SIMULATION

LABORATORY MANUAL (ECE - 228)

II/IV ECE SEM - II

By
Dr. V. Rajya Lakshmi
Mr. B. Jena
Professor & HOD, ECE
Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

ANIL NEERUKONDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCES (A)

(Affiliated to AU, Approved by AICTE & Accredited by NBA) Sangivalasa-531 162,
Visakhapatnam District, Phone: 08933-225083/84/87

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 Anil Neerukonda Institute of Technology & Sciences (Autonomous)
(Affiliated to AU, Approved by AICTE & Accredited by NBA & NAAC with ‘A’ Grade)
Sangivalasa-531 162, Bheemunipatnam Mandal, Visakhapatnam District
Phone: 08933-225083/84/87 Fax: 226395
Website: www.anits.edu.in email: [email protected]

Vision of the Institute

➢ ANITS envisions to emerge as a world-class technical institution whose products represent a good

blend of technological excellence and the best of human values.

Mission of the Institute

➢ To train young men and women into competent and confident engineers with excellent

communication skills, to face the challenges of future technology changes, by imparting holistic

technical education using the best of infrastructure, outstanding technical and teaching expertise

and an exemplary work culture, besides molding them into good citizens

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Anil Neerukonda Institute of Technology & Sciences (Autonomous)
Sangivalasa-531 162, Bheemunipatnam Mandal, Visakhapatnam
District
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Vision of the Department

➢ To become a centre of excellence in Education, research and produce high quality engineers in

the field of Electronics and Communication Engineering to face the challenges of future

technological changes.

Mission of the Department

➢ To achieve vision department will

➢ Transform students into valuable resources for industry and society by imparting contemporary

technical education.

➢ Develop interpersonal skills and leadership qualities among students by creating an ambience

of academic integrity to participate in various professional activities

➢ Create a suitable academic environment to promote research attitude among students.

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Anil Neerukonda Institute of Technology & Sciences (Autonomous)
Sangivalasa-531 162, Bheemunipatnam Mandal, Visakhapatnam
Program Educational Objectives (PEOs): District
PEO1 : Graduates excel in their career in the domains of Electronics, Communication and Information Technology.
PEO2 : Graduates will practice professional ethics and excel in professional career through interpersonal skills and
leadership qualities.
PEO3 : Graduates demonstrate passion for competence in higher education, research and participate in various
professional activities.

Program Outcomes (POs):

Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and an
engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering problems
reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system
components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and
safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research methods including
design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid
conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT
tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health, safety,
legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal and
environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the engineering
practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and
in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering community and
with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make
effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and
management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects
and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent and life-
long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs):

PSO1 : Implement Signal & Image Processing techniques using modern tools.
PSO2 : Design and analyze Communication systems using emerging techniques.
PSO3 : Solve real time problems with expertise in Embedded Systems.

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Anil Neerukonda Institute of Technology & Sciences (Autonomous)
IST OF Sangivalasa-531
MAJOR EQUIPMENT 162,
IN Bheemunipatnam Mandal, Visakhapatnam
SIMULATION LABORATORY/DIGITAL SIGNAL
District
SIMULATION LABORATORY

List of Major Equipment

Date of Price in
S.NO DESCRIPTION MAKE QTY
Purchase Rs

1 PA SYSTEM AHUJA 31-10-2018 01 27,635/-

TRIDENT 25
2 MULTISIM V14 Software(25 user) 31-03-2017 4,74,075/-
TECH LAB users

18-08-2016 *
HP Business Desktop Intel core 20+20
3 HP 22-06-2017 * 40 15,74,000/-
(systems)

4 HP LASERJET 1020 PRINTER HP 22-06-2017 01* 9,050/-

5 HP External DVD Writers HP 18-08-2016 2* 3,400/-

EPSON LCD PROJECTOR

6 With wall mount and EPSON 22-11-16 01 * 52,215/-
screen,10Mtr cable
10KVA ON LINE UPS(single phase)
7 ELNOVA 12-08-2016 01 * 1,26,400/-
with Batteries

8 DSP Starter Kits TEXAS 21-10-10 04 1,12,319/-

CRANES
9 DSP STARTER KIT 11-09-2007 02
SOFTWARE 55,120/-
Full Pledged XILINX ISE VLSI Design
Sitec
10 Software 14-06-2004 01 60,000/-
Electronics
SE-VIR-BRD Sitec
11 14-06-2004 02 30,000/-
Electronics
Universal Multi-vender
Sitec
12 development kit(Spartan) 1 12-07-2004 01 35,000/-
Electronics

Total Amount: Rs 28, 06,374-00 / -

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 ABOUT SIMULATION LABORATORY
This is a laboratory in which students are required to show their innovativeness and understanding
of the subject through software based programming. This laboratory course builds on the lecture course
"Signals and systems"and “Digital Electronics” which is mandatory for all students of Electronics and
Communication Engineering.

The Signals and Systems course is concerned with the representation of signals and the study of
the changes that occur to them as they pass through systems. This laboratory will also enable the students
to learn the basic concepts and techniques in digital electronic circuits and systems. The learning objective
of this laboratory is to supplement the theory course of digital logic design with an adequate introduction
to both combinatorial and sequential logic circuits, such as, adders, subtractors, comparator,
multiplexer/demultiplexer, encoders/decoders, flip-flop, register, counter, etc. and various combinations
of these.

This laboratory is equipped with 40 numbers of PCs, with licensed software likes MATLAB, and
MultiSim for simulation. To conduct value added course or video tutorial, facilities like high speed internet
connection, LCD Projector and high quality speakers are also available in the laboratory.

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Anil Neerukonda Institute of Technology & Sciences (Autonomous)
Sangivalasa-531 162, Bheemunipatnam Mandal, Visakhapatnam
District
(SIMULATION LABORATORY)

Course Outcomes:
Upon completion of thiscourse, students will able to

CO1 Determine the convolution and correlation of signals using MATLAB

CO2 Verify the time invariance and linearity property of a given system using MATLAB.

Plot the magnitude and phase spectrum of a given signal using various transformation tools in
CO3
MATLAB.

Modeling, simulation, functional verification of combiantional logic circuits Using Xilinx tools in
CO4
VHDL.

Modeling, simulation, functional verification of sequential logic circuits Using Xilinx tools in
CO5
VHDL.

CO-PO Mapping:

POs
PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2 PSO3
COs
CO1 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 2
CO2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 2
CO3 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 2
CO4 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 2
CO5 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 2

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Anil Neerukonda Institute of Technology & Sciences (Autonomous)
Sangivalasa-531 162, Bheemunipatnam Mandal, Visakhapatnam
District
RUBRICS
(SIMULATION LABORATORY)

S. No Excellent (A) Good(B) Need improvement Fail (D)

Performance Indicator 100% 80% (C) <40%
60%
Program preparation and The code is completely functional The program is mostly The code is marginally The code is
performance: and responds correctly producing functional and responds functional with minimally
Functionality/Specificatio the correct outputs and or correctly producing the numerous errors. The functional with
ns of an experiment. responses under all test cases. correct outputs and or code may respond significant portions
Represent data from the Able to correlate the theoretical responses under most test correctly under certain of the code missing
results so as to facilitate concepts with the concerned lab cases. There are minor circumstances, but or incomplete. The
analysis and explanations results with appropriate reasons. problems with the program there are significant code is largely
1
of the data, and draw implementation. Able to errors and/or nonresponsive to
conclusions. correlate the theoretical incomplete code most test cases
concepts with the sections. Not able to and/or inputs.
(Based on Viva and concerned lab results with correlate the
results) (5M) some difficulties. theoretical concepts
with the concerned lab
results.
Stating clearly the aim of Clearly describes the purpose of Clearly describes the Some idea of doing No effort exhibited
the experiment, its scope doing experiment and its scope. purpose of doing experiment but not
and importance for experiment. very clear.
2
purpose of doing
experiment.
(Based on viva) (5M)
Report quality(10M) Report is well organized and Report is well organized Report is somewhat Report contains
contains all desired information and few desired organized with missing many errors.
AIM: Clear statement of the task information are missing. of some useful
with required hardware and information.
software
Theory: Appropriate and enough
theoretical concept for
performing the task and
analyzing the output of a
3
experiments.
Result: All results are correct and
clearly visible
Code and Conclusion: Codes are
written clearly without any
syntax error and the conclusion
part which is hardly 2-3
sentences clearly state the
observed Results

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Anil Neerukonda Institute of Technology & Sciences (Autonomous)
Sangivalasa-531 162, Bheemunipatnam Mandal, Visakhapatnam
District

Write-up: Execution Result:

➢ Aim of the Expt. ➢ Handling of the software
➢ Apparatus Required ➢ Result
➢ Relevant Theory
➢ Procedure
➢ Program
➢ Model Waveform
➢ Description of Result
➢ Conclusion

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Anil Neerukonda Institute of Technology & Sciences (Autonomous)
Sangivalasa-531 162, Bheemunipatnam Mandal, Visakhapatnam
District
Simulation Laboratory
Do’s

1. Always sit at your assigned computer unless a teacher moves you.

2. When you leave, make sure your computer is properly shut down

3. Always save the progress of your work

4. Observation book of the present lab experiment should be get corrected on the same day
and Record should be corrected on the next scheduled lab session

5. Report any problem with your computer to the teacher / laboratory technician
immediately.

Don’ts

1. Do not wander around the room and distract other students

2. Do not use a flash drive on lab computers.

3. Do not upload, delete or alter any software on the lab PC.

4. Do not bring any food or drinks into the Lab

5. Don’t change the computer settings.

6. Don’t copy the work of other students

7. Do not use internet without prior permission

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Anil Neerukonda Institute of Technology & Sciences (Autonomous)
Sangivalasa-531 162, Bheemunipatnam Mandal, Visakhapatnam
District
(SIMULATION LABORATORY)
CONTENTS

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Sl.No Name of the Experiment Page No.
CYCLE-I (Signal & System)
A Introduction to MATLAB 12

B Introduction to VHDL 19
1 Basic Operations on Matrices. 24
2 Write a program for Generation of Various Signals and Sequences (Periodic and Aperiodic), such 28
as Unit impulse, unit step, square, saw tooth, triangular, sinusoidal, ramp, sinc.
3 Write a program to perform operations like addition, multiplication, scaling, shifting, and folding 35
on signals and sequences and computation of energy and average power.
4 Write a program for finding the even and odd parts of the signal / sequence and real and imaginary 40
parts of the signal.
5 Write a program to perform convolution between signals and sequences. 45
6 Write a program to perform autocorrelation and cross correlation between signals and sequences. 48
7 Write a program for verification of linearity and time invariance properties of a given 51
continuous/discrete system
8 Write a program for computation of unit samples, unit step and sinusoidal response of the given 56
LTI system and verifying its physical realiazability and stability properties.
9 Write a program to find the Fourier transform of a given signal and plotting its magnitude and 59
Phase spectrum.
10 Write a program for locating the zeros and poles and plotting the pole-zero maps in Z-plane for 61
the given transfer function.
11 Write a program for Sampling theorem verification. 64
CYCLE-2 (Digital Electronics)
1 Write VHDL code for basic gates 70
2 Write a VHDL code to describe the functions of Half adder & Full Adder 72
3 Write a VHDL code to describe the functions of Half Subtractor and Full Subtractor. 76
4 Write a VHDL code to describe the functions of 4:1 & 8:1 Multiplexer 80
5 Write a VHDL code to describe the functions of 1:4m &1:8 Demultiplexer 84
6 Write VHDL code to describe the functions of 3:8 decoder & 8:3 priority encoders. 88
7 Write VHDL code to describe the functions of SR-Flipflop, D-FlipFlop & JK-FlipFlop 91
8 Design of 4 Bit Binary to Gray code Converter. 99
9 Write VHDL for Serial for simulating SISO & PISO shift registers 101
10 Write a program to design a 4bit Up-counter 105

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INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB:

➢ The name MATLAB stands for MATrix LAboratory. MATLAB was written originally to provide easy
access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK (linear system package) and EISPACK (Eigen system
package) projects.
➢ MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates computation,
visualization, and programming environment. Furthermore, MATLAB is a modern programming language
environment: it has sophisticated data structures, contains built-in editing and debugging tools, and supports
object-oriented programming. These factors make MATLAB an excellent tool for teaching and research.
➢ MATLAB has many advantages compared to conventional computer languages (e.g., C, FORTRAN) for
solving technical problems. MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that
does not require dimensioning. The software package has been commercially available since 1984 and is
now considered as a standard tool at most universities and industries worldwide.
➢ It has powerful built-in routines that enable a very wide variety of computations. It also has easy to use
graphics commands that make the visualization of results immediately available. Specific applications are
collected in packages referred to as toolbox. There are toolboxes for signal processing, symbolic
computation, control theory, simulation, optimization, and several other fields of applied science and
engineering.

Fig:1 The graphical interface to the MATLAB workspace

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 ➢ Starting MATLAB: you can enter MATLAB by double-clicking on the MATLAB shortcut icon on your
Windows desktop. When you start MATLAB, a special window called the MATLAB desktop appears. The
desktop is a window that contains other windows. The major tools within or accessible from the desktop
are:
•The Command Window
•The Command History
•The Workspace
• The Current Directory
• The Help Browser
• The Start button

When MATLAB is started for the first time, the screen looks like the one that shownin the Figure 1.1. This
illustration also shows the default configuration of the MATLABdesktop. You can customize the arrangement of
tools and documents to suit your needs.Now, we are interested in doing some simple calculations. We will assume
that you have sufficient understanding of your computer under which MATLAB is being run.You are now faced
with the MATLAB desktop on your computer, which contains the prompt (>>) in the Command Window.
Usually, there are 2 types of prompt: >> for full version EDU> for educational version

➢ Quitting MATLAB: To end your MATLAB session, type quit in the Command Window, or select
File Exit MATLAB in the desktop main menu.

➢ Creating MATLAB variables: MATLAB variables are created with an assignment statement. The syntax of
variable assignment is
variable name = a value (or an expression)

For example,

>> x = expression

Where expression is a combination of numerical values, mathematical operators, variables, and function calls.
On other words, expression can involve:
1. manual entry
2. built-in functions
3. user-defined functions
➢ Overwriting variable: Once a variable has been created, it can be reassigned. In addition, if you do not wish tosee
the intermediate results, you can suppress the numerical output by putting a semicolon(;) at the end of the line.
Then the sequence of commands looks like this:

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 >> t = 5;
>> t = t+1
t= 6

➢ Error messages: If we enter an expression incorrectly, MATLAB will return an error message. For example, in
the following, we left out the multiplication sign, *, in the following expression

>> x = 10;
>> 5x
??? 5x
|
Error: Unexpected MATLAB expression.

➢ Making corrections: To make corrections, we can, of course retype the expressions. But if the expression is
lengthy, we make more mistakes by typing a second time. A previously typed command can be recalled with the
up-arrow key". When the command is displayed at the command prompt, it can be modified if needed and
executed.
➢Controlling the appearance of floating point number: MATLAB by default displays only 4 decimals in the result
of the calculations, for example 163:6667, as shown in above examples. However, MATLAB does numerical
calculation in double precision, which is 15 digits. The command format controls how the results of computations
are displayed. Here are some examples of the di®erent formats together withthe resulting outputs.

>> format short

>> x=-163.6667

If we want to see all 15 digits, we use the command format long

>> format long

>> x= -1.636666666666667e+002

To return to the standard format, enter format short, or simply format.There are several other formats. For more
details, see the MATLAB documentation,or type help format.Note - Up to now, we have let MATLAB repeat
everything that we enter at theprompt (>>). Sometimes this is not quite useful, in particular when the output is pages
enlength. To prevent MATLAB from echoing what we type, simply enter a semicolon (;) atthe end of the command.
For example,

>> x=-163.6667;
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and then ask about the value of x by typing,

>> x

x =-163.6667

➢Managing the workspace: The contents of the workspace persist between the executions of separate commands.
Therefore, it is possible for the results of one problem to have an e®ect on the next one. To avoidthis possibility,
it is a good idea to issue a clear command at the start of each new independent calculation.

>> clear

The command clear or clear all removes all variables from the workspace. Thisfrees up system memory. In order
to display a list of the variables currently in the memory,type

>> who

while, whos will give more details which include size, space allocation, and class of thevariables.

➢ Keeping track of your work session: It is possible to keep track of everything done during a MATLAB session
with the diary command.

>> diary

or give a name to a created file,

>> diary FileName

where FileName could be any arbitrary name you choose.The function diary is useful if you want to save a complete
MATLAB session. Theysave all input and output as they appear in the MATLAB window. When you want to
stopthe recording, enter diary off. If you want to start recording again, enter diary on. The file that is created is a
simple text ¯le. It can be opened by an editor or a word processingprogram and edited to remove extraneous material,
or to add your comments. You canuse the function type to view the diary ¯le or you can edit in a text editor or print.
Thiscommand is useful, for example in the process of preparing a homework or lab submission.

➢ Entering multiple statements per line:It is possible to enter multiple statements per line. Use commas (,) or
semicolons (;) toenter more than one statement at once. Commas (,) allow multiple statements per linewithout
suppressing output.

>> a=7; b=cos(a), c=cosh(a)

b =0.6570
c =548.3170
➢Miscellaneous commandsHere are few additional useful commands:
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 1. To clear the Command Window, type clc
2. To abort a MATLAB computation, type ctrl-c
3. To continue a line, type . . .
➢ Getting help: To view the online documentation, select MATLAB Helpfrom Help menu of MATLAB
Helpdirectly in the Command Window. The preferred method is to use the Help Browser. TheHelp Browser can
be started by selecting the ? icon from the desktop toolbar. On the otherhand, information about any command
is available by typing
>> help Command
Another way to get help is to use the lookfor command. The lookfor command di®ersfrom the help command. The
help command searches for an exact function name match,while the lookfor command searches the quick summary
information in each function fora match. For example, suppose that we were looking for a function to take the inverse
ofa matrix. Since MATLAB does not have a function named inverse, the command helpinverse will produce nothing.
On the other hand, the command lookfor inverse willproduce detailed information, which includes the function of
interest, inv.

>> lookfor inverse

Note - At this particular time of our study, it is important to emphasize one main point.Because MATLAB is a huge
program; it is impossible to cover all the details of each functionone by one. However, we will give you information
how to get help. Here are some examples:
• Use on-line help to request info on a specific function

>> help sqrt

• In the current version (MATLAB version 7), the doc function opens the on-line versionof the help manual.
This is very helpful for more complex commands.

>> doc plot

• Use lookfor to find functions by keywords. The general form is

>> lookfor FunctionName

➢Programming in MATLAB: So far in these lab sessions, all the commands were executed in the Command
Window.The problem is that the commands entered in the Command Window cannot be savedand executed again
for several times. Therefore, a different way of executing repeatedlycommands with MATLAB is:

1. to create a file with a list of commands,

2. save the file, and
3. run the file.

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If needed, corrections or changes can be made to the commands in the file. The files thatare used for this purpose
are called script files or scripts for short.

This section covers the following topics:

• M-File Scripts: A script file is an external file that contains a sequence of MATLAB statements. Scriptfiles have
a filename extension .m and are often called M-files. M-files can be scripts thatsimply execute a series of
MATLAB statements, or they can be functions that can acceptarguments and can produce one or more outputs.
Example
Consider the system of equations:
x + 2y + 3z = 1
3x + 3y + 4z = 1
2x + 3y + 3z = 2
Find the solution x to the system of equations.

Solution:
Use the MATLAB editor to create a file: File New M-file.
Enter the following statements in the file:
A = [1 2 3; 3 3 4; 2 3 3];
b = [1; 1; 2];
x = A\b
Save the file, for example, example1.m.
Run the file, in the command line, by typing:
>> example1
x=
-0.5000
1.5000
-0.5000
When execution completes, the variables (A, b, and x) remain in the workspace. To see a listing of them, enter
whos at the command prompt.
Note: The MATLAB editor is both a text editor specialized for creating M-files and agraphical MATLAB
debugger. The MATLAB editor has numerous menus for tasks such assaving, viewing, and debugging. Because
it performs some simple checks and also uses color to differentiate between various elements of codes, this text
editor is recommended as thetool of choice for writing and editing M-files.
There is another way to open the editor:
>> edit
or
>> edit filename.m
to open filename.m.

• M-File Functions: As mentioned earlier, functions are programs (or routines) that accept input arguments
andreturn output arguments. Each M-file function (or function or M-file for short) has its ownarea of
workspace, separated from the MATLAB base workspace.
• Anatomy of a M-File function
This simple function shows the basic parts of an M-file.

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 function f = factorial(n) (1)
% FACTORIAL(N) returns the factorial of N. (2)
% Compute a factorial value (3)
f = prod(1:n); (4)
The first line of a function M-file starts with the keyword function. It gives the functionname and order of
arguments. In the case of function factorial, there are up to one outputargument and one input argument. Table
given below summarizes the M-file function.
As an example, for n = 5, the result is,
>> f = factorial(5)
f =120

Table: Anatomy of a M-File function

Part No M-File Element Description
Function Define the function name, and the definition number and order
1
Definition Line of input and line output arguments
A one line summary description of the program, displayed
2 H1 Line
when you request Help

3 Help Text Help text A more detailed description of the program

Function body Program code that performs the actual
4 Function body
computations

Both functions and scripts can have all of these parts, except for the function definition line which applies to
function only. In addition, it is important to note that function name must begin with a letter, andmust be no longer
than the maximum of 63 characters. Furthermore, the name of thetextfile that you save will consist of the function
name with the extension .m. Thus, theabove example file would be factorial.m.

Table: Difference between scripts and function

SCRIPTS FUNCTION
• Do not accept input arguments. • Can accept input arguments and return output
• Store variables in a workspace that is shared arguments.
with other scripts. • Store variables in workspace that is internal to the
• Are useful for automating a series of function
commands • Are useful for extending the MATLAB a series of
commands language for your application

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INTRODUCTION TO VHDL:

VHDL is an acronym for VHSIC Hardware Description Language (VHSIC is an acronym for Very High
Speed Integrated Circuit).It is a Hardware Description Language that can be used to model a digital system
at many levels of abstraction,ranging from algorithmic level to the gate level. The complexity of the digital
system being modeled could vary from that of simple gate to a complex digital electronic system or
anything in between. The digital system can also be described hierarchically. Timing can also be explicitly
modeled in the same description.
The VHDL language can be regarded as an integrated amalgamation of following languages.
Sequential language +
Concurrent language +
Net-list language +
Timing specifications +
Waveform generation language =>VHDL.
The language not only defines the syntax but also defines very clear simulation semantics for each
language construct. Therefore models written in this language can be verified using a VHDL simulation.

CAPABILITIES:
The following are the major capabilities that the language provides along with the features that differentiate
it from other hardware description languages.
• The language can be used as an exchange medium between chip vendors and CAD tool users. Different
chip vendors can provide VHDL descriptions of their components to system designers. CAD tool users
can use it to capture the behavior of the design at a high level of abstraction of functional simulation.
• The language can also be used as a communication medium between different CAD and CAE tools.
For example, a schematic capture PROGRAM may be used to generate a VHDL description for the
design which can be used as an input to a simulation PROGRAM.
• The language supports hierarchy, that is, a digital system can be modeled as a set of interconnected
subcomponents.
• The language supports flexible design methodologies: top-down, bottom-up or mixed.
• It supports both synchronous and asynchronous timing models.
• Various digital modeling techniques, such as finite state machine descriptions, algorithmic descriptions
and Boolean equations can be modeled using the language.

19
• The language supports three basic different description styles: structural, dataflow and behavioral. A
design may also be expressed in any combination of these three descriptive styles.
• The language is not technology-specific, but is capable of supporting technology specific features. It
can also support various hardware technologies.

BASIC TERMINOLOGY:
A hardware abstraction of a digital system is called an entity. An entity X when used in another entity Y
becomes a component for the entity Y. therefore the component is also an entity, depending on the level
at which you are trying to model.
To describe an entity, VHDL provides five different types of primary constructs called design units.
They are:
➢ Entity declaration.
➢ Architecture body.
➢ Configuration declaration.
➢ Package declaration.
➢ Package body.

• ENTITY DECLARATION:
The entity declaration specifies the name of the entity being modeled and lists the set of interface ports.
Ports are signals through which the entity communicates with the other models in its external environment.

• ARCHITECTURE BODY:
The internal details of an entity are specified by an architecture body using any of the following modeling
styles:
➢ As a set of interconnected components (to represent structure).
➢ As a set of concurrent assignment statements (to represent dataflow).
➢ As a set of sequential assignment statements (to represent behavior).
• CONFIGURATION DECLARATION:
This is used to select one of the many possibly architecture bodies that an entity may have, and to bind
components , used to represent structure in that architecture body, to entities represented by an entity-
architecture pair or by a configuration which reside in a design library.

• PACKAGE DECLARATION:

20
This is used to store a set of common declarations, such as components, types, procedures and functions.
These declarations can then be imported into other design units using a ‘use’ clause.
• PACKAGE BODY:
This is used to store the definitions of functions and procedures that were declared in the corresponding
package declaration, and also complete constant declarations for any deferred constants that appear in the
package in the package declaration.

STRUCTURAL MODELING:
In the structural style of modeling, an entity is described as a set of interconnected components. Example:
Half adder. The entity declaration for half adder specifies the interface ports for this architecture body. The
architecture body is composed of two parts: the declarative part (before the keyword begin) and the
statement part(after the keyword begin). Two component declarations are present in the declarative part
of the architecture body. These declarations specify the interface of components that are used in the
architecture body. The declared components are instantiated in the statement part of the architecture body
using component labels for these component instantiation statements. The signals in the port map of a
component instantiated and the port signals in the component declaration are associated by position (called
positional association). However the structural representation for the Half adder does not say anything
about its functionality. Separate entity models would be described for the components XOR2 and AND2,
each having its own entity declaration and architecture body.
A component instantiated statement is a concurrent statement. Therefore, the order of these
statements is not important. The structural style of modeling describes only an interconnection of
components, without implying any behavior of the components themselves nor the entity that they
collectively represent.

DATAFLOW MODELING:
In this modeling style, the flow of data through the entity is expressed primarily using
concurrent signal assignment statements. The structure entity of the entity is not explicitly specified in this
modeling style, but it can be implicitly deduced. In a signal assignment statement, the symbol <= implies
an assignment of a value to a signal. The value of the expression on the right-hand-side of the statement is
computed and is assigned to the signal on the left-hand-side, called the target signal. A concurrent signal
assignment statement is executed only when any signal used in the expression on the right-hand-side has
an event on it, that is, the value for the signal changes.

21
 BEHAVIORAL MODELING:
The behavioral modeling specifies the behavior of an entity as a set of statements that are executed
sequentially in the specified order. This set of sequential statements, which are specified inside a process
statement, do not explicitly specify the structure of the entity but merely its functionality. A process
statement is a concurrent statement that can appear within an architecture body. A process statement also
has a declarative part (before the keyword begin) and a statement part (between the keywords begin and
end process). The statements appearing within the statement part are sequential statements and are
executed sequentially. The list of signals specified within the parenthesis after the keyword process
constitutes a sensitivity list, and the process statement is invoked whenever there is an event on any signal
in this list.
A variable is assigned using the assignment operator: = compound symbol; contrast this with a signal that
is assigned a value using the assignment operator <= compound symbol. Signal assignment statements
appearing within a process are called sequential signal assignment statements. Sequential signal
statements, including variable assignment statements, are executed sequentially independent of whether
an event occurs on any signals in its right-hand-side expression; contrastthis with the execution of
concurrent signal assignment statements in the dataflow modeling style.

22
 Cycle-I
(Signal & System)

23
 EXPERIMENT NO-1

AIM: -
To write a MATLAB program to perform some basic operation on matrices such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication.

SOFTWARE REQURIED:-
1.MATLAB R2010a.
2.Windows XP SP2.

THEORY:-
MATLAB, which stands for MATrixLABoratory, is a state-of-the-art mathematical software package,
which is used extensively in both academia and industry. It is an interactive program for numerical
computation and data visualization, which along with its programming capabilities provides a very useful
tool for almost all areas of science and engineering. Unlike other mathematical packages, such as MAPLE
or MATHEMATICA, MATLAB cannot perform symbolic manipulations without the use of additional
Toolboxes. It remains however, one of the leading software packages for numerical computation. As you
might guess from its name, MATLAB deals mainly with matrices. A scalar is a 1-by-1 matrix and a row
vector of length say 5, is a 1-by-5 matrix.. One of the many advantages of MATLAB is the natural notation
used. It looks a lot like the notation that you encounter in a linear algebra. This makes the use of the
program especially easy and it is what makes MATLAB a natural choice for numerical computations. The
purpose of this experiment is to familiarize MATLAB, by introducing the basic features and commands
of the program.

Built in Functions:
1. Scalar Functions:
Certain MATLAB functions are essentially used on scalars, but operate element-wise when
applied to a matrix (or vector). They are summarized below.
1. sin - trigonometric sine
2. cos - trigonometric cosine
3. tan - trigonometric tangent
4. asin - trigonometric inverse sine (arcsine)
5. acos - trigonometric inverse cosine (arccosine)
6. atan - trigonometric inverse tangent (arctangent)
7. exp - exponential
8. log - natural logarithm
9. abs - absolute value
10. sqrt - square root
11. rem - remainder
12. round - round towards nearest integer
13. floor - round towards negative infinity
14. ceil - round towards positive infinity

2. Vector Functions:
Other MATLAB functions operate essentially on vectors returning a scalar value. Some of
these functions are given below.
1. max largest component : get the row in which the maximum element lies
2. min smallest component
3. lengthlength of a vector
4. sortsort in ascending order
24
5. sumsum of elements
6. prod product of elements
7. medianmedian value
8. meanmean value std standard deviation

3. Matrix Functions:
Much of MATLAB‟s power comes from its matrix functions. These can be further separated
into two sub-categories.
The first one consists of convenient matrix building functions, some of which are given
below.
1. eye - identity matrix
2. zeros - matrix of zeros
3. ones - matrix of ones
4. diag - extract diagonal of a matrix or create diagonal matrices
5. triu - upper triangular part of a matrix
6. tril - lower triangular part of a matrix
7. rand - randomly generated matrix

commands in the second sub-category of matrix functions are

1. sizesize of a matrix
2. det determinant of a square matrix
3. inv inverse of a matrix
4. rankrank of a matrix
5. rref reduced row echelon form
6. eig eigenvalues and eigenvectors
7. poly characteristic polynomial

PROCEDURE:-
Open MATLAB
Open new M-file
Type the program
Save in current directory
Compile and Run the program
For the output see command window\ Figure window

PROGRAM:-
clc;
close all;
clear all;
a=[1 2 -9 ; 2 -1 2; 3 -4 3];
b=[1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9];
disp('The matrix a= ');
a
disp('The matrix b= ');
b
% to find sum of a and b
c=a+b;
disp('The sum of a and b is ');
c
% to find difference of a and b
25
d=a-b;
disp('The difference of a and b is ');
d
%to find multiplication of a and b
e=a*b;
disp('The product of a and b is ');
e

OUTPUT:-
The matrix a=
a=
1 2 -9
2 -1 2
3 -4 3
The matrix b=
b=
123
456
789
The sum of a and b is
c=
2 4 -6
648
10 4 12
The difference of a and b is
d=
0 0 -12
-2 -6 -4
-4 -12 -6
The product of a and b is
e=
-54 -60 -66
12 15 18
8 10 12

RESULT:-
Finding addition, subtraction, multiplication using MATLAB was Successfully completed.

POSSIBLE VIVA QUESTIONS:-

1.Expand MATLAB?And importance of MATLAB?
2.What is clear all and close all will do?
3.What is disp() and input()?
4.What is the syntax to find the eigen values and eigenvectors of the matrix?
5. What is the syntax to find the rank of the matrix?

EXERCISE:
1. Enter the matrix
M = [1,-2,8,0] and N = [1 5 6 8; 2 5 6 9]
26
Perform addition on M and N and see how matlab reacts.
2. Find the transpose of null matrix using matlab
3. write a MATLAB program to perform the division operation on the following matrix
A = [24,-30, 64,-81], b= [6,5,8,9] and verify the result.
4. Write a matlab program to perfom addition operation using 2x3 matrix. Assume any numbers
5. Enter the matrix
A = [1 6 9 8 5; 9 3 5 8 4; 5 6 3 5 7], B = [6 5 9 3 5; 6 5 4 8 5; 6 3 5 7 9],
C = [2 5 9 3 4; 5 6 3 7 8; 9 8 6 5 4]
Find [(A+B)+C]T
6. Enter the matrix
A = [1 6 9 8 5; 9 3 5 8 4; 5 6 3 5 7], B = [6 5 9 3 5; 6 5 4 8 5; 6 3 5 7 9],
C = [2 5 9 3 4; 5 6 3 7 8; 9 8 6 5 4]
Find [(A-B)+C]-1
7. Write a matlab program to perfom addition operation using 3x2 matrix. Assume any numbers
8 write a MATLAB program to perform the division operation on the following matrix A = [25,-35, 121,-
21], b= [5,5,11,3] and perform the transpose function on the answer
9.Find the addition of null matrix and unity matrix of order 3x3.
10. Enter the Matrix the following Matrices and multiply M and N using M*N. Observe the output in the
command window.
−1 2 4 1 2
𝑀 = 2 −1 −1𝑁 = 3 −1
4 2 0 1 1

27
 Experiment No-2
AIM:-To write a “MATLAB” Program to generate various signals and sequences,such as unit impulse,
unit step, unit ramp, sinusoidal,square,sawtooth,triangular,sinc signals.

SOFTWARE REQURIED:-
1.MATLAB R2010a.
2.Windows XP SP2.

THEORY:-

UNIT IMPULSE FUNCTION:

One of the more useful functions in the study of linear systems is the "unit impulse function."An ideal
impulse function is a function that is zero everywhere but at the origin, where it is infinitely high. However,
the area of the impulse is finite. This is, at first hard to visualize butwe can do so by using the graphs
shown below.

28
UNIT STEP FUNCTION
The unit step function and the impulse function are considered to be fundamental functions in engineering,
and it is strongly recommended that the reader becomes very familiar with both of these functions.The unit
step function, also known as the Heaviside function, is defined as such:

Sinc Function

There is a particular form that appears so frequently in communications engineering, that wegive it its
own name. This function is called the "Sinc function and discussed below
The Sinc function is defined in the following manner:

And Sinc(0)=1
The value of sinc(x) is defined as 1 at x = 0, since

Rect Function
The Rect Function is a function which produces a rectangularcentered at t = 0. The Rect function pulse
also has a height of 1. The Sinc function and therectangular function form a Fourier transform pair.A Rect
function can be written in the form:

where the pulse is centered at X and has widthY. We can define the impulse function above interms of
the rectangle function by centering the pulse at zero (X = 0), setting it's height to 1/Aand setting the pulse
width to A, which approaches zero:

We can also construct a Rect function out of a pair of unit step functions

Here,both unit step functions are set a distance of Y/2 away from the center point of (t - X).

SAW TOOTH:-

29
The sawtooth wave (or saw wave) is a kind of non-sinusoidal waveform. It is named a sawtooth based on
its resemblance to the teeth on the blade of a saw. The convention is that a sawtooth wave ramps upward
and then sharply drops. However, there are also sawtooth waves in which the wave ramps downward and
then sharply rises. The latter type of sawtooth wave is called a 'reverse sawtooth wave' or 'inverse sawtooth
wave'. As audio signals, the two orientations of sawtooth wave sound identical. The piecewise linear
function based on the floor function of time t, is an example of a sawtooth wave with period 1.

TRIANGLE WAVE
A triangle wave is a non-sinusoidal waveform named for its triangular shape.Abandlimited triangle wave
pictured in the time domain (top) and frequency domain (bottom). The fundamental is at 220 Hz (A2).Like
a square wave, the triangle wave contains only odd harmonics. However, the higher harmonics roll off
much faster than in a square wave (proportional to the inverse square of the harmonic number as opposed
to just the inverse).It is possible to approximate a triangle wave with additive synthesis by adding odd
harmonics of the fundamental, multiplying every (4n..1)th harmonic by 􀊵1 (or changing its phase by 􀊵),
and rolling off the harmonics by the inverse square of their relative frequency to the fundamental. This
infinite Fourier series converges to the triangle wave:

Sinusoidal Signal Generation

The sine wave or sinusoid is a mathematical function that describes a smooth repetitiveoscillation. It occurs
often in pure mathematics, as well as physics, signal processing, electrical engineering and many other
fields. Its most basic form as a function of time (t)is:where:
• A, the amplitude, is the peak deviation of the function from its center position.
• the angular frequency, specifies how many oscillations occur in a unit time
interval, in radians per second
• the phase, specifies where in its cycle the oscillation begins at t = 0.
A sampled sinusoid may be written as:
𝑓
𝑥(𝑛) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋 𝑛 + 𝜃)
𝑓𝑠

where f is the signal frequency, fs is the sampling frequency, 𝜃 is the phase and A is theamplitude of the
signal.

PROCEDURE:-
Open MATLAB
Open new M-file
Type the program
Save in current directory
Compile and Run the program
For the output see command window\ Figure window

30
PROGRAM:-
%unit impulse function%
clc;
clearall;
closeall;
t=-10:1:10;
x=(t==0);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(t,x,'g');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('unit impulse function');
subplot(2,1,2);
stem(t,x,'r');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('unit impulse discreat function');

%unit step function%

clc;
clearall;
closeall;
N=100;
t=1:100;
x=ones(1,N);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(t,x,'g');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('unit step function');
subplot(2,1,2);
stem(t,x,'r');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('unit step discreat function');

%unit ramp function%

clc;
clearall;
closeall;
t=0:20;
x=t;
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(t,x,'g');
xlabel('time');
31
ylabel('amplitude');
title('unit ramp function');
subplot(2,1,2);
stem(t,x,'r');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('unit ramp discreat function');

%sinusoidal function%
clc;
clearall;
closeall;
t=0:0.01:2;
x=sin(2*pi*t);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(t,x,'g');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('sinusoidal signal');
subplot(2,1,2);
stem(t,x,'r');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('sinusoidal sequence');

%square function%
clc;
clearall;
closeall;
t=0:0.01:2;
x=square(2*pi*t);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(t,x,'g');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('square signal');
subplot(2,1,2);
stem(t,x,'r');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('square sequence');

%sawtooth function%
clc;
clearall;
closeall;
t=0:0.01:2;
x=sawtooth(2*pi*5*t);
32
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(t,x,'g');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('sawtooth signal');
subplot(2,1,2);
stem(t,x,'r');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('sawtooth sequence');

%trianguler function%
clc;
clearall;
closeall;
t=0:0.01:2;
x=sawtooth(2*pi*5*t,0.5);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(t,x,'g');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('trianguler signal');
subplot(2,1,2);
stem(t,x,'r');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('trianguler sequence');

%sinc function%
clc;
clearall;
closeall;
t=linspace(-5,5);
x=sinc(t);
subplot(2,1,1);
plot(t,x,'g');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('sinc signal');
subplot(2,1,2);
stem(t,x,'r');
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('sinc sequence');

33
POSSIBLE VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Define Signal?
2. Define determistic and Random Signal?
3. Define Delta Function?
4. What is Signal Modeling?
5. Define Periodic and a periodic Signal?

EXCERSISE
1. Write a matlab program to generate a sine wave with amplitude = 3, frequency 20Hz.
2. Write a matlab program to generate a cos wave with amplitude = 3, frequency 20Hz.
3. Write a matlab program to generate a triangular wave with amplitude = 8, frequency 10Hz.
4. Write a matlab program to generate a square wave with amplitude = 2, frequency 10kHz.
5.Write a matlab program to get the output shown below where t0 = 2

1. Write a program to get the result in signalr(t) = u(t) – 2*u(t+1)

34
 EXPERIMENT No-3

AIM:-
To performs operations on signals and sequences such as addition, multiplication, scaling, shifting, folding,
computation of energy and average power.

SOFTWARE REQURIED:-
1.MATLAB R2010a.
2.Windows XP SP2.

THEORY:-
Basic Operation on Signals:
Time shifting: y(t)=x(t-T)The effect that a time shift has on the appearance of a signal If T is a positive
number, the time shifted signal, x(t -T ) gets shifted to the right, otherwise it gets shifted left.

Signal Shifting and Delay:

Shifting : y(n)={x(n-k)} ; m=n-k; y=x;
Time reversal: Y(t)=y(-t) Time reversal flips the signal about t = 0

x(n) ZT x(n-T)

Mathematiocal operation on signals

PROCEDURE:-
Open MATLAB
Open new M-file
Type the program
Save in current directory
Compile and Run the program
35
 For the output see command window\ Figure window

PROGRAM:-
clear all;
close all;
t=0:.01:1;
% generating two input signals
x1=sin(2*pi*4*t);
x2=sin(2*pi*8*t);
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,x1);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('signal1:sine wave of frequency 4Hz');
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(t,x2);
xlabel('time');
subplot(4,1,3);
ylabel('amplitude');
title('signal2:sine wave of frequency 8Hz');
% addition of signals
y1=x1+x2;
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(t,y1);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('resultant signal:signal1+signal2');
% multiplication of signals
y2=x1.*x2;
subplot(2,2,4);
plot(t,y2);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('resultant signal:dot product of signal1 and signal2');
% scaling of a signal1
A=10;
y3=A*x1;
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,x1);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('sine wave of frequency 4Hz')
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(t,y3);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('amplified input signal1 ');
% folding of a signal1
l1=length(x1);
36
nx=0:l1-1;
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(nx,x1);
xlabel('nx');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('sine wave of frequency 4Hz')
y4=fliplr(x1);
nf=-fliplr(nx);
subplot(2,2,4);
plot(nf,y4);
xlabel('nf');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('folded signal');
%shifting of a signal
figure;
t1=0:.01:pi;
x3=8*sin(2*pi*2*t1);
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(t1,x3);
xlabel('time t1');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('sine wave of frequency 2Hz');
subplot(3,1,2);
plot(t1+10,x3);
xlabel('t1+10');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('right shifted signal');
subplot(3,1,3);
plot(t1-10,x3);
xlabel('t1-10');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('left shifted signal');
%operations on sequences
n1=1:1:9;
s1=[1 2 3 0 5 8 0 2 4];
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
stem(n1,s1);
xlabel('n1');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('input sequence1');

n2=-2:1:6;
s2=[1 1 2 4 6 0 5 3 6];
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(n2,s2);
xlabel('n2');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('input sequence2');
% addition of sequences
37
s3=s1+s2;
subplot(2,2,3);
stem(n1,s3);
xlabel('n1');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('sum of two sequences');
% multiplication of sequences
s4=s1.*s2;
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(n1,s4);
xlabel('n1');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('product of two sequences');
% scaling of a sequence
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
stem(n1,s1);
xlabel('n1');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('input sequence1');
s5=4*s1;
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(n1,s5);
xlabel('n1');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('scaled sequence1');

subplot(2,2,3);
stem(n1-2,s1);
xlabel('n1');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('left shifted sequence1');
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(n1+2,s1);
xlabel('n1');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('right shifted sequence1');
% folding of a sequence
l2=length(s1);
nx1=0:l2-1;
figure;
subplot(2,1,1);
stem(nx1,s1);
xlabel('nx1');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('input sequence1');
s6=fliplr(s1);
nf2=-fliplr(nx1);
subplot(2,1,2);
stem(nf2,s6);
38
xlabel('nf2');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('folded sequence1');
% program for energy of a sequence

e1=sum(abs(z1).^2);
e1
% program for energy of a signal
t=0:pi:10*pi;
z2=cos(2*pi*50*t).^2;
e2=sum(abs(z2).^2);
e2
% program for power of a saequence
p1= (sum(abs(z1).^2))/length(z1);
p1
% program for power of a signal
p2=(sum(abs(z2).^2))/length(z2);
p2

OUTPUT:
enter the input sequence [1 3 5 6]
e1 =
71
e2 =
4.0388
p1 =
17.7500
p2 =
0.3672
Result: Various operations on signals and sequences are performed.

39
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Define Symetric and Anti-Symmetric Signals?
2. Define Continuous and Discrete Time Signals?
3. What are the Different types of representation of discrete time signals?
4. What are the Different types of Operation performed on signals?
5. What is System?

EXCERSISE:
1.Write a MATLAB program to generate amplitude scaling of a sequence.
2. Write a MATLAB program to subtract to sinusoidal signals.
3. Write a MATLAB program to subtract and multiply to sinusoidal signals.
4. Write a MATLAB program to right shift the signal to 5 times of the original signal.
5. Write a MATLAB program to left shift the signal to 8 times of the original signal.
6. Write a MATLAB program to add to different signals with 2 <t<5
7. Write a MATLAB program to shift a positive time line signal to negative timeline signal.
8. Write a MATLAB program to get the following output.

40
41
 EXPERIMENTY No-4
AIM: Finding even and odd part of the signal and sequence and also findreal and imaginary parts of
signal.

Software Required:
Matlab software 7.0 and above.

Theory:
EVEN AND ODD PART OF A SIGNAL:
Any signal x(t) can be expressed as sum of even and odd components i e
X(t)=xe(t)+xo(t)

Program:
Clc;
close all;
clear all;
% Even and odd parts of a signal
t=0:.005:4*pi;
x=sin(t)+cos(t); % x(t)=sint(t)+cos(t)
subplot(2,2,1)
plot(t,x)
xlabel('t');
ylabel('amplitude')
title('input signal')
y=sin(-t)+cos(-t) % y=x(-t)
subplot(2,2,2)
plot(t,y)
xlabel('t');
ylabel('amplitude')
title('input signal with t=-t')
z=x+y
subplot(2,2,3)
plot(t,z/2)
xlabel('t');
ylabel('amplitude')
title('even part of the signal')%assigning a name to the plot
p=x-y
subplot(2,2,4)
plot(t,p/2)
xlabel('t');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('odd part of the signal');
% Even and odd parts of a sequence
42
z=[0,2+j*4,-3+j*2,5-j*1,-2-j*4,-j*3,0];
n=-3:3
% plotting real and imginary parts of the sequence
figure;
subplot( 2,1,1);
stem(n,real(z));
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('real part of the complex sequence');
subplot( 2,1,2);
stem(n,imag(z));
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('imaginary part of the complex sequence');
zc=conj(z);
zc_folded= fliplr(zc);
zc_even=.5*(z+zc_folded);
zc_odd=.5*(z-zc_folded);
% plotting even and odd parts of the sequence
figure;
subplot( 2,2,1);
stem(n,real(zc_even));
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('real part of the even sequence');
subplot( 2,2,2);
stem(n,imag(zc_even));
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('imaginary part of the even sequence');
subplot( 2,2,3);
stem(n,real(zc_odd));
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('real part of the odd sequence');
subplot( 2,2,4);
stem(n,imag(zc_odd));
xlabel('n');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('imaginary part of the odd sequence');
RESULT: Even and odd part of the signal and sequence is computed.

OUTPUT:

43
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. What is the formula to find odd part of signal?
2. What is Even Signal?
3. What is Odd Signal?
4. What is the formula to find even part of signal?
5.What is the difference b/w stem&plot?

EXERCISE
1.Write a MATLAB program to find even part of a signal by considering 10 input samples.
2. Write a MATLAB program to find odd part of a signal by considering atleast 7 samples.
3. Write a MATLAB program to add even an odd part of a signal and see how matlab reacts for
the above program.
4. Write a matlab program to get the out put as [-5, 3, 0, 8] as imaginary values and [2 4 6 8 0] as
real values.
5. Write a MATLAB program to subtract even an odd part of a signal and see how matlab reacts
for the above program.

44
 EXPERIMENTY No-5

AIM: -
To find the output with linear convolution operation Using MATLAB Software.

SOFTWARE REQURIED:-
1.MATLAB7.2(2006b) / MATLAB 8.6(2015b)/MATLAB 7.6 2008a(Trial version)/MATLAB
7.9(2009b)(Trial Version)/MATLAB 7.10(2010a) Trial version.
2.Windows XP SP2.

THEORY:-
Linear Convolution involves the following operations.
1. Folding
2. Multiplication
3. Addition
4. Shifting
These operations can be represented by a Mathematical Expression as follows:

PROCEDURE:-
Open MATLAB
Open new M-file
Type the program
Save in current directory
Compile and Run the program
For the output see command window\ Figure window

%program for convolution of two sequences

clc;
close all;
clear all;
%program for convolution of two sequences
x=input('enter input sequence');
h=input('enter impulse response');
y=conv(x,h);
subplot(3,1,1);
45
stem(x);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('x(n)');
title('input signal')
subplot(3,1,2);
stem(h);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('h(n)');
title('impulse response')
subplot(3,1,3);
stem(y);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('y(n)');
title('linear convolution')
disp('The resultant signal is');
disp(y)

%program for signal convolution

t=0:0.1:10;
x1=sin(2*pi*t);
h1=cos(2*pi*t);
y1=conv(x1,h1);
figure;
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(t,x1);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('x(t)');
title('input signal')
subplot(3,1,2);
plot(t,h1);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('h(t)');
title('impulse response')
subplot(3,1,3);
plot(y1);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('y(n)');
title('linear convolution');

OUTPUT:-

46
RESULT: convolution between signals and sequences is computed.
Output:
enter input sequence[2 4 6 8]
enter impulse response[1 3 9 6]
The resultant signal is
2 10 36 74 102 108 48

VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1. Define Convolution?
2. Define Properties of Convolution?
3. What is the Difference Between Convolution& Correlation?
4. What are Dirchlet Condition?
5.What is Half Wave Symmetry?

EXERCISE:
1.Write the MATLAB program to perform convolution between the following sequences
X(n)=[1 -1 4 ], h(n) = [ -1 2 -3 1].
2. Write a mat lab program to perform the convolution between sinusoidal and ramp function and
see how mat lab reacts to it.
3. Write a MATLAB program to perform convolution between square and step signal and see
how mat lab reacts to it.
4. Write a MATLAB program to perform convolution between sinusoidal and ramp signal and
see how mat lab reacts to it.
5. Write a MATLAB program to perform the convolution between X (n) = [1 2 3 5] and y (n) =
[- 1 – 2] and see how matlab reacts to it.
6. Write a MATLAB program to perform the convolution between X (n) = [1 -3 5] and y (n) =
[1 2 3 4] and see how matlab reacts to it.

47
 EXPERIMENT NO-6
AIM: -
To compute auto correlation and cross correlation between signals and Sequences.

Software Required:
MATLAB software 7.0 and above

Theory:
Correlations of sequences:
It is a measure of the degree to which two sequences are similar. Giventwo real-valued sequences x(n)
and y(n) of finite energy,
These operations can be represented by a Mathematical Expression asfollows:

Cross correlation

The index l is called the shift or lag parameter

Autocorrelation

Program:
clc;
close all;
clear all;
% two input sequences
x=input('enter input sequence');
h=input('enter the impulse suquence');
subplot(2,2,1);
stem(x);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('x(n)');
title('input sequence');
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(h);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('h(n)');
title('impulse signal');
% cross correlation between two sequences
y=xcorr(x,h);
subplot(2,2,3);
stem(y);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('y(n)');
title(' cross correlation between two sequences ');

48
% auto correlation of input sequence
z=xcorr(x,x);
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(z);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('z(n)');
title('auto correlation of input sequence');

% cross correlation between two signals

% generating two input signals
t=0:0.2:10;
x1=3*exp(-2*t);
h1=exp(t);
figure;
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,x1);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('x1(t)');
title('input signal');
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(t,h1);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('h1(t)');
title('impulse signal');
% cross correlation
subplot(2,2,3);
z1=xcorr(x1,h1);
plot(z1);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('z1(t)');
title('cross correlation ');
% auto correlation
subplot(2,2,4);
z2=xcorr(x1,x1);
plot(z2);
xlabel('t');
ylabel('z2(t)');
title('auto correlation ');
Result: Auto correlation and Cross correlation between signals andsequences is computed.

Output: enter input sequence [1 2 5 7]

Enter the impulse sequence [2 6 0 5 3]

49
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1.Define Correlation?
2. Define Auto-Correlation?
3. Define Cross-Correlation?
4.What is the importance of correlation?
5.What is the difference b/w correlation and convolution?

EXERCISE
1.Write a MATLAB program to compute auto correlation between signals and Sequences.
x=cos(2*pi*10*t),y=cos(2*pi*15*t).
2. Write a MATLAB program to compute cross correlation between signals and Sequences.
x=cos(2*pi*7*t),y=cos(2*pi*14*t).
3. Write a MATLAB program to compute the cross correleation between signals and
Sequences. x=cos(2*pi*10*t),y=cos(2*pi*15*t) by increasing the amplitude of the signal by 3
times and verify how matlab reacts to it.
4. Write a MATLAB program to compute the auto correleation between signals and Sequences.
x=cos(2*pi*15*t),y=cos(2*pi*10*t) by increasing the amplitude of the signal by 2 times and
verify how matlab reacts to it.
5.Write a MATLAB program to compute auto correlation between x =sin(2*pi*5*t) ,
y = sin(2*pi*10*t). and see how matlab reacts to it.
6. Write a MATLAB program to compute cross correlation between x =sin(2*pi*5*t) ,
y =cos(2*pi*10*t). and see how matlab reacts to it.

50
 EXPERIMENT No-7(a)

AIM: Verify the Linearity of a given Discrete System.

Software Required:
Mat lab software 7.0 and above

Theory:
LINEARITY PROPERTY:
Any system is said to be linear if it satisfies the superposition (additivity) principal.superposition principal state
that Response to a weighted sum of input signalequal to the corresponding weighted sum of the outputs of the
system toeach of the individual input signals.

Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
% entering two input sequences and impulse sequence
x1 = input (' type the samples of x1 ');
x2 = input (' type the samples of x2 ');
if(length(x1)~=length(x2))
disp('error: Lengths of x1 and x2 are different');
return;
end;
h = input (' type the samples of h ');
% length of output sequence
N = length(x1) + length(h) -1;
disp('length of the output signal will be ');
disp(N);
% entering scaling factors
a1 = input (' The scale factor a1 is ');
a2 = input (' The scale factor a2 is ');
x = a1 * x1 + a2 * x2;
% response of x and x1
yo1 = conv(x,h);
y1 = conv(x1,h);
% scaled response of x1
y1s = a1 * y1;
% response of x2
y2 = conv(x2,h);
% scaled response of x2
y2s = a2 * y2;
yo2 = y1s + y2s;
disp ('Input signal x1 is '); disp(x1);
51
disp ('Input signal x2 is '); disp(x2);
disp ('Output Sequence yo1 is '); disp(yo1);
disp ('Output Sequence yo2 is '); disp(yo2);
/if ( yo1 == yo2 )
disp(' yo1 = yo2. Hence the LTI system is LINEAR ')
end;

Result: The Linearity of a given Discrete System is verified.

Output:
Type the samples of x1 [1 5 6 7]
Type the samples of x2 [2 3 4 8]
Type the samples of h [2 6 5 4]
Length of the output signal will be
7
The scale factor a1 is 2
The scale factor a2 is 3
Input signal x1 is
1567
Input signal x2 is
2348
Output Sequence yo1 is
16 86 202 347 424 286 152
Output Sequence yo2 is
16 86 202 347 424 286 152
yo1 = yo2. Hence the LTI system is LINEAR

52
 EXPERIMENT No-7(b)

AIM: Verify the Time Invariance of a given Discrete System.

Software Required:
Mat lab software 7.0 and above

Theory:
TIME INVARIENT SYSTEMS(TI):

Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
% entering two input sequences
x = input( ' Type the samples of signal x(n) ' );
h = input( ' Type the samples of signal h(n) ' );
% original response
y = conv(x,h);
disp( ' Enter a POSITIVE number for delay ' );
d = input( ' Desired delay of the signal is ' );
% delayed input
xd = [zeros(1,d), x];
nxd = 0 : length(xd)-1;
%delayed output
yd = conv(xd,h);
nyd = 0:length(yd)-1;
disp(' Original Input Signal x(n) is ');
disp(x);
disp(' Delayed Input Signal xd(n) is ');
disp(xd);
disp(' Original Output Signal y(n) is ');
disp(y);
disp(' Delayed Output Signal yd(n) is ');
disp(yd);
xp = [x , zeros(1,d)];
subplot(2,1,1);
stem(nxd,xp);
grid;
xlabel( ' Time Index n ' );
53
ylabel( ' x(n) ' );
title( ' Original Input Signal x(n) ' );
subplot(2,1,2);
stem(nxd,xd);
grid;
xlabel( ' Time Index n ' );
ylabel( ' xd(n) ' );
title( ' Delayed Input Signal xd(n) ' );
yp = [y zeros(1,d)];
figure;
subplot(2,1,1);
stem(nyd,yp);
grid;
xlabel( ' Time Index n ' );
ylabel( ' y(n) ' );
title( ' Original Output Signal y(n) ' );
subplot(2,1,2);
stem(nyd,yd);
grid;
xlabel( ' Time Index n ' );
ylabel( ' yd(n) ' );
title( ' Delayed Output Signal yd(n) ' );

Result:
The Time Invariance of a given Discrete System is verified.

Output:

Type the samples of signal x(n) [2 3 4 6]

Type the samples of signal h(n) [1 2 3 8]
Enter a POSITIVE number for delay
Desired delay of the signal is 5
Original Input Signal x(n) is
2346
Delayed Input Signal xd(n) is
000002346
Original Output Signal y(n) is
2 7 16 39 48 50 48
Delayed Output Signal yd(n) is
0 0 0 0 0 2 7 16 39 48 50 48

54
EXSERCISE
1. Write a MATLAB program to verify the linearity prpoerty of the following sequencyx1= sin(2*pi*1*n);
x2= sin(2*pi*2*n), and chech whether it satisfies the linearity property or not.
2. Write a MATLAB program to verify the linearity prpoerty of the following sequency x1= sin(2*pi*1*n);
x2= sin(2*pi*2*n), and chech whether it satisfies the linearity property or not
3. Write a MATLAB program to verify the linearity prpoerty of the following sequency x1=
sin(2*pi*0.1*n); cos(2*pi*0.3*n), and chech whether it satisfies the linearity property or not
4. Write a MATLAB program to verify the time invariance prpoerty of the following sequency x1=
sin(2*pi*1*n); x2= sin(2*pi*2*n), and chech whether it satisfies the time invariance property or not.
5. Write a MATLAB program to verify the time invariance prpoerty of the following sequency x1=
sin(2*pi*1*n); x2= sin(2*pi*2*n), and chech whether it satisfies the time invariance property or not
6. Write a MATLAB program to verify the time invariance prpoerty of the following sequency x1=
sin(2*pi*0.1*n); cos(2*pi*0.3*n), and chech whether it satisfies the time invariance property or not

55
 EXPERIMENT NO-8

AIM: Compute the Unit sample, unit step and sinusoidal response of thegiven LTI system and verifying
its stability

Software Required:
Mat lab software 7.0 and above

Theory:
A discrete time system performs an operation on an input signal based onpredefined criteria to produce a
modified output signal. The input signal x(n)is the system excitation, and y(n) is the system response. The
transform\ operation is shown as,

If the input to the system is unit impulse i.e. x(n) = δ(n) then the output ofthe system is known as impulse
response denoted by h(n) where,h(n) = T[δ(n)]we know that any arbitrary sequence x(n) can be represented
as a weightedsum of discrete impulses. Now the system response is given by,

For linear system (1) reduces to

given difference equation y(n)-y(n-1)+.9y(n-2)=x(n);

Program:
%given difference equation y(n)-y(n-1)+.9y(n-2)=x(n);
b=[1];
a=[1,-1,.9];
n =0:3:100;
%generating impulse signal
x1=(n==0);
%impulse response
56
h1=filter(b,a,x1);
subplot(3,1,1);
stem(n,h1);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('h(n)');
title('impulse response');
%generating step signal
x2=(n>0);
% step response
s=filter(b,a,x2);
subplot(3,1,2);
stem(n,s);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('s(n)')
title('step response');

%generating sinusoidal signal

t=0:0.1:2*pi;
x3=sin(t);
% sinusoidal response
h2=filter(b,a,x3);
subplot(3,1,3);
stem(h2);
xlabel('n');
ylabel('h(n)');
title('sin response');
% verifing stability
figure;
zplane(b,a);

Result: The Unit sample, unit step and sinusoidal response of the givenLTI system is computed and its
stability verified.Hence all the poles lie inside the unit circle, so system is stable.

Output:

57
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1.What operations can be performed on signals and sequence?
2.Define causality and stability?
3.Define scaling property and give its importance?
4. Define shifting property and give its importance?
5.Define folding property and give its importance?
EXERCISE PROGRAM:-
1.Write a MATLAB program for generating u(n)-u(n-1).
2. Write a MATLAB program for generating delayed unit step response
3. Write a MATLAB program for generating delayed impulse response
4. Write a MATLAB program for generating u(n)+u(n-1) and verify how matlab reacts to it.

58
 EXPERIMENT NO-09

AIM: -
To obtain Fourier Transform and Inverse Fourier Transform of a given signal / sequence and to plot its
Magnitude and Phase Spectra.

SOFTWARE REQURIED:-
1.MATLAB R2010a.
2.Windows XP SP2.

THEORY:-
Fourier Transform :
The Fourier transform as follows. Suppose that ƒ is a function which is zerooutside of some interval [−L/2,
L/2]. Then for any T ≥ L we may expand ƒ in\ a Fourier series on the interval [−T/2,T/2], where the
"amount" of the wavee2πinx/T in the Fourier series of ƒ is given by definition Fourier Transform of signal
f(x) is defined as
∞
𝐹(𝜔) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡). 𝑒 −𝑗𝜔𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡
−∞
Inverse Fourier Transform of signal F(w) is defined as
1 ∞
𝑓(𝑡) = ∫ 𝐹(𝜔)𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔
2𝜋 −∞

Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
fs=1000;
N=1024; % length of fft sequence
t=[0:N-1]*(1/fs);
% input signal
x=0.8*cos(2*pi*100*t);
subplot(3,1,1);
plot(t,x);
axis([0 0.05 -1 1]);
grid;
xlabel('t');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('input signal');
% magnitude spectrum
x1=fft(x);
k=0:N-1;
Xmag=abs(x1);
subplot(3,1,2);
plot(k,Xmag);
grid;
59
xlabel('t');
ylabel('amplitude');
title('magnitude of fft signal')
%phase spectrum
Xphase=angle(x1)*(180/pi);
subplot(3,1,3);
plot(k,Xphase);
grid;
xlabel('t');
ylabel('angle in degrees');
title('phase of fft signal');
Result: Magnitude and phase spectrum of FFT of a given signal isplotted.
Output:

VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1.Define Fourier Series?
2.What are the properties of Continuous-Time Fourier Series?
3. What is the Sufficient condition for the existence of F.T?
4. Define the F.T of a signal?
5. What is the difference b/w F.T&F.S?

EXERCISE PROGRAMS
1.Write a MATLAB program to find the correlation using FFT.
.

60
 EXPERIMENT-10

AIM: Write the program for locating poles and zeros and plotting pole-zero maps in s-plane and z-plane for the
given transfer function.

Software Required:
Matlab software 7.0 and above.

Theory:
Z-transforms
The Z-transform, like many other integral transforms, can be defined aseither a one-sided or two-sided
transform.Bilateral Z-transform. The bilateral or two-sided Z-transform of a discrete-time signal x[n] is thefunction
X(z) defined as

Unilateral Z-transform
Alternatively, in cases where x[n] is define

In signal processing, this definition is used when the signal is causal.

The roots of the equation P(z) = 0 correspond to the 'zeros' of X(z)

The roots of the equation Q(z) = 0 correspond to the 'poles' of X(z)

Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
%enter the numerator and denominatorcoefficients in square brackets
num=input('enter the numerator coefficients');
den=input('enter the denominatorcoefficients');
%find the transfer function using built-in function 'filt'
H=filt(num,den)
%find locations of zeros
z=zero(H);
disp('zeros are at ');
disp(z);
%find residues,pole locations and gain constant of H(z)
[r p k]=residuez(num,den);
disp('poles are at ');

61
disp(p);
%plot the pole zero map in z-plane
zplane(num,den);
title('pole-zero map of LTI system in z-plane');
% ploe-zero plot in s-plane
H1=tf(num,den) % find transfer function H(s)
[p1,z1]=pzmap(H1); % find the locations of poles and zeros
disp('poles ar at ');disp(p1);
disp('zeros ar at ');disp(z1);
figure;
%plot the pole-zero map in s-plane
pzmap(H1);
title('pole-zero map of LTI system in s-plane');
Result: Pole-zero maps are plotted in s-plane and z-plane for the given
transfer function.

Output:
enter the numerator coefficients[1 -1 4 3.5]
enter the denominatorcoefficients[2 3 -2.5 6]
Transfer function:
1 - z^-1 + 4 z^-2 + 3.5 z^-3
------------------------------
2 + 3 z^-1 - 2.5 z^-2 + 6 z^-3
zeros are at
0.8402 + 2.1065i
0.8402 - 2.1065i
-0.6805
poles are at
-2.4874
0.4937 + 0.9810i
0.4937 - 0.9810i
Transfer function:
s^3 - s^2 + 4 s + 3.5
-------------------------
2 s^3 + 3 s^2 - 2.5 s + 6
polesar at
-2.4874
0.4937 + 0.9810i
0.4937 - 0.9810i
zerosar at
0.8402 + 2.1065i
0.8402 - 2.1065i
-0.6805

62
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1.Study the details of ztrans() and iztrans() functions?
2.What are poles and zeros?
3.How you specify the stability based on poles and zeros?
4.Define S-plane and Z-plane?
5.What is the difference b/w S-plane and Z-plane?

EXERCISE
1.Write a MATLAB program to find the impulse response of the following difference equation
3y(n)-5y(n-1)+4y(n-2)=x(n)-2x(n-1).

63
 EXPERIMENT No-11

AIM: Verify the sampling theorem.

Software Required:
Matlab software 7.0 and above.
Theory:
Sampling Theorem:
A bandlimited signal can be reconstructed exactly if it is sampled at a rateat least twice the maximum
frequency component in it." Figure 1 shows asignal g(t) that is bandlimited.

Figure 1: Spectrum of bandlimited signal g(t)

The maximum frequency component of g(t) is fm. To recover the signal g(t)exactly from its samples it has
to be sampled at a rate fs ≥ 2fm.The minimum required sampling rate fs = 2fm is called ' Nyquist rate
Proof: Let g(t) be a band-limited signal whose bandwidth is fm(wm = 2πfm).

Figure 2: (a) Original signal g(t) (b) Spectrum G(w)

δ (t) is the sampling signal with fs = 1/T > 2fm.

Let gs(t) be the sampled signal. Its Fourier Transform Gs(w) is given by

64
 Figure 3: (a) sampling signal δ (t) ) (b) Spectrum δ (w)

Figure 4: (a) sampled signal gs(t) (b) Spectrum Gs(w)

To recover the original signal G(w):

1. Filter with a Gate function, H2wm(w) of width 2wm Scale it by T.

65
 Figure 5: Recovery of signal by filtering with a filter of width 2𝜔𝑚

Aliasing 𝜔𝑠 <2𝜔𝑚

Figure 6: Aliasing due to inadequate sampling

Figure 7: Oversampled signal-avoids aliasing

Program:
clc;
clear all;
close all;
t=-10:.01:10;
T=4;
fm=1/T;
x=cos(2*pi*fm*t);
subplot(2,2,1);
plot(t,x);
xlabel('time');
66
ylabel('x(t)');
title('continous time signal');
grid;
n1=-4:1:4;
fs1=1.6*fm;
fs2=2*fm;
fs3=8*fm;
x1=cos(2*pi*fm/fs1*n1);
subplot(2,2,2);
stem(n1,x1);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('x(n)');
title('discrete time signal with fs<2fm');
hold on;
subplot(2,2,2);
plot(n1,x1);
grid;
n2=-5:1:5;
x2=cos(2*pi*fm/fs2*n2);
subplot(2,2,3);
stem(n2,x2);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('x(n)');
title('discrete time signal with fs=2fm');
hold on;
subplot(2,2,3);
plot(n2,x2)
grid;
n3=-20:1:20;
x3=cos(2*pi*fm/fs3*n3);
subplot(2,2,4);
stem(n3,x3);
xlabel('time');
ylabel('x(n)');
title('discrete time signal with fs>2fm')
hold on;
subplot(2,2,4);
plot(n3,x3)
grid;

Result: Sampling theorem is verified.

OUTPUT:

67
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1.State Paeseval’s energy theorem for a periodic signal?
2. Define sampling Theorem?
3. What is Aliasing Effect?
4. what is Under sampling?
5. What is Over sampling?
EXERCISE PROGRAM:-
1.Write a MATLAB program to find the effect of up sampling in frequency domain.

68
 Cycle: II
(Digital Electronics)

69
EXPERIMENT-1

AIM :To develop a VHDL Code for Logic Gates-AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR and to
verify its functionality.

APPARATUS:Model Sim 5.7

.VHDL CODE:

library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity logicgates is
port(a,b: in std_logic;c,d,e,f,g,h,i: out std_logic);
end logicgates;
architecture dataflow of logicgates is
begin
c<= a and b;
d<= a or b;
e<= not b;
f<= a xor b;
g<= a nand b;
h<= not(a xor b);
i<= a nor b;
end dataflow;

TRUTH TABLE:-

INPUTS OUTPUTS
AND OR NOT XOR NAND XNOR NOR
A b
c d e f g h i
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0

70
RTL SCHEMATIC:

BASIC
LOGIC
GATES

WAVEFORMS:

RESULT: - Hence all the logic gates are simulated in VHDL using dataflow modeling and their
functionality is verified.

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is VHDL?
2. What is the need for VHDL?
3. What is meant by simulation?
4. What is meant by synthesis?
5. Who initialized the VHDL and in which year?

71
EXPERIMENT-2(a)
AIM : (a) To write a Program in VHDL for simulating the half adder and to verify its functionality.

APPARATUS: Model Sim 5.7

VHDL CODE:

library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity halfadder is
port(a,b: in std_logic; s,c: out std_logic);
end halfadder;
architecture dataflow of halfadder is
begin
s<= a xor b;
c<= a and b;
end dataflow;

TRUTH TABLE:-

INPUTS OUTPUTS
Sum Carry
a b
s c
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

RTL SCHEMATIC:

HALF ADDER

72
WAVEFORMS:

RESULT:- Hence the half adder is simulated in VHDL using data flow modeling and its
functionality is verified .

73
EXPERIMENT-2(b)

AIM: - To write a PROGRAM in VHDL for simulating the full adder and to verify its functionality.

APPARATUS: Model Sim 5.7

VHDL CODE:

library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity fulladder is
port(a,b,c: in std_logic;s,cy: out std_logic);
end fulladder;
architecture dataflow of fulladder is
begin
s<= (a xor b)xor c;
cy<= (a and b) or (b and c) or (c and a);
end dataflow;

TRUTH TABLE:-

INPUTS OUTPUTS
a b c s cy
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

RTL SCHEMATIC:

74
 FULL ADDER

WAVEFORMS:

RESULT: - Hence the full adder is simulated in VHDL and its functionality is verified.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is the assignment operator for i) signal ii) variable?

2. What is the difference between signal and variable?
3. Is process used for combinational or sequential logic?
4. What is the difference between function and procedure?
5. Define i) entity ii) architecture.

75
EXPERIMENT-3(a)
AIM : (a) To write a Program in VHDL for simulating the half substractor and to verify its functionality.

APPARATUS: Model Sim 5.7

VHDL CODE:

library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity halfadder is
port(a,b: in std_logic; d,br: out std_logic);
end halfadder;
architecture dataflow of halfadder is
begin
d<= a xor b;
br<=nor(a) and b;
end dataflow;

TRUTH TABLE:-

INPUTS OUTPUTS
difference borrow
a b
(d) (br)
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0

RTL SCHEMATIC:

WAVEFORMS:
76
RESULT:- Hence the half substractor is simulated in VHDL using data flow modeling and its
functionality is verified .

77
EXPERIMENT-3(b)

AIM: - To write a PROGRAM in VHDL for simulating the full substractor and to verify its
functionality.

APPARATUS: Model Sim 5.7

VHDL CODE:

library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity fulladder is
port(a,b,c: in std_logic;d,br: out std_logic);
end fulladder;
architecture dataflow of fulladder is
begin
d<= (a xor b)xor c;
br<= (not(a) and c) or (not(a) and b) or (b and c);
end dataflow;
TRUTH TABLE:-

INPUTS OUTPUTS
a b c d br
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1

RTL SCHEMATIC:

78
 FULL
SUBTRACTOR

WAVEFORMS:

RESULT: - Hence the full subtractor is simulated in VHDL and its functionality is verified.

79
EXERIMENT-4(a)
AIM:- To write a code in VHDL for simulating the 4x1 multiplexer and to observe the waveforms.

APPARATUS: Model Sim 5.7

VHDL CODE:-

library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity mux41 is
port(a,b,c,d:in std_logic;s:in std_logic_vector(1 downto 0);y:out std_logic);
end mux41;
architecture beh of mux41 is
begin
process(a,b,c,d,s)
begin
case s is
when "00"=>y<=a;
when "01"=>y<=b;
when "10"=>y<=c;
when "11"=>y<=d;
when others=>y<='U';
end case;
end process;
end beh;

TRUTH TABLE:-
SELECT DATA INPUTS OUTPUTS
S1 S0 Y
0 0 D0
0 1 D1
1 0 D2
1 1 D3

80
RTL SCHEMATIC:

MUX 4 x 1
WAVEFORMS:

RESULT:- Hence the 4x1 multiplexer is simulated in VHDL and its functionality is verified.

81
EXERIMENT-4(b)
(iii) AIM:- To write a code in VHDL for simulating the 8x1 multiplexer and to verify its functionality.

APPARATUS: Model Sim 5.7

VHDL CODE:-

library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity mux81 is
port(x:in std_logic_vector(0 to 7);s:in std_logic_vector(2 downto 0);y:out std_logic);
end mux81;
architecture structure of mux81 is
component mux41
port(a,b,c,d:in std_logic;s: in std_logic_vector(1 downto 0);y: out std_logic);
end component;
component mux21
port(a,b,s: in std_logic;y: out std_logic);
end component;
signal p1,p2: std_logic;
begin
X1: mux41 port map(x(0),x(1),x(2),x(3),s(1 downto 0),p1);
X2: mux41 port map(x(4),x(5),x(6),x(7),s(1 downto 0),p2);
X3: mux21 port map(p1,p2,s(2),y);
end structure;

RTL SCHEMATIC:

82
 MUX 2 x 1
MUX 4 x 1

MUX 4 x 1

WAVEFORMS:

RESULT:- Hence the 8x1 multiplexer is simulated in VHDL using structural modeling and its
functionality is verified.

83
EXERIMENT-5(a)
AIM:- To write a code in VHDL for simulating the 1x4 demultiplexer and to verify its functionality.

APPARATUS: Model Sim 5.7

VHDL CODE:-

Library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity dmux14 is
port(a: in std_logic;s: in std_logic_vector(1 downto 0);y: out std_logic_vector(0 downto 3));
end dmux14;
architecture dmux of dmux14 is
begin
process(a,s)
begin
y<="0000";
case s is
when "00"=>y(0)<=a;
when "01"=>y(1)<=a;
when "10"=>y(2)<=a;
when "11"=>y(3)<=a;
when others=>y<="UUUU";
end case;
end process;
end dmux;

TRUTH TABLE:-

DATA SELECT OUTPUTS

INPUT INPUTS
S1 S0 Y0 Y1 Y2 Y3
a 0 0 a 0 0 0
a 0 1 0 a 0 0
a 1 0 0 0 a 0
a 1 1 0 0 0 a

84
RTL SCHEMATIC:

WAVEFORMS:

RESULT:- Hence the 1x8 demultiplexer is simulated in VHDL using behavioral modeling and its
functionality is verified

85
EXPERIMENT-5(b)

AIM:- To write a code in VHDL for simulating the 1x8 demultiplexer and to verify its functionality.

APPARATUS: Model Sim 5.7

VHDL CODE:-

library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity dmux81 is
port(a: in std_logic;s: in std_logic_vector(2 downto 0);y: out std_logic_vector(0 downto 7));
end dmux18;
architecture dmux of dmux18 is
begin
process(a,s)
begin
y<="00000000";
case s is
when "000"=>y(0)<=a;
when "001"=>y(1)<=a;
when "010"=>y(2)<=a;
when "011"=>y(3)<=a;
when "100"=>y(4)<=a;
when "101"=>y(5)<=a;
when "110"=>y(6)<=a;
when "111"=>y(7)<=a;
when others=>y<="UUUUUUUU";
end case;
end process;
end dmux;

86
TRUTH TABLE:-

DATA SELECT INPUTS OUTPUTS

INPUT
S2 S1 S0 Y0 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y6 Y7
a 0 0 0 a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
a 0 0 1 0 a 0 0 0 0 0 0
a 0 1 0 0 0 a 0 0 0 0 0
a 0 1 1 0 0 0 a 0 0 0 0
a 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 a 0 0 0
a 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 a 0 0
a 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a 0
a 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a

RTL SCHEMATIC:

DEMUX 1 x8

WAVEFORMS:

87
EXPERIMENT- 6(a)

AIM: - To write a code in VHDL for simulating the 8:3 Priority Encoder and to verify its functionality.

APPARATUS: Model Sim 5.7

VHDL CODE:
library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity p_encoder_8_to_3 is
port (a : in STD_LOGIC_VECTOR (7downto 0); d : out STD_LOGIC_VECTOR (2downto 0));
endp_encoder_8_to_3;
architecture behavioral of p_encoder_8_to_3 is
begin
process (a)
begin
casea is
when “00000001”=> d<=“000”;
when “0000001X”=> d<=“001”;
when “000001XX”=> d<=“010”;
when “00001XXX”=> d<=“011”;
when “0001XXXX”=> d<=“100”;
when “001XXXXX”=>d<=“101”;
when “01XXXXXX”=> d<=“110”;
when “1XXXXXXX”=> d<= “111”;
when others=>d<=“XXX”;
end case;
end process;
end behavioral;

TRUITH TABBLE
88
89
EXPERIMENT-6(b):

AIM: - To write a code in VHDL for simulating the 3:8 decoder and to verify its functionality.

APPARATUS: Model Sim 5.7

VHDL CODE:
library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity decoder_3_to_8is
port (a : in std_logic_vector (2 downto 0); d : out std_logic_vector (7 downto 0));
end decoder_3_to_8;
architecture behavioral of decoder_3_to_8 is
begin
process (a)
begin
case a is
when “000”=> d<=“00000001”;
when “001”=> d<=“00000010”;
when “010”=> d<=“00000100”;
when “011”=> d<=“00001000”;
when “100”=> d<=“00010000”;
when “101”=> d<=“00100000”;
when “110”=> d<=“01000000”;
when others=>d<=“10000000”;
end case;
end process;
end behavioral;
TRUTH TABLE:

90
91
EXPERIMENT-7(a)

AIM: - To write a code in VHDL for simulating the SR flip-flop and to verify its functionality.

APPARATUS: Model Sim 5.7

VHDL CODE:

library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity SR is
port(S,R,clk: in std_logic;Q:inout std_logic:='0';Qb:inout std_logic:='1');
end SR;
architecture ff of SR is
begin
process(S,R,clk)
variable t,tb: std_logic;
begin
t:=Q;
tb:=Qb;
if (clk='0'and clk'event) then
if(S='0'and R='0') then t:=t;tb:=tb;
elsif(S='0'and R='1') then t:='0';tb:='1';
elsif(S='1'and R='0') then t:='1';tb:='0';
elsif(S='1'and R='1') then t:='U';tb:='U';
end if;
Q<=t;
Qb<=tb;
end if;
end process;
end ff;

92
TRUTH TABLE:-

INPUTS OUTPUTS

S R Q Qb
0 0 Q Qb
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 X X

RTL SCHEMATIC:

R Q
SR FLIP FLOP
CLK Qb

WAVEFORMS:
CLK

RESULT:-Hence the SR flip-flop is simulated in VHDL and its functionality is verified.

93
EXPERIMENT-7(b)

AIM:- (b)To write a code in VHDL for simulating the D flip-flop and to verify its functionality.

APPARATUS: Model Sim 5.7

VHDL CODE:-

library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity d_ff is
port(d,clk:in std_logic; Q:inout std_logic:='0';Qb:inout std_logic:='1’);
end d_ff;
architecture behaviour of d_ff is
begin
process(d,clk)
begin
if (clk='0' and clk'event)then
q<=d;
qb<=not(d);
end if;
end process;
end behaviour;

TRUTH TABLE:-

INPUTS OUTPUTS

D Q Qb
0 0 1
1 1 0

94
RTL SCHEMATIC:

D_FF

WAVEFORMS:

RESULT:- Hence the D flip-flop is simulated in VHDL and its functionality is verified.

95
EXPERIMENT-7(c)

AIM:- (b)To write a code in VHDL for simulating the JK flip-flop and to verify its functionality.

APPARATUS: Model Sim 5.7

VHDL CODE:

library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity JK_FF is
PORT( J,K,CLOCK: in std_logic; Q, QB: out std_logic);
end JK_FF;
Architecture behavioral of JK_FF is
begin
process(CLOCK)
variable TMP: std_logic;
begin
if(CLOCK='1' and CLOCK'EVENT) then
if(J='0' and K='0')then
TMP:=TMP;
elsif(J='1' and K='1')then
TMP:= not TMP;
elsif(J='0' and K='1')then
TMP:='0';
else
TMP:='1';
end if;
end if;
Q<=TMP;
Q <=not TMP;
end PROCESS;
end behavioral;

96
TRUTH TABLE:

RTL SCHEMATIC:

WAVEFORM:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are the various types of operators supported by VHDL?

97
 2. What are the different concurrent assignment statements?
3. What are the different sequential assignment statements?
4. What is the purpose of PROCESS statement?
5. Give the general form of CASE statement.
ANSWERS:

1. Boolean(AND, OR,NAND, NOR,XOR, XNOR), arithmetic(*,/.MOD,REM,-,&), and

relational(=,/<,<=,>,>=)
2. Simple signal assignment, selected signal assignment, conditional signal assignment, and generate
statements.
3. IF statement, CASE statement, and two types of Loop statement(FOR-LOOP and WHILE-LOOP)
4. To separate the sequential statements from concurrent statements, PROCESS statement is used. The
PROCESS statement appears inside an architecture body, and it encloses other statements within it. The
IF, CASE, and LOOP statements can appear only inside a process.
.

98
 EXPERIMENT-8(a)

AIM:- To Design a BCD to GRAY converter using VHDL

APPARATUS: Model Sim 5.7

VHDL CODE:-

library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity bg is
Port ( i : in STD_LOGIC_VECTOR (3 downto 0);
g : out STD_LOGIC_VECTOR (3 downto 0));
end bg;
architecture Behavioral of bg is
begin
process(i)
begin
case i is
when "0000" => g <= "000";
when "0001" => g <= "001";
when "0010" => g <= "011";
when "0011" => g <= "010";
when "0100" => g <= "110";
when "0101" => g <= "111";
when "0110" => g <= "101";
when "1000" => g <= "000";
when "1001" => g <= "001";

when others => g <= "100";

end case;
end process;
end Behavioral;

99
RTL SCHEMATIC:

TRUTH TABLE:

100
 EXPERIMENT-9(a)

AIM:- To write a code in VHDL for simulating the Serial In Serial Out(SISO) and Serial In Parallel
Out(SIPO) shift registers using single entity and multiple architectures and to verify its functionality.

APPARATUS: Model Sim 5.7

VHDL CODE:-COMPONENT :

library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity D is
port(D,clk: in std_logic;Q:inout std_logic:='0');
end D;
architecture behaviour of D is
begin
process(D,clk)
begin
if (clk='0' and clk'event)then
Q<=D;
end if;
end process;
end behaviour;
SISO :

library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity siso_sipo is
port(si,clk: in std_logic;s0,p01,p02,p03:inout std_logic);
end siso_sipo;
architecture siso_d of siso_sipo is
component D
port(D,clk: in std_logic;Q:inout std_logic:='0');
end component;
begin
D1: D port map(si,clk,p01);

101
 D2: D port map(p01,clk,p02);
D3: D port map(p02,clk,p03);
D4: D port map(p03,clk,s0);
end siso_d;
SIPO:
architecture sipo_d of siso_sipo is
component D
port(D,clk: in std_logic;Q:inout std_logic:='0';Qb:inout std_logic:='1');
end component;
begin
D1: D port map(si,clk,p01);
D2: D port map(p01,clk,p02);
D3: D port map(p02,clk,p03);
D4: D port map(p03,clk,p04);
end sipo_d;
RTL SCHEMATIC:

D FF
D FF

D FF

D
F
F
D FF

102
WAVEFORMS:

RESULT:- Hence the Serial In Serial Out(SISO) and Serial In Parallel Out(SIPO) shift registers using
single entity and multiple architectures is simulated in VHDL and its functionality is verified.

103
EXPERIMENT-9(b)

AIM:- To write a code in VHDL for simulating the Parallel In Serial Out shift register(PISO) and to
verify its functionality.

APPARATUS: Model Sim 5.7

VHDL CODE:-

COMPONENT D:-
library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity D is
port(D,clk: in std_logic;Q:inout std_logic:='0';Qb:inout std_logic:='1');
end D;
architecture behaviour of D is
begin
process(D,clk)
begin
if (clk='0' and clk'event)then
Q<=D;
Qb<=not(D);
end if;
end process;
end behaviour;
COMPONENT OR2:-
library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity or2 is
port(a,b: in std_logic;c: out std_logic);
end or2;
architecture dataflow of or2 is
begin
104
 c<= a or b;
end dataflow;

COMPONENT AND2:-
library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity and2 is
port(a,b: in std_logic;c: out std_logic);
end and2;
architecture dataflow of and2 is
begin
c<= a and b;
end dataflow;

COMPONENT NOT1:-
library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity not1 is
port(a: in std_logic;c: out std_logic);
end not1;
architecture dataflow of not1 is
begin
c<= not(a);
end dataflow;

TOP MODULE:-

library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
entity piso is
port(p0,p1,p2,p3,s,clk: in std_logic;Qo: inout std_logic);
end piso;
architecture piso of piso is
component D

105
 port(D,clk: in std_logic;Q:inout std_logic:='0';Qb:inout std_logic:='1');
end component;
component and2
port(a,b: in std_logic;c: out std_logic);
end component;
component or2
port(a,b: in std_logic;c: out std_logic);
end component;
component not1
port(a: in std_logic;c: out std_logic);
end component;
signal s1,s2,s3,s4,s5,s6,s7,s8,s9,s10,q1,q2,q3: std_logic;
begin
n1: not1 port map(s,s1);
D1: D port map(p0,clk,q1,open);
a1: and2 port map(s,q1,s2);
a2: and2 port map(s1,p1,s3);
O1: or2 port map(s2,s3,s4);
D2: D port map(s4,clk,q2,open);
a3: and2 port map(s,q2,s5);
a4: and2 port map(s1,p2,s6);
O2: or2 port map(s5,s6,s7);
D3: D port map(s7,clk,q3,open);
a5: and2 port map(s,q3,s8);
a6: and2 port map(s1,p3,s9);
O3: or2 port map(s8,s9,s10);
D4: D port map(s10,clk,Qo,open);
end piso;
RTL SCHEMATIC:

106
 p0

p1

p2
PISO Q0
p3

clk

WAVEFORMS:

RESULT:- Hence the Parallel In Serial Out shift register(PISO) is simulated in VHDL and its
functionality is verified.

107
EXPERIMENT-10

AIM:- To write a code in VHDL for simulating 4-bit Up-counter and to verify its functionality.

APPARATUS: Model Sim 5.7

VHDL CODE:
library ieee ;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all ;
use ieee.std_logic_unsigned.all ;
entity counter is
port (clock, reset, e: in std_logic ;
q: out std_logic_vector (3 downto 0) ) ;
end counter ;
architecture behavior of counter is
signal count: std_logic_vector (3 downto 0);
begin
process (clock, reset)
begin
if reset = ‘0’ then
count <= ‘0000’;
elsif (clock’event and clock = ‘1’) then
if e=‘1’ then
count <= count +1;
else
count <= count;
endif;
endif;
end process ;
q <= count;
end behavior ;

108
BLOCK DIAGRAM:

RTL SCHEMATIC:

WAVEFORMS:

RESULT:- Hence the 4-bit Up-counter is simulated in VHDL and its functionality is verified

109