’s empire began to decline after his reign.
• The main reasons include lack of a powerful successor, excessive charity draining the treasury, and
a decline in trade and commerce.
• Controversies:
• Some historians debate the exact caste origin of the Pushyabhuti dynasty, with claims ranging from
Vaishya to Kshatriya.
• Harshvardhan has been called the “Last Great Hindu Emperor of India”, but some scholars argue
that this title is misleading since his authority was limited to northern India, and great Hindu kingdoms
arose after his rule (e.g., Rajputs, Vijayanagara, Marathas).
• Legacy:
• Despite controversies, Harshvardhan is remembered for his religious tolerance, social welfare
policies, and military achievements, earning the title “Lord of the North.”

the Tripartite Struggle (8th–10th century CE)

between three major dynasties—Palas, Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas—for supremacy over northern India,
particularly for control of the strategic city of Kannauj.

Introduction

The period from 800 to 1000 CE was significant in medieval Indian history as the Palas (East India),
Pratiharas (West and Central India), and Rashtrakutas (Deccan) fought for dominance over North India. The
struggle brought political and economic changes, created new power centers, and influenced society and
culture.

Importance of Kannauj
• Strategic Location: Located on the right bank of the Ganga River, Kannauj was a symbol of imperial
power. It had trade routes connecting all parts of India.
• Economic Hub: Like the ancient city of Magadha, control over Kannauj meant control over the
fertile Ganga valley.
• Political Significance: After the decline of Harsha’s empire, Kannauj emerged as a key political
center, and ruling Kannauj symbolized dominance over North India.

The Palas
• Founded by Gopala (750 CE) in Bengal to restore order during a period of political confusion.
• Dharma Pala expanded the empire and took advantage of the conflicts between the Pratiharas and
Rashtrakutas to briefly control Kannauj.
• Known for their patronage of Buddhism, reviving Nalanda University, and establishing Vikramshila
University. They promoted international trade and cultural exchanges, especially with Southeast Asia and
Tibet.
• The Palas supported religious diversity, including Shaivism and Vaishnavism, and facilitated
agricultural expansion in Bengal.

The Pratiharas
 • Known as the Gurjara-Pratiharas, they originated in Rajasthan and established dominance in
Central and Western India under Nagabhata I.
• Mihira Bhoja (836 CE) rebuilt the empire and made Kannauj the capital, ruling it for a century.
• They were great patrons of Sanskrit literature, architecture, and temples. Their scholars
contributed to Indian sciences, mathematics, and medicine, influencing the Arab world.
• The empire weakened after repeated attacks by the Rashtrakutas and the loss of Gujarat, which
was a key trade hub.

The Rashtrakutas
• Founded by Dantidurga in the mid-8th century in modern-day Karnataka, with their capital at
Malkhed.
• They were known for their military campaigns, cultural achievements, and tolerance toward
various religions, including Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Jainism, and even Islam.
• Govinda III and Amoghavarsha were notable rulers. Amoghavarsha authored the first book on
poetics in Kannada.
• They built the famous Ellora caves (e.g., the Kailasa temple) and encouraged literature in multiple
languages.
• Their decline began after Krishna III’s death in 963 CE when their capital was destroyed by
adversaries.

Life During the Three Dynasties

• The administration in all three empires resembled the Gupta Empire. Kings were the central
authority, assisted by ministers and local officials.
• Society flourished with advancements in agriculture, trade, and art. Religious diversity and cultural
exchanges were prominent.
• Education and literature thrived, with institutions like Nalanda and Vikramshila (Palas) and
patronage of Sanskrit and regional languages (Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas).

Conclusion

The Tripartite Struggle shaped North India’s politics and culture for centuries. Despite conflicts, all three
dynasties contributed significantly to art, architecture, literature, and administration. However, by the 11th
century, invasions by Mahmud of Ghazni and internal weaknesses led to their decline.

The Chola Kingdom: A Comprehensive Overview

Introduction
• India has been home to diverse cultures and empires.
• Empires like Maurya, Gupta, and Mughal are well-known, but others like the Chola dynasty are
often overlooked.
• In the 9th century, while North India was politically unstable, South India saw a struggle for
dominance among Pallavas, Pandyas, and Cholas.
• The Cholas emerged victorious, stabilizing South Indian polity and establishing dominance beyond
India in Southeast Asia.

Origins of the Cholas

• Early Cholas:
• Originated around 300 BCE in the Kaveri Delta.
 • Mentioned in Ashoka’s edicts.
• Limited to the Kaveri Delta and not considered an empire by historians.
• Imperial Cholas:
• History begins around 850 CE with Vijayalaya Chola, the founder.
• Vijayalaya overthrew Pallavas, capturing Thanjavur and establishing it as the capital.
• Aditya I, his son, defeated the Pallavas and strengthened the Chola Empire.

Consolidation and Expansion in India

• Parantaka I (925 CE): Defeated Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna II and expanded northward.
• Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I:
• Consolidated the empire and expanded beyond Kaveri Delta.
• Territory spanned from the Krishna-Godavari Basin in the north to Sri Lanka and Maldives in the
south.

Foreign Conquests and Naval Supremacy

• Chola rulers are considered imperial for controlling foreign territories and resources, akin to
modern colonialism.
• Sri Lanka Campaign:
• Began under Parantaka I and completed by Raja Raja Chola I.
• Chola inscriptions compare Raja Raja’s campaign to Lord Rama’s conquest of Lanka.
• Southeast Asia Campaign:
• Rajendra Chola launched an expensive and risky campaign against the Srivijaya Empire.
• Reasons:
• Supported Cambodian Angkor Dynasty, allies of the Cholas, against Srivijaya.
• Monopoly over the maritime silk route trade, controlled by Tamil guilds, was threatened.
• Srivijaya discriminated against Tamil guilds in Malaya.
• Result:
• Srivijaya Empire dissolved, and smaller kingdoms accepted Chola suzerainty.
• Tamil guilds dominated Southeast Asian trade for a century.
• Legacy of Naval Power:
• Rajendra Chola’s unmatched navy was commemorated with a naval training academy named INS
Rajendra in 1972.

Golden Age of Civilization

• Agriculture and Infrastructure:
• Large-scale canal construction in the Kaveri Basin.
• Famous canals: Uyyakondan and Rajendran.
• Water tanks like the 16-mile-long Cholagangam in Gangaikondacholapuram.
• Temple Architecture:
• Symbolized Chola prosperity and religious devotion.
• UNESCO World Heritage Sites:
• Brihadeshwara Temple (Thanjavur) by Raja Raja Chola I.
• Brihadeshwara Temple (Gangaikondacholapuram) by Rajendra Chola.
• Airavatesvara Temple (Darasuram) by Raja Raja II.
• Engineering marvels:
• 59m tall granite vimana (dome) of Brihadeshwara Temple without mortar or cement.
• Debate over how an 80-ton stone was lifted to the top without modern machinery.
• Art and Sculpture:
• Bronze sculptures of Nataraja, Bhoga Shakti, and Subramanya.
 • Nataraja symbolizes Shiva’s cosmic dance of creation and destruction.
• Literature:
• Compilation of “Divya Prabandham” by 12 Alvar saints during the Chola period.

Administration
• Centralized political system with autonomous local administration.
• Divided into:
• Provinces (Mandalam): Governed by governors maintaining standing armies.
• Districts (Nadu): Governed by autonomous assemblies (Ur and Sabha).
• Ur Assemblies: Inclusive of all castes.
• Sabha Assemblies: Governed Brahmin villages (agraharas).
• Village assemblies influenced Gandhi’s idea of village republics and India’s Panchayati Raj system.
• Developed a brilliant record-keeping system on palm leaves, including land and intelligence
records.

Military Strength
• Unmatched Naval Power: Key to overseas dominance.
• Bodyguards’ Loyalty: As per Marco Polo, royal bodyguards sacrificed themselves on the funeral
pyres of dead kings.

Decline of the Chola Dynasty

• Key Reasons:
• Rise of Sinhala Kingdom in Sri Lanka.
• Weak rulers like Rajaraja III and Rajendra III.
• Pandya Empire’s rise and Hoysalas’ divisive politics.
• End of the Cholas (1279 CE):
• Pandyas defeated Cholas, and the last ruler, Rajendra III, vanished from records.
• Chola Legacy:
• A rebel branch of the Chola dynasty survived in the Philippines until the 16th century, ending with
the Spanish invasion.
• Chola influence persists in Tamil culture, religion, and architecture.

Struggle for Supremacy: Pallavas, Chalukyas, and Pandyas

In today’s discussion, we delve into the political history of Peninsular India between 300 to 750 CE.
Historians consider this period as the second phase of southern history, following the first phase (200 BCE
to 300 CE). This era witnessed the continuation of earlier developments and the emergence of new
features that were previously insignificant. We’ll explore the major conflicts of this period and understand
how they influenced society, culture, and the economy.

Setting the Context: How the Second Phase Differed from the First

During the first phase, the Satavahanas dominated the Deccan, and the Tamil kingdoms controlled
southern Tamil Nadu. By the second phase (300–600 CE), nearly two dozen states emerged in regions like
northern Tamil Nadu, southern Karnataka, southern Maharashtra, and Vidarbha. Among these, three major
powers rose to prominence:
1. The Pallavas of Kanchi
2. The Chalukyas of Badami
 3. The Pandyas of Madurai

While the first phase emphasized extensive trade, urban centers, and the use of coins, the second phase
saw a decline in these aspects. However, temple construction and tax-free land grants to Brahmins
proliferated, aiding agricultural expansion and economic growth.

Cultural and Religious Evolution

1. Buddhist Monuments: The first phase saw extensive Buddhist architecture, like the Amaravati
Stupa and Ajanta Caves.
2. Vedic Influence: In the second phase, Vedic sacrifices and Brahmanical practices gained
prominence, supported by royal land grants.
3. Temple Architecture: This period marked the transition of South India into the “Land of Temples,”
with Pallavas and Chalukyas pioneering stone temple construction dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu.

Key Dynasties of the Second Phase

The Vakatakas (250–500 CE)

• Originating in Vidarbha and northern Maharashtra, they succeeded the Satavahanas.
• They issued numerous copper plate land grants, promoting Brahmanical religion and practices.
• The Vakatakas acted as cultural conduits, spreading Brahmanical ideas into southern India.

The Chalukyas of Badami (500–757 CE)

• Established their capital at Vatapi (modern-day Badami in Karnataka).
• Claimed descent from Ayodhya rulers for legitimacy, though they were likely of local origin.
• Played a significant role in Deccan history, replacing the Vakatakas and extending their rule across
South India.

The Pallavas of Kanchi (340–750 CE)

• Replaced the Ikshvaku dynasty in the Krishna-Guntur region and expanded into northern Tamil
Nadu.
• Their capital, Kanchipuram, became a center of Vedic learning and temple architecture.
• Early Pallavas faced conflicts with the Kadambas (established by Mayurasharma in Karnataka) and
the Western Gangas.

The Pandyas of Madurai

• One of the three ancient Tamil dynasties (along with the Cholas and Cheras), dating back to the
Sangam Age.
• After a decline during the Kalabhra revolt, they resurged under Kadungon in the 6th century CE.
• Known for trade with the Roman Empire and promoting Vedic sacrifices during their rule.

The Conflicts Between Dynasties

The most prominent political narrative of this era was the struggle for supremacy between the Pallavas of
Kanchi and the Chalukyas of Badami from the 6th to the 8th century CE. The Pandyas, though involved,
played a secondary role.

Key Events
1. Pulakeshin II (609–642 CE):
• A Chalukya king who expanded his territory to the Krishna and Godavari rivers.
 • Defeated Harsha’s forces near the Narmada, halting their southern expansion.
• Reached near the Pallava capital but settled for peace after the Pallavas ceded their northern
provinces.
2. Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE):
• The Pallava king defeated Pulakeshin II in the Battle of Vatapi (642 CE), capturing the Chalukya
capital.
• Earned titles like “Vatapi Kondan” (Conqueror of Vatapi).
3. Vikramaditya I (733–745 CE):
• Revived Chalukya supremacy by repeatedly overrunning the Pallava capital, Kanchi, around 740 CE.

Despite the Chalukyas’ victory, they were soon replaced by the Rashtrakutas in 757 CE.

Social and Cultural Changes

Religion and Temples

• Bhakti Movement: Saints like the Alvars (devotees of Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Shiva)
popularized devotional worship.
• Temple Construction:
• The Pallavas built iconic temples like the Shore Temple and Seven Pagodas at Mahabalipuram,
showcasing early Dravidian architecture.
• The Chalukyas constructed temples at Badami and Pattadakal, with celebrated examples like the
Virupaksha and Papanatha temples.

Economy
• Temple Economy: Land grants to temples became common, with temples managing vast tracts of
arable land (up to 3/5th of the total).
• Agriculture and Trade:
• Villagers contributed taxes and labor to sustain temples.
• Wealthy patrons supported temple construction and religious activities to enhance their social
status.

In conclusion, the period from 300 to 750 CE in South India marked the evolution of temple-centered
economies, cultural consolidation under Brahmanical influence, and intense political conflicts that shaped
the region’s history. The legacy of this era is evident in the temples and religious traditions that continue to
define South Indian identity.