LABORATORY INSTRUCTION MANUAL

Fundamentals of Electrical &

Electronics Engineering Lab.
Manual
1st Year
2nd Semester

Prepared by
Mrs. Riya Paul
Department of Electrical Engineering

Approve by

Dr. Papun Biswas

HOD, Electrical Engineering
JIS College of Engineering

Department of Electrical Engineering

2022

JIS College of Engineering

(An Autonomous Institution)
NAAC and NBA Accredited Institution
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to WBUT
Block A, Phase III, PO. Kalyani, Dist. Nadia, Pin - 741235,West Bengal.
 LIST OF EXPERIMENT

1. Measurement of Voltage, Current and Power in a Single-Phase Circuit

with Resistive Load.
2. Measurement of Voltage, Current, Power and Power Factor in a R – L
Series Circuit.
3. Determine the permeability of magnetic material by plotting it’s BH
curve.
4. Determination of Transformation Ratio of a Single Phase Transformer.
5. Measurement of no load and full load current of a Single Phase
Transformer.
6. Familiarization with multimeter to measure the value of given resistor
and to confirm with colour code.
7. Realization of Truth Table of different Logic Gates.
8. Verification of DeMorgan's theorem.
Experiment No. 01
TITLE: Measurement of Voltage, Current and Power in a Single-Phase Circuit with
Resistive Load.

AIM: To measure the voltage, current and power in a single-phase circuit with Resistive
load.

APPARATUS USED:

Sl. No. Name of the Apparatus Quantity Range Type

01. Variac
02. Rheostat
03. Voltmeter
04. Ammeter
05. Wattmeter
06. Multimeter

THEORY:
VOLTAGE: Voltage, also called electromotive force, is a quantitative expression of the
potential difference in charge between two points in an electrical field. . Voltage is
symbolized by an uppercase italic letter V or E. A moving iron type voltmeter connected in
parallel to the load gives the value of voltage in Volts

CURRENT: Current is a flow of electrical charge carriers, usually electrons. The common
symbol for current is the uppercase letter I. The standard unit is the ampere, symbolized by
A. A moving iron type ammeter connected in series with the load gives the value of current.

POWER: Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is transferred. Electric power is
usually produced by electric generators, but can also be supplied by sources such as electric
batteries. Electric power is measured by capacity and is commonly expressed in Watt,
Kilowatt (kW)megawatts (MW).The active or true power ( real power P= VI CosФ ) can be
measured directly by connecting an analog (current coil in series and voltage coil parallel to
load/digital type watt meter.

As per shown circuit diagram, we have used a rheostat as resistive load. An MI type ammeter
is connected in series with the rheostat to measure the current flowing through it. We have
selected the ammeter according to the load current. An MI type voltmeter is connected across
the load to measure the voltage across it. To measure the power drawn by the load we have
connected a wattmeter. We have selected the Wattmeter and Voltmeter as per supply voltage
and current rating of the load. In Wattmeter, the multiplying factor is given by,

1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Switch ON the power supply.

3. Vary the supply voltage gradually and note down the observed values of Ammeter,
Voltmeter and Wattmeter.

4. Switch OFF the power supply.

5. Measure the value of the Resistive load.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl. No. Resistance (Ω) Current (A) Voltage (V) Power (W)
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.

CALCULATION:

RESULTS: Draw the expected graphs for the following characteristics:-

1. Voltage vs Power 2. Voltage vs Current 3. Power vs Current

DISCUSSION:

2
Q1. How do you connect an Ammeter in a circuit and what is it’s use ?

Q2. How do you connect a Voltmeter in a circuit and what is it’s use?

Q3. What is Multiplying Factor of a Wattmeter?

××

3
Experiment No. 02
TITLE: Measurement of Voltage, Current, Power and Power Factor in a R – L Series
Circuit.

AIM: To measure voltage, current, power and power factor in a R-L series circuit..

APPARATUS USED:

Sl. No. Name of the Apparatus Quantity Range Type

01. Resistor
02. Variac
03. Inductor
04. Voltmeter
05. Ammeter
06. Wattmeter
07. Multimeter

THEORY:
A circuit that contains a pure resistance R connected in series with a coil having pure
inductance of L is known as RL Series Circuit. When an AC supply voltage V is applied the
current, I flows in the circuit. I R and IL will be the current flowing in the resistor and inductor
respectively, but the amount of current flowing through both the elements will be same as
they are connected in series with each other. The circuit diagram of RL Series Circuit is
shown below Where,

VR – voltage across the resistor R

VL – voltage across the inductor L

V – Total voltage of the circuit

The phasor diagram of the RL Series circuit is shown below

VR = IR and VL = IXL where XL = 2πfL

4
V = √(𝑉𝑅 )2 + (𝑉𝐿 )2 = √(𝐼𝑅)2 + (𝐼𝑋𝐿 2 )

V = I √(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝐿 )2
𝑉
Or, I = 𝑍

Where, Z = √(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝐿 )2

Z is the total opposition offered to the flow of alternating current by an RL Series circuit and
is called impedance of the circuit. It is measured in ohms (Ω). Phase Angle : In RL Series
Circuit the current lags the voltage by 90-degree angle known as phase angle. It is given by
the equation,
𝑉 𝐼𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐿
tan φ = 𝑉𝐿 = =
𝑅 𝐼𝑅 𝑅

𝑋𝐿
Or, φ = tan-1 𝑅

Power in R L Series Circuit

If the alternating voltage applied across the circuit is given by the

equation:

The equation of current I is given as:

Then the instantaneous power is given by the equation:

Putting the value of v and i from the equation (1) and (2) in the equation (3) we will

get

5
 The average power consumed in the circuit over one complete cycle is given by the equation
shown below:

Where cos φ is called the power factor of the circuit.

Waveform and Power Curve of the RL Series Circuit

The waveform and power curve of the RL series circuit is shown below:

The various points on the power curve are obtained by the product of voltage and current.

If you analyze the curve carefully, it is seen that the power is negative between angle 0 and ϕ
and between 180 degrees and (180 + ϕ) and during the rest of the cycle the power is positive.
The current lags the voltage and thus they are not in phase with each other.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
1 phase AC Supply

6
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Switch ON the power supply.

3. Set the value of resistor and inductor.

4. By varying the supply voltage , note down the output current, voltage and power from the
corresponding instruments.

5. After that, Measure the value of voltages across the resistance and the inductance.

6. Then calculate the power factor for the individual value of output voltage.

7. Switch OFF the supply.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl. Resistance Inductance Voltage Current Power Voltage Voltage Power factor
No (Ω) (mH) (V) (A) (W) across R (VR) across L (VL) (cosφ)
01.

02.
03.
04.
05.

CALCULATION:

RESULTS: Draw the following characteristics:-

1. Voltage vs Power

2. Voltage vs Current

3. Power vs Current

4. Resistance vs Voltage

5. Resistance vs Power

6. Inductance vs Power

7
DISCUSSION:
Q1. Draw the phasor diagram for the R – L Series circuit.

Q2. What is Average power? Derive the formula for this?

Q3. What is power factor and how can you measure this from the circuit impedance?

××

8
Experiment No. 03
TITLE: Determine the permeability of magnetic material by plotting it’s BH curve.

AIM: To determine the permeability of magnetic material by plotting it’s BH curve.

APPARATUS USED:

Sl. No. Name of the Apparatus Quantity Range Type

01. Variac
02. 1 phase Transformer
03. Voltmeter
04. Ammeter

THEORY:
The rms voltage induced in a transformer is given by E = 4.44φ mfN (1)

where, φm is maximum value of the flux in the core, f is operating frequency and N is number
of turns in the coil.

This flux in the coil is given by φm = BmAc (2)

where, Bm is the maximum flux density in core and Ac is the cross-sectional area of the core.
So we have E = 4.44BmAcfN (3)

The value of induced voltage E is thus dependent upon Bm which can be setup in the core.

We know from Biot-Savart’s law that a current carrying conductor produces magnetic field.
“Magnetic field strength” H is proportional to the current which produces the field. From
Ampere’s Circuital law, it can be proved that H is proportional to current I. If a current
carrying coil produces magnetic flux which traverses an average length of l in complete flux
path, then

Hl = NI (4)

Here H is proportional to current I and B is proportional to Voltage V.

In a magnetic circuit, this field is represented by magnetomotive force. It is analogous to the

electromotive force in electrical circuit. This field is responsible to “set up” certain flux,
which in turn gives rise to certain flux density B. Note that, here H is cause and B is its effect.
The amount of flux which can be setup in a material is determined by an inherent property of
the material, called as permeability, denoted by µ.

B = µH (5)

9
Let us consider materials used in the laminations of transformers. They are called
ferromagnetic materials. A piece of ferromagnetic material is composed of several
“domains”. In each domain, magnetic moments of all atoms are aligned in one direction. In
general, the domains are randomly oriented. When external magnetic field H is applied to a
material, all the domains align in a particular direction, setting up “net flux” in the material.
Due to domain alignment B (i.e. the magnitude of B) increases. However, after a certain
value of B, the slope of B − H curve starts reducing as shown in Fig. 1; O − S1 represents the
linear region and S1 − S2 represents the “saturation region”.

S2
S1

Fig. 1 DC Magnetization Curve

Removing external magnetic field is equivalent to reducing H from H max to 0. Due to this, the
domains which were aligned in the direction of external field, “become free” of the external
magnetic force. However, now they do not attain completely random orientation as they had
at (B = 0, H = 0). Some domains maintain the direction of external magnetic field. This
results in remanent magnetic flux density Br. In short, while H traverses the trajectory 0 −
Hmax − 0; magnetic flux density B traverses 0 − Bmax − Br, as shown in Fig. 2. In order to
reduce flux density to zero we have to apply external magnetic field in the opposite direction
or on the negative H−axis. If external field is increased in the opposite direction, the
behaviour of magnetic material is seen analogous to that of the positive quadrant. Complete B
− H curve for is shown in Fig. 2. It is also called as “Hysteresis loop” traced by the flux
density in the material.

Fig. 2 B – H Curve or Hysteresis Loop

10
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
1 phase AC Supply 230
Volt

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Switch ON the AC supply.

3. Measure the value of voltage and current from the circuit.

4. After that, plot the B – H curve from the measured value of voltage and current.

5. Then calculate the permeability of the magnetic material.

6. Switch OFF the power supply.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl. No. Voltage (Volt) Current (Amp)

01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10

CALCULATION:

RESULTS: Draw the B – H curve or the hysteresis loop of the magnetic material.
11
Q1. Describe Biot – Savart’s Law.

Q2. What is Ferro, Para and Dia magnetic Material?

Q3. What do you mean by Magnetic Field and Magnetic Field Strength?

××

12
Experiment No. 04
TITLE: Determination of Transformation Ratio of a Single Phase Transformer.

AIM: To determine the Transformation Ratio of a Single Phase Transformer.

APPARATUS USED:

Sl. No. Name of the Apparatus Quantity Range Type

01. 1 phase Transformer

02. Voltmeter
03. Variac

THEORY:
Transformer is a static electrical device, which transfer the electrical power from one circuit
to another circuit without changing its frequency. An ideal transformer is a theoretical linear
transformer that is lossless and perfectly coupled. Perfect coupling implies infinitely high
core magnetic permeability and winding inductance and zero net magneto motive force.

According to Faraday's law, since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary
and secondary windings in an ideal transformer, a voltage is induced in each winding
proportional to its number of windings. The transformer winding voltage ratio is equal to the
winding turns ratio.

13
The level of voltage may be stepped up or down depending upon the number of turns on low
voltage side winding and high voltage side winding. If we connect the ac power supply with
low voltage side winding, then the winding is considered as Primary Side. And the remaining
winding, i.e. high voltage winding, from which we take power output, is considered as
Secondary Side.

And if we connect the ac power supply with high voltage side winding, then the winding is
considered as Primary Side. And the remaining winding, i.e. low voltage winding, from
which we take power output, is considered as Secondary Side.

So, there is a ratio, depending on which, the level of voltage is stepped up or down, that is
called, Transformation Ratio.

The transformation ratio is defined as the ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage. The
transformation ratio is indicated as K.
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
K= = =
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑉2 𝑁2 𝐼1
K= = =
𝑉1 𝑁1 𝐼2

If the value of K is-

 Greater than 1. Then the transformer is step up Transformer

 Less than 1. Then the transformer is step down Transformer

 Equal to 1. Then the transformer is isolator Transformer

As, K is the ratio of two same quantity, so it is unitless.

Indeed, the transformer has made the long-distance transmission of electric power a practical
reality, as AC voltage can be “stepped up” and current “stepped down” for reduced wire
resistance power losses along power lines connecting generating stations with loads. At either
end (both the generator and at the loads), voltage levels are reduced by transformers for safer
operation and less expensive equipment.

A transformer that increases the voltage from primary to secondary (more secondary winding
turns than primary winding turns) is called a step-up transformer. Conversely, a transformer
designed to do just the opposite is called a step-down transformer.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

14
 Fig. 1 Step Down Transformer

Fig. 2 Step Up Transformer

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Switch ON the AC supply.

3. At first, set the primary voltage at rated primary voltage for step down transformer with the
use of variac. Then measure the value of primary and secondary voltage from the voltmeter.
After that, calculate Transformation Ratio.
4. Repeat the above mentioned process for the step up transformer to calculate the
Transformation Ratio.
5. Switch OFF the power supply.

15
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl. No. Primary Voltage Secondary Voltage Transformation Remarks

(V1) volt (V2) volt Ratio
K = V2 / V1

01.

02.

CALCULATION:

RESULTS: 1. For Step up transformer,

Primary voltage (V1) =
Secondary voltage (V2) =
Transformation ratio (K) =
2. For Step down transformer,
Primary voltage (V1) =

Secondary voltage (V2) =

Transformation ratio (K) =

DISCUSSION:
Q1. What do you mean by step up and step down transformer?
Q2. Describe the relation between voltage, current and No. of turns of a transformer?
Q3. What do you mean by Magneto motive force (m.m.f)?

××

16
Experiment No. 05
TITLE: Measurement of no load and full load current of a Single Phase Transformer.

AIM: To measure the no load and full load current of a Single Phase Transformer.

APPARATUS USED:

Sl no. Name of the Apparatus Quantity Range Type

01. Ammeter
02. Voltmeter
03. Wattmeter
04. 1 phase Transformer
05. Variac
06. Resistive Load

THEORY:
1. No Load Test or Open – Circuit Test

The purpose of this test is to determine the shunt branches parameter of the equivalent circuit
of the transformer. This test is performed in LV side which is connected to rated supply
voltage at rated frequency and HV side is kept open as shown in fig. The exciting current
being about 2 to 6 % of full load current and the ohmic loss in the primary i.e. LV side varies
from 0.04 % to 0.36 % of full load ohmic loss. In view of this ohmic loss during open circuit
test is negligible in comparison with the core loss. Hence the wattmeter reading can taken as
equal to transformer core loss.

Let consider Vo = Applied voltage on low voltage side

Io = Exciting current or No-load current

Po = Core loss

Then, P0 = V0I0cos𝛷0

So, cos𝛷0 = P0 / V0I0

The energy component of no load current Ie = I0 cos𝜱𝟎

The magnetizing component of no load current Im = I0 cos𝜱𝟎

𝑉𝑂
Therefore core loss resistance R0 =
𝐼𝑒

𝑉
And magnetizing reactance X0 = 𝐼 𝑂
𝑚

17
 2. Direct Load Test or Full Load Test

A single-phase transformer is a type of power transformer that utilizes single-phase

alternating current, meaning the transformer relies on a voltage cycle that operates in a
unified time phase. They are often used to step-down long distance and localized
transmission currents into power levels more suitable for residential and light-commercial
applications. After this practical you will be able to determine the efficiency and voltage
regulation of a single phase transformer. Now the direct load test performs on the single-
phase transformer to determine the voltage regulation and efficiency of transformer. Direct
load test used to determine the performance of transformer at various loads. The lamp load
connected at the secondary winding of transformer as varying load.

Let consider,

V1 = Primary Full load Voltage

I1fl = Primary Full load Current

P1 = primary Heat and Eddy Current losses

V2 = Secondary Full load Voltage

I2fl = Secondary Full load Current

So, We have to measure the Full Load current of the transformer. In order to doing this, first
of all, we have to measure the full load primary current using the formula ,
𝐾𝑉𝐴
I1fl =
𝑉1

𝑉1 𝐼2𝑓𝑙
As we know , = , So we can calculate secondary full load current from this equation.
𝑉2 𝐼1𝑓𝑙

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Single phase A.C Supply

Fig. 2

18
Single phase A.C Supply

Fig. 1

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig 1.

2. Set the variac at zero output voltage.

3. Switch ON the supply and by varying the applied voltage in step from zero to rated voltage
of low voltage (LV) side.

4. Note down the ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter reading.

5. Disconnect the circuit from supply and again connect the circuit as shown in Fig 2.

6. Switch ON the supply and by varying the applied voltage in step from zero to rated voltage
of Primary winding side.

7. Switch on the load and apply the load in steps up to the rated secondary current.

8. Note down the ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter readings for each step.

9. Reduce the load and then switch off the supply.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Open – Circuit Test

Voltage (V0) volt Current (I0) amp Power input (P0) watt

19
 Load Test

Sl. No Primary Primary Power input Secondary Secondary

Voltage (V1) Current (I1fl) (P1) watt voltage (V2) volt current (I2fl)
volt amp amp
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.

CALCULATION:

RESULTS:
Value of No – load current =

Value of full – load primary current =

Value of full – load secondary current =

Core loss resistance =

Magnetizing reactance =

DISCUSSION:
Q1. What do you mean by magnetizing current?

Q2. What is ohmic loss and copper loss?

Q3. Draw the equivalent circuit diagram of single phase transformer.

××

20
Experiment No. 6
TITLE: Familiarization with multimeter to measure the value of given resistor and to confirm with
colour code

AIM
1. To learn Resistor Colour Code
2. To determine the stated value of a resistor by interpreting the colour code indicated on the resistor.

APPARATUS
1. Resistors
2. Multi meter.

THEORY
There are two ways to find the resistance value of a resistor i.e. by colour code and by multimeter. The
colour bands on the body of the resistor tell how much resistance it has. As shown in the following diagrams,
there are 5-band resistors and 4-band resistors. Form both 5- and 4-band resistors, the last band indicates
tolerance.
The first method for read resistor colours

View the resistors and based on the colour bands determine its value. Below is an example:

The first band is a one (1), the second band is a zero (0), and the multiplier band or third band is one time
text to the third power ( ) or one thousand (1000). Multiply 10 times 1000.
Another way to tell the resistance value of a resistor is to actually measure it with the ohmmeter. The
explanation of how to measure the resistance is given in the later tip.
Where:- Rmax = R + (R * T)

OBSERVATION:
1. Determine the value and tolerance of given resistors
Band Colour Code Numeric Value
1st Band
2nd Band
3rd Band
4th Band
The Resistor Value: Tolerance Value: %
2. Determine the same Resistors Value with Multimeter and verify the colour code.
CALCULATION:

DISCUSSION:

Q1. How does a resistor colour code work?

Q2. What is tolerance of a resistor?

Q3. What is the purpose of a resistor?

Q4. What is resistance?

××
Experiment No. 7
TITLE: Realization of Truth Table of different Logic Gates.

AIM: To study and verify the Truth Tables of AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, EXOR logic gates.

COMPONENTS: IC 7400, 7402, 7404,7408,7432,7486

APPARATUS: Bread Board, DC Power Supply, Connecting Wires.

THEORY: AND, AND, OR and NOT gates are basic gates. XOR and XNOR are universal gates.
Basically, logic gates are electronic circuits because they are made up of number of electronic devices and
components. Inputs and outputs of logic gates can occur only in two levels. These two levels are term HIGH
and LOW, or TRUE and FALSE, or ON AND off, OR SIMPLY 1 AND 0. A table which lists all possible
combinations of input variables and the corresponding outputs is called a „truth table‟. It shows how the
logic circuit’s output responds to various combinations of logic levels at the inputs.
.
The basic logic gates are the building blocks of more complex logic circuits. These logic gates perform the
basic Boolean functions, such as AND, OR, NAND, NOR, Inversion, Exclusive-OR, Exclusive-NOR. Fig.
below shows the circuit symbol, Boolean function, and truth. It is seen from the Fig that each gate has one
or two binary inputs, A and B, and one binary output, F. The small circle on the output of the circuit symbols
designates the logic complement. The AND, OR, NAND, and NOR gates can be extended to have more
than two inputs. A gate can be extended to have multiple inputs if the binary operation it represents is
commutative and associative.
Pin Diagram of Logic Gates:

PROCEDURE:
1. Set up the breadboard.
2. Test all required ICs.
3. Give various combinations of inputs and check the output.
4. Repeat the procedure for each IC.

OBSERVATION TABLE: LED ON (RED light): Logic 1

LED OFF (Green Light): Logic 0
Input variables: A, B
Output variable: F
Truth table:
AND GATE OR GATE NOT GATE
Inputs Output Inputs Output
Input Output
A B F = AB A B F = A+B
A F=Ā
 NOR GATE NAND GATE

Inputs Output Inputs Output

A B F = (A+B)ʹ A B F = (AB)ʹ

EX-OR GATE
Inputs Output
A B F = ABʹ + AʹB

RESULT: Truth Table of all Logic Gates are verified.

DISCUSSION:

Q1. What are the basic logic gates?

Q2. Which gates are universal?

Q3. Where are logic gates used?

××
Experiment No. 8
TITLE: Verification of DeMorgan's theorem.
AIM: To verify De Morgan’s first and second theorems.

APPARATUS:

1. DC Power Supply (0 – 5V).

2. IC 7400, 7408, 7432, 7404, and 7402.
3. Digital IC trainer kit.
4. Connecting wires.

FORMULA:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

i) Verification of De Morgan’s first theorem

 The connections are made for LHS of the theorem as shown in the circuit diagram using
appropriate ICs.

 The output is noted and tabulated for all combinations of logical inputs of the truth table.

 The same procedure is repeated for RHS of the theorem.

 From the truth table, it can be shown that

ii) Verification of De Morgan’s second theorem

 The connections are made for LHS of the theorem as shown in the circuit diagram using
appropriate ICs.

 The output is noted and tabulated for all combinations of logical inputs of the truth table.

 The same procedure is repeated for RHS of the theorem.

 From the truth table, it can be shown that

OBSERVATION:
De-Morgan’s first theorem, De-Morgan’s second theory

RESULT: De Morgan’s first and second theorems are verified.

DISCUSSION:
Q1. Why is De Morgan’s theorem important?

Q2. How is De Morgan’s Law used?

Q3. Which logic gates are used in De Morgan’s Law?

Q4. What are the two De Morgan’s Law?

Q5. Draw the circuit diagram of De Morgan’s Law?

××