CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Ethnic conflict refers to conflicts and tensions that arise between different ethnic groups

within a society. These conflicts can have significant implications for the socio-economic

development of a country. Ethnic conflicts often result in violence, displacement of

populations, destruction of infrastructure, and economic instability.

Conflict has always been part of man's history. Early epochs of society have shown that once

men began relating with each other and started life in a communal way, disagreement became

inevitable as a result of the differences and sentiments inherent in men. Conflict being part of

society has affected the dynamics of society, it has shaped society into a gigantic force and as

such generated both possibilities and problems for mankind. Conflict has been able to

transform society into a desirous state but has also turned man into a monster and society into

hell.

Intractable ethnic conflict globally has long interested development advocates, and in recent

years the literature on the theme has drawn considerable attention due to its enormous

contemporary threat to peace and development worldwide. Goal 16 of the sustainable

development goals which seeks to promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable

development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive

institutions at all levels has been instrumental in minimizing conflicts around the world

(Sustainable Development Goals, 2016).

In Asia, ethnic conflicts has been witness in countries as Armenia and Azerbaijan conflicts,

Burmuese Civil War, Sri Lanka ethnic conflicts amongst others (Aidan, 2017). The
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Armenians and Azeris ethnic conflict in Nargorno-Karabakh respectively was an early

fisticuffs in 1988 which turned into a full blown war in 1992 between the respective ethnic

group (Sanan, 2017). In parts of East Africa, a number of countries can be mentioned to have

witness growing ethnic conflicts and unrest in the past decades based on ethnic identity. The

early 1990s has witness thousands of Burundians migrate from Burundi to seek refuge in

neighbouring countries due to the endless fighting between Hutu rebels and government in

the means to end the political supremacy of the Tutsi minority (Internal Displacement

Monitoring Centre, 2016) .The conflict began subsequent to the first multi-party elections in

the country after attaining indepence from Belgium in 1962 which resulted in the lost of

300,000 lives including homes and properties (Heavy Shelling Burundi Capital, 2008).

In parts of Southern Africa, the Zulu Civil War or Ndwandwe-Zulu War in South Africa was

fought between the Zulu Kingdom and Ndwandwe tribe (Cooper, 2017). The conflict largely

rooted to ownership of Land and Chieftaincy met with large number of lost lives between

Zulu’s and Ndwande. Cooper further explained that the conflict catastrophic impact resulted

in migration of the various tribes due to the famine generated from the conflict.

In Central Africa, the Kongo Civil War in Congo presents a different dimension to intra-

ethnic conflict between the rival houses of Kinzala and Kimpaza (Anne, 1983). Anne

explains that the differences between two brothers over the legitimacy to a throne was the

root cause of the conflict. The conflict resulted in the destruction of the capital town leading

to many of the inhabitants sold into the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.

West Africa has not only the highest ethnic diversity, but also the highest incidence of civil

war (Tokunbo & Oladipupo, 2016). Ethnic conflicts in Nigeria is opined to erupt due to

scarcity of political resources, multi-culturalism, religion, multitarisation of ethnicity amongst

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others. The popular October 2000 Lagos (Oko-Oba) – Kano (Idi-Araba) conflict was

emanated by a misinterpretation between a Yoruba inhabitant and Hausa living in Lagos town

over the usability of a place of convenience by a Hausa indigine. The conflict resulted in the

death lots of Yoruba lives consequently leading to the creation of the O’dua People Congress

worsening the situation as the conflict spread southwards to Kano state (Enukora, 2016).

Nigeria has a population of about 170 million and 250 ethnic groups, making it Africa's most

populous nation with a multitude of religious, ethnic and political fault lines that periodically

erupt into communal violence. The resulting rise in communal violence can be attributed to

various factors, including: ethnic rivalry, religious violence, land conflicts, conflicts related to

the demarcation of administrative boundaries and political elections, and conflicts linked to

resource control.

While some conflicts may appear to be caused by a single factor, such as religion or ethnicity,

the reality is usually more complex. Tensions caused by other factors such as pressure on land

or unequal access to social services have added a dynamic dimension to violent conflict in

Nigeria. Perhaps the most significant cause of communal violence in Nigeria is the

entrenched divisions throughout the country between people considered “indigenous" to an

area, and those regarded as “settlers".

Benue State is a largely Tiv community in the Middle Belt, the Tiv and their neighbours just

like other ethnic groups in Nigeria and the world over have not mastered the theory and

practice of peaceful co-existence. This failure to maintain appropriate individual and

communal relations, or put in place appropriate crisis management strategies and tactics to

handle intra and inter-ethnic conflicts whenever they arise, is responsible for the intermittent

wars, clashes, riots and crises in the Tiv nation (Oravee, 2000).

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Since conflict is inevitable in any society, that means Benue State as a conglomeration of

individuals with different ethnic affiliation, religious beliefs, political ideology, economic

interests had in time past has its own share of conflict and it's still experiencing it. Some of

the crises in Tiv-land include among others: the Tiv/Fulani conflict in Makurdi Local

Government Area (LGA); the Tiv/Fulani crisis in Nassarawa state, the Mbakor/Nongov

border crisis in Guma and Tarka LGAs; and the Tiv/Idoma crises in Benue state. The list of

these crises is endless as virtually every part of the nation has had its own share of inter

and/or intra-ethnic conflicts in the recent past.

These conflicts have not only contributed to the breakup of some societies socioeconomically

and politically, but have also strained relationship among those who had once lived together

peacefully. The communal and ethnic conflicts in Tiv-land have so held a whole section

down that progress has been sacrificed at the altar of underdevelopment. In fact, these tragic

conflicts carry with them additional dangers that if not checked may spread and result in more

deaths in Tiv land (Terwase, 2014). It is on this assertion that the need to evaluate ethnic

conflict in Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State as a study of analysis becomes

subject of interest.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Benue is one of Nigeria’s most resource-endowed States with a large landmass. Popularly

called ‘Nigeria’s Food Basket’, Benue’s vast and fertile landmass ordinarily, ought to be an

advantage as it can fast-track rapid socio-economic development, especially in terms of space

for agricultural practices; but the reverse seems to be the case, with the upsurge in violent

crimes in recent times. This affects the security of lives and property in the different

communities of the State. Since the past decade, the major security challenge confronting the

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region is the Fulani herdsmen communal clashes. This unfortunate development is gradually

killing Benue’s major industry, rice milling (Akighir, Ngutsav & Asom, 2011), thus,

triggering an evolving national food crisis and upsetting the socioeconomic structure of the

community – increasing poverty and unemployment. Also, the crisis disrupts crop planting,

animal rearing, and flow of (agricultural) investments since no investor would prefer to invest

in a crisis-ridden community. This is bad for economic security because when businesses are

shut-down, the wealth the economy generated per individual (i.e., nominal GDP per capita)

diminishes as well (Chandra & Bhonsle, 2015).

More so, figures of the number of people who have lost their lives and are displaced, and the

amount of property and livestock lost as a resultant impact of the Fulani herdsmen

conflagrations in Benue State is frightening. Thousands of people have become refugees in

their own country leading to as many social problems as starvation, illiteracy, high mortality

rate, and spread of diseases.

1.3 Research Questions

In order to address the objectives of this study, the following questions are posed to guide the

study:

i. What are the causes of ethnic conflict as perceived by the indigenous people in

Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State?

ii. What are the impact of the ethnic conflict on socio-economic development in

Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State?

iii. What are the mediating methods in managing and resolving the conflict in Otukpo

Local Government Area of Benue State as perceived by the indigenous local people?

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1.4 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of the study was to invetigate ethnic conflict and socio-economic

development Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State.

Specific Objective:

i. Examine the causes of ethnic conflict as percieved by the indigenous local people in

Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State.

ii. Determine the impact of ethnic conflict on socio-economic development of Otukpo

Local Government Area of Benue State

iii. Examine the mediating methods of government and that perceived by the indigenous

local people in managing and resolving the conflict in Otukpo Local Government

Area of Benue State.

1.5 Statement of Hypothesis

The hypothesis postulated for the study is stated in the null form thus:

Ho1: There is no significant relationship between ethnicity and conflict as percieved by the

indigenous local people in Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State.

Ho2: There is no significant relationship between ethnic conflict and socio-economic

development of Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State.

Ho3: There is no significant relationship between mediating methods in managing and

resolving the conflict in Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State as perceived

by the indigenous local people.

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1.6 Significance of the Study

Many people have considered the remote causes of ethnic conflict in Nigeria as a result of the

effect of colonialism in Africa and the transformation of the cultural, political and economic

system of the African settings. The upheavals unleashed on Africa as an outcome of colonial-

ism did not settle and due to the ensuing confusion, resistance, adaptation and adjustment,

ethnic conflict becomes necessary. Also literatures argues that attachment to ethnic symbol-

ism or identity creates conflict due to the intensity of response by individuals to perceive in -

jury to their ethnic group or to a member of that particular group. This research work on it

part believes that ethnic conflict in Nigeria and Benue State in particular is as a result of

political and economic struggle between ethnic groups.

The study intends to benefit the following stakeholders:

To the government

The study intends to create awareness about the factors hindering socio-economic growth,

this was important since the study provided recommendations (solutions) or mitigating

factors that may help policy makers in solving the issue.

To other academicians

The study intends to help them gain knowledge about ethnic conflict and how they can affect

socio-economic growth and development in any given country.

To Students

This study will also serve as a resource material for students alike that will want to carry out

further research on ethnic conflict in Nigeria and Benue State.

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1.7 Scope of the Study

The Scope of this study is to examine ethnic conflict and socio-economic development in

Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State from 2015 - 2022

1.8 Operational Definition of Key Terms

Ethnic: Ethnic refers to a social category or group of people who share common cultural,

linguistic, religious, or historical characteristics that distinguish them from other groups.

Ethnicity is often associated with a sense of identity, belonging, and shared traditions among

its members.

Conflict: Conflict refers to a state of disagreement, opposition, or hostility between

individuals, groups, or societies. It involves a clash of interests, values, or goals, often leading

to tension, disputes, or confrontations.

Ethnic Conflict: Ethnic conflict refers to conflicts, tensions, or hostilities that arise between

different ethnic groups or communities. It involves disputes and confrontations based on

perceived differences in ethnic, cultural, religious, or linguistic identities.

Development: Development refers to a process of positive change or progress in various

aspects of human life, societies, or nations. It encompasses economic, social, political, and

environmental dimensions and aims to improve the well-being, quality of life, and

capabilities of individuals and communities. Development involves efforts to address poverty,

inequality, and promote sustainable growth, human rights, and social justice.

Socio-economic development: Socio-economic development refers to the process of

improving the social and economic well-being of individuals, communities, and societies. It

encompasses efforts to address poverty, inequality, and social exclusion while promoting
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sustainable economic growth, access to quality education, healthcare, infrastructure, social

justice, and environmental sustainability.

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 CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.0 Introduction

This chapter is divided into three segments. Section 2.1 presents the conceptual clarification.

Section 2.2 portrays the empirical review of the study. Section 2.3 focuses on theoretical

framework of the study.

2.1 Conceptual Clarification

2.1.1 Concept of Conflict

It is often forgotten that conflict is an integral part of social existence. The word conflict has a

multiple range of meanings and references. By conflict, we refer to contradictions arising

from differences in interest, ideas, ideologies, orientations, perception and tendencies. These

contradictions exist at all level of society (Nnoli, 2019).

From the view of biography (Bozeman, 2019), conflict usually stands for inner stress and

tension, as when the self evolves from childhood and dependency; when choices between

rival moral challenges or course of social actions have to be made; or when competitive ideas

intrude upon the mental process of seeking certainty and truth.

Conflict is also seen as the measure of success and failure in competitive enterprise,

bargaining proceedings and maybe accepted as indispensable condition in all collisions of

interest, clashes of will, even contest of physical and intellectual skill. It has also being

argued that conflict is the vehicle for individual liberty and therefore it is part of political life

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(Nnoli, 2017). The resolution of conflict within the individual makes him/her a better person;

the same holds true for groups, institutions, nations, and international relations.

At this level just like the biography, conflict is valued not so much as an end in itself but

rather a process that induce some measures of ultimate conciliation or accord among persons

or groups. On this note, this aspect of the work will consider definitions of conflict, theories

of conflict, categories of conflict, remote causes of conflict in Africa and impact of conflict in

society.

Conflicts necessarily call our attention to the prevalence of severe crisis in the community,

society or the polity in general. Conflicts are costly. There is also an increasing recognition

that the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) will not be achieved unless more and more

is done to prevent and resolve violent conflict. A severe crisis in this context could mean the

threat to use force and the unsystematic use of force by one group against another, be it

ethnic, communal or religious. It must be emphasised that in this context, conflicts are

manifestations of in-built social dislocations and political imbalances in the polity (Jooji,

2015). In this sense, therefore, conflicts are not just about disagreements between individuals

and groups, but are deeper manifestations of socio-political crises. Conflict can also be

regarded as the clashing of opposing interests or positional differences around national values

and issues. These issues could be any or a combination of the following: self-determination,

access to, or distribution of domestic power and resources, territory and borders or

independence (Northouse and Northouse, 2017).

Conflicts are therefore a struggle over values and claims to scarce resource status, power, and

resources in which the aims of the opponents are to neutralize, injure, or eliminate the rivals.

The term conflict originally according to Webster dictionary meant a “fight, battle, or

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struggle”- that is, a physical confrontation between parties. But its meaning has grown to

include a sharp disagreement or opposition, as of interests, ideas etc (Rubin, Pruitt & Kim,

2014). The term now embraces the psychological underpinnings of physical confrontation.

We can equally look at conflict as an antagonistic situation or adversarial process between at

least two individuals or collective actors over means or ends such as: resources, power, status,

values, goals or interests. The range of outcomes varies and it includes victory, defeat,

domination, surrender, neutralization, conversion, coercion, injury, or destruction and

elimination of the opposite party (Jooji: 2015). Alternatively, it could take the form of the

solution, settlement or transformation of the conflict.

Conflict varies greatly in its manifestations. In her power ethnography of Mozambique, ‘A

Different Kind of War Story’, anthropologist Carolyn Nordstrom asks: ‘Exactly what is

violence?

 An act, a drive, an emotion, a sensation, a relationship, an intent to harm?

 A thing, an event, a concept, a process, an interaction?

 An intangible threat, a tangible force?

 Something physically felt, something emotionally registered, something conceptually

recognized?

 Something that is over with the end of the act, or something that reconfigures reality

in its very occurrences, making the concept ‘over’ meaningless? (Nordstrom: 2017).

Jackson (2016) says that many writers on conflict would suggest that forms of conflict are

always present in any society, and that, indeed, certain kinds of conflict are a necessary and

healthy part of any democratic society. Thus, they would argue, the challenge is not to
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prevent or resolve conflict, but rather to manage it, transforming its expression from violent

to non-violent forms. Is conflict then always associated with ‘development’? A number of

different theorists have suggested, in different ways, that the process of development itself is

inherently violent. First, Tilly (2015) and Reyna and Downs (2019) argue that the

development of the Western capitalist nation states itself has always intimately been

associated with overt violence and criminal activity. Dependencistas such as Frank (2016)

argue that the modernizations path of development pursued by the west explicitly depended

upon the immiseration and systemic underdevelopment of the ‘developing world’.

Writers such as Duffield (2016) and Chabal (2016) have provocatively imagined that the

apparent ‘anarchy’ of states undergoing apparently chronic political instability (Sudan,

Angola, Congo, etc) in fact conceal adaptive forms of predatory political and economic

behaviour by elite which, however repugnant, must also be recognized as a perverse form of

‘development’. Chabal (2017), suggests similarly that in Africa (and elsewhere), there is an

increasing ‘political instrumentalization of disorder’: which is to say that elites create and

manipulate a climate of apparent confusion and administrative ambiguity through which to

pursue power and profit. Thus, both writers point out the paradox that it is the ability of both

state and non-state actors to grow in their ability to manage and make rational use of violence

that has come to be one of the few forms of ‘development’ in many countries around the

globe where aid is still being offered.

Conflict not only creates specific manifestations of poverty, but also affects wider structures

and institutions. At the local level, in areas most directly affected by conflict like Central

Nigeria, there is likely to be:

 A breakdown in the rule of law coupled with a lack of government services.

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  Human rights abuses committed by the different parties to the conflict.

 Disruption to economic activity.

 Illicit and unregistered economic activities (circulation of arms, smuggling, looting,

banditry).

 Specific local manifestations of poverty and vulnerability (Toure, 2015).

2.1.2 Assumptions of conflict

Four basic assumptions of conflict are:

1. Competition: Competition over scarce resources is at the heart of all social

relationships. Competition, rather than consensus is characteristic of human

relationships in all societies to which the theory of conflict is applicable. Marxian

materialists assert that there is no competitive nature; rather, humans are influenced

by their surroundings resulting in competitive propensity.

2. Structural inequality: Inequalities in power and reward are built into all social

structures. Individuals and groups that benefit from any particular structure strive to

see it maintained.

3. Revolution: Change occurs as a result of conflict between competing social classes

rather than through adaptation. Change is often abrupt and revolutionary rather than

evolutionary.

4. War: War is a unifier of the societies involved, as well as possibly ending whole

societies. In modern society, a source of conflict is power: politicians are competing

to enter into a system; they act in their interest, not for the welfare of the people.
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2.1.3 Definition of Conflict

The concept of conflict draws it original meaning from the Latin word 'configus' which

means to strive or clash together. This clash or jamming together could be physical or non-

physical, tangible or non-tangible and some non-tangible elements include ideas, feelings,

interests, goals, objectives etc. (Ka'oje; 2017)

Operationally, conflict has several meanings. Many scholars have tried to define the concept

from different perspective. One of the most quoted traditional definition is the struggle over

values and claims to scarce status, power and resources (Coser, 2019).

Some existing definitions of the concept follow a thought pattern that clearly describes

conflict as; a state of incompatibility, behaviour, an opposition, an interaction of inter-

dependent parties, a bad omen and constructive outcome. It is the situation in which the

concerns of two or more individuals operating within a unit appears to be incompatible

(Darling & Fogliasso, 2015).

Conflict can also be define as a situation in which interdependent people express (manifest or

latent) differences in satisfying their individual needs and interest and their experiences

differs from each other in accomplishing these goals (Donolue & Kolt, 2017).

Conflict can be seen as a felt struggle between two or more independent individuals over

perceived incompatible differences in beliefs, values, and goals or differences in desires for

esteem, control, and connectedness (Wilmot & Hocker, 2011). Conflict occurs when people

are nested by some sort of social cords. It does not occur in isolation.
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Summarily, conflict can thus be seen as the pursuit of incompatible interest and goals by

different groups. Conflict occurs when people are interdependent, it is always expressed

either in manifest or latent form which involves needs and interest and is caused by

interference between and among parties.

2.1.4 Categories of Conflict

Conflict as an intrinsic and inevitable part of human existence and inherent in social existence

and progress has broadly being categorize into two which are functional and dysfunctional

conflict.

Functional Conflict

Functional conflict or constructive conflict simply means when the outcome of a conflict

scenario is positive to human development. Under this category, conflict is the underlying

power that stimulate innovations and development. This conflict category produces positive

outcomes by introducing different perspective and accepting innovative solutions (Best,

2016).

Functional conflict reflect the differences and variety of human opinion and activity which

exists in an open society. If this form of conflict is suppress all together, a society becomes

static and stagnant lacking the development of new ideas and institutions to take the place of

old and out modelled ones (Ka'oje, 2017).

Dysfunctional Conflict

On the other hand, conflict that ends up in negative outcomes are regarded as dysfunctional

conflict. Conflict under this term can be seen as an element that conjures negative

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connotation, invokes negative feelings and often leads to destruction (Lindelow & Scott,

2015).

The dysfunctional conflict causes destruction to society and as such, remedies have to be

found to bring the warring parties together. Usually, it is the refusal to change that brings

about dysfunctional conflict.

For development to continue in society, functional conflict should always be allowed because

it helps readjust values and power relationship in accordance with the needs of the members

and allow political community to maintain flexibility and allow change (Ka'oje, 2017).

2.1.5 Impact of Conflict

Conflict is not necessarily a negative phenomenon; what is important is the way in which the

society responds to the emerging conflict. Where these emerging conflict can be

accommodated, society will be a mix of conflict and cooperation since conflict is inevitable.

If the emerging conflict can undergo transformation, peaceful change can ensue which will

trigger development and capacity building. However, should societal capacity not be

adequate enough to at least manage the conflict and various conflict triggers are discharged,

then violent conflict will materialise (Bowd, 2018).

Violent conflict of any nature results in explicit material and human costs to a society. In

terms of physical infrastructure, roads, bridges, schools, hospitals and administrative

buildings are destroyed. Water courses and wells may be poisoned or polluted, either

deliberately or as a consequence of dead bodies, mass migrations of people or military

discharge thereby resulting to mid-long term water shortage and associated developmental

problems.

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The human and social cost of conflict is so devastating directly or indirectly. Attack on

human life is common with attack and atrocities against non-combatant becoming widely

common as deliberate strategies of warfare including such tactics as systematic rape, mass

execution, and ethnic cleansing etc. The mass migration of people reduces human security

through environmental degradation, inadequate sanitation, increase health problems, lack of

access to food and physical insecurity, thus giving rise to further human emergencies.

The direct and indirect results of conflict leaves a complex lasting legacy that is difficult to

erase. Economies need to be stabilized and developed, infrastructures needs to be rebuilt and

institutional renewal or replacement needs to take place. Education systems are adversely

affected by conflict, health systems are unable to cope with increasing demands and social

institutions becomes dilapidated or non-existent (Bowd, 2018)

Since conflict is an inevitable aspect of human interaction and avoidable concomitant of

choices and decisions with its adverse consequence, the solution then is not to count the

frustration of seeking to remove inevitability but rather to try to keep conflict in banks.

2.1.6 Concept and History of Ethnic Conflict

To clearly define the concept of ethnic conflict, it was important to distinguish the meanings

of the various concepts associated with ethnic group and ethnicity. Achebe (2017) described

ethic group as group of people who see themselves or are seen by others as sharing a

distinctive, collective identity and traits based on certain feature. Ethnicity as described by

Horowitz (2015) is based on a myth of collective ancestry usually carrying traits believed to

be innate. According to Tambiah (2019), the sudden resurgence of the term ethnicity in the

field of social science literature of the 2013s and 2017s took place not only to describe certain

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manifestations in the world, but also in reaction to the emergence of ethnic movement in the

industrialized and affluent world; especially in United States, Canada and Western Europe.

2.1.7 Ethnic conflict from Global Perspective

In Asia, the Nagorno-Karabakh ethnic conflict inveigle most scholars attention as a result of

its scale as well due to its significant spill-over effect (Melita, 2016). In Sri Lanka, the

Sinhalese and Tamil ethnic communities trace their ethnic heritage and culture to India

(Manogaran, 2019). The Sinhalese and Tamil ethnic conflict sterns from the fact that the

Tamils perceive its group as a privileged community in Sri Lanka with total rights to

languages, status of Buddhism, employment, education opportunities and political control of

the state whiles Sinhalese ethnic group perceive themselves as been marginalized and their

rights been infringed upon (Manogaran, 2015). The Kashmir conflict, a typical territorial

conflict between two ethnic groups namely Kashmiris and Jammunites from India and

Pakistan respectively has equally drawn the attention of scholars over the past decades

(Human Rights Watch, 2016). The conflict between the two factions roots from the fact that

the Kashmiris insurgents and Indian government are tied to a dispute over local autonomy of

the disputed land. Despite the loss of thousands of lives, the conflict has become less violent

in recent times due to the intervention of protest movements (Wax, 2018).

In Kenya, ethnic conflict happenings is well explained using the Marxist theory. In economic

scope, the bourgeoisie who are identified as the small class and the proletariat who are the

bigger class compete over scarce resources (Marx, 2016). Marx further explained that ethnic

groups from the bourgeoisie are notably seen to benefit more economically and politically as
19
they leverage on the conditions of the proletariat to enhance their agenda rather than seeking

remedies to the root canker of the ethnic conflict.

South Sudan has generally witness a long history of ethnic violence resulting in massive

killings or genocide. With over 64 ethnic tribes, it is common to find difference amongst the

various tribes with the Dinka tribe dominating about 35% of the population and

predominately in government (The World Factbook, 2017). Conflict in the area is often

erupted due to differences over the issues of cattle and grazing lands amongst normadic

groups.

The Ituri ethnic conflict in Congo is another on-going major ethnic conflict between

agriculturalist – Lendu and pastoralist – Hema since 1972 largely set off by the Second

Congo War (Uppsala Conflict Data Program, 2016). The Hem and Lendu groups have had

longstanding differences over land issues in the last three decades.

Much of the issues revolved around the fact that, the 1973 Law allowed people to buy land

that they do not inhabit and where ownership is not contested for two years, eviction of any

resident is implemented. The conflict extreme nature led to large scale massarcer executed by

members of both ethnic factions. A report from BBC stated as many as 60,000 lives were lost

since 1998 whiles thousands of lives were forced from their homes becoming refugees

(Reddition d’environ 300 miliciens de la FRPI en Ituri, 2015).

The Batwa – Luba ethnic conflict in Congo amongst other conflicts is another ethnic conflict

that has derailed development in Congo (Ethnic Militias Attack Civilians Katanga, 2015).

The Batwa group have been knowned to be exploited and enslaved by the Luba group and

other Bantu groups. The primary cause of the conflict erupted from the Batwa group rising up

20
into militia to attack Luba villages. In 2015, at least 30 people were killed and over tens of

thousands have been displaced from their home due to the conflict.

In Nigeria, fresh ethnic conflict between the Tivs and Jukuns in the Plateau state escalated to

high pitch in September 2014 following what became later as 'mistaken identity' (Kura 2016).

The findings were that, some Tivs inhabitants mistaken some nineteen soldiers to be Jukuns

in disguise military uniform. The Tivs youth captured the armed soldiers, brutalized them and

slaughtered them in turns. The Nigeria army in response to the incident embarked on an

attacking crusade with hundreds of people dying in that attack (Human Rights Watch, 2016).

The Herder – Farmer (Fulani/Hausa – Tiv/Tarok) ethnic violence over land and cattle

between herders and farmers in Nigeria in the peaks of 2004 and 2011 is another classical

conflict in Nigeria. Greatly impacted states of the conflicts are those of Nigerian Middle Belt

such as Plateau, Benue and Taraba with fatalities of about 2,000 and over 700 lives in 2015

(Social Violence Nigeria, 2015).

In Liberia, the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD) as an insurgency

group created to sustain and build a stable democracy in Republic of Liberia through the

anexation of Taylor government regime eventually resulted in conflicts in the ethnic lines of

Krahn, Mandingo and Gio factions (Kranz, 2015). The differences between the Krahns and

Mandingos in 2015 resulted in the hatred between the two ethnic groups respectively Ziah

and Sherrif at the Council of States elections in Liberia. Mandingo ethnic group with the

highest population encountered hostility in their wake of return after the civil war to their

villages in Lofa, Bong and Nimba counties. During this period of the war, it was alleged that

some number of mosque were burnt by the Lorma ethnic group. Some members of the

Lorma, Gio and Mano held the view that the Mandingo’s were responsible for the atrocities

committed during the civil war resulting in the discrimination, arrests and violence on the
21
ticket of ethnicity with Guinea eventually the refuge camp for many ethnic Mandingo in the

means to escape for their lives.

In Guinea Bissau, the ethnic conflict between the Fulas and Mandinkas over a border is

another case of ethnic conflict in the West African Region (Voz, 2015). In the means to end

the destruction of properties and lives in the conflict, an Elder Chief introduced a mechanism

of determining what tamarind tree was predominantly cultivated in that land. The ethnic

group with the highest tamarind tree was determined to be the lawful owner of the land on the

basis of eating habits of the two ethnic groups.

In Cameroon, the Mbessa and Oku ethnic conflict in the early year of 2007 was greatly

battled over land dispute (Elena, 2017). Over 62 lives were lost notably Elderly as they

neither could run nor react with an estimated of over 120 elderly becoming homeless. In the

wake of conflict, it was established that the province governor threatens to forcefully acquire

and relocate the area to any development organization if the factions fail to come to a

compromise. The area of the conflict is mountainous with negligible arable lands as farmers

have to farm on steeply slopes by subsistence farming. Ethnic conflicts are instigated by elites

of Cameroon for personal gains as most politician and senior officials of government have

fashioned it into a business venture (Elena, 2017). This is evident in the fact that Cameroon is

endowed with natural resources that include hydropower, iron ore, timber, bauxite and

petroleum.

In Burkina Faso, the famous conflict between the two opposing ethnic groups (Bissa and

Mossi) is quite notable in Tenkodogo in the eastern part of Burkina Faso. The conflict

between the two factions were largely linked to resources as land ownership and traditional

chiefdom (chieftaincy) (Cissao, 2017). Most notably is the divisive nature of the two faction

22
with respect to their political and social affiliation coupled with the fact of two traditional

chiefs representing each faction in the various communities within Tenkodogo. The eruption

of the conflict was situated in the fact that the Bissa ethnic group been the majority decided to

retrieve lands loaned by their ancestors to the "Strangers" Mossi in the past hence the conflict

that linked to chieftaincy disputes. With a number of lives lost, the justice courts have

become the middle ground for management of this conflict as the Mossi have been

recognized by the law due to their long years of land cultivation in the community. On the

case of chieftaincy, the state has been objective in its argument not to involve in customary

affairs of the community. The state hence encouraged all stakeholders in the community to

contribute as an authority in the settlements of the conflicts by making strong decisions.

2.1.7 Causes of Ethnic Conflicts

Chieftaincy and Leadership

Kaarbo and Ray (2018), hold the assertion that ethnic conflicts do not occur in a vacuum with

indication of three key causes of such conflicts with respect to chieftaincy and leadership.

Their first contention is that "various ethnic groups that engaged in horrendous conflicts, have

a long chain of conflict from their history of intergroup relations"- this they termed the

"hatred factor" (Kaarbo & Ray ,2018). Secondly, ethnic conflicts are expected to erupt when

the ethnic groups believe the state is collapsed or failed due to poor leadership. Due to

uncertainty amongst various ethnic group, there is the tendency or assertion that power

vacuum is inevitable. There is likelihood of fear of discrimination due to insecurity with

respect to power that is expected to be amongst ethnic groups. Further, leadership capability

often tends to be scrutinised as there is fear of partiality on the part of who eventually ascend

to the chieftaincy which leads to security dilema. Taras and Garguly (2015) argue that in such

23
anarchy conditions, various ethnic groups relent to mass resources to protect themselves from

oppression from other ethnic groups.

According to Posen (2003), he argues that two major factors that result in security delima

amongst ethnic groups are the mobilization of ethnic groups to be offensive and defensive

posing as threat to other ethnic groups; the case of ethnic groups living far apart in isolation

poses vulnerability to attacks by other groups leading to insecurity. Defensive mechanisms

are taken by this group to protect themselves which will be misunderstood as offensive by

other ethnic group members. Mearsheimer (2001) is of the opinion that due to the absence of

central authority or government, there is a tendency for great powers to compete for

supremacy in international systems.

Thirdly, discrimination on ascention of a new leader or occupant of chieftaincy result in

ethnic conflicts all over the world (Ray & Kaarbo, 2018). Ethnic groups who believe they

have been deprived their right to rule or lead are motivated to fight and claim their power.

Ethnic groups who believe they have been discriminated with respect to privilege positions

take initiatives to restore their rightful privileges. Initiatives or actions of this nature are

exhibited in clashes between ethnic groups or in demonstrations that results in ethnic violence

which by far has been identified as a major trigger to ethnic conflicts.

Land Ownership and Resource management

According to Awedoba (2019), land and resources disputes are amongst key common sources

of conflict in the northern part of Ghana. Further, Blagojevic (2019) argues that resource

competition between conflicting ethnic groups is a driving force to understanding ethnic

conflicts. The tendency of people to side with a known group to compete over resources is

highly possible where resources are scarce and insufficient to share. The challenge over

24
access to scare resource in difficult economic situations and the uncertainty of future

prospects may lead to people to place their anger and blame on other ethnic groups for their

demise. This ultimately limits other ethnic groups access to the necessary resources for their

survival hence the conflicts. Ethnic groups believe that even distribution of resources and

political participation for their various groups is a basic right to which they focus much for

their survival.

Politics

According to Blagovjevic (2019), politicking on the part of political parties or political party

system is a key cause of ethnic conflict. Blagovjevic further explains that a state system

becomes a weak institution when there are clear indications of uncertainty, where political

parties in states of this nature manipulate emotions of various ethnic groups influencing and

mobilizing for their political agenda. According to Kaufman (1996), he states that belligerent

political leaders strengthen mass hostility; belligerent leaders together threaten other groups,

creating a security dilemma which in turn encourages more hostility and leadership

belligerence. There is deeper polarization amongst various ethnic groups in the society due to

the creation and influence of these actions, hence ethnic conflicts at the least provocation.

2.1.8 Ethnic Conflict and Its Impact on Socio-Economic Development

Ethnic conflict and its associated issues had an impact on the socio-economic development of

the town. Some of the key socio-economic development indicators related to ethnic conflict

include; Health and Demography, Education, Employment, Environment and Quality of Life.

Ethnic Conflict on Health and Demography

According to Sisaye (2019), the most disturbing and worrying direct and immediate effect of

ethnic conflict on health is death subject to measurement either qualitatively or quantitatively.

25
Sisaye further explain on the other hand that the indirect effect of ethnic conflict on mortality

is define as the number of deaths following a war minus the number of deaths that would

have occurred in the same period if the war had not occurred. Levy (2015) posits a different

set of impact of ethnic conflict on health relating to long term effect including physical

disabilities to psychological trauma. Levy indicated that these disabilities can result to long

term health needs which are mostly left unattended to in the aftermath of the ethnic confict

due to poor state of health institutions. Communicable diseases as cholera are usually on the

increase coupled with the psychological stress of ethnic conflict that can lead to post-

traumatic health disorder (PTSD) or depression. Further, the possibility of negative

production health results are likely to occur coupled with a possible rise in number of

stillbirths, low birth-weight and depression in women.

According to Perdesen (2017), emerging ethnic and polictial conflicts have a diverse impact

effect on present populations than the "conflicts" of the past. Recent ethnic conflicts are

usually depicted to be seen as continous violation of cease-fire and neutrality of health

services and relief operations. Perdesen further explains that in time of ethnic conflicts, health

services and workers become strategic targets of political significant importance. In times of

ethnic conflicts, health services and workers are prone to death threats, murder, mass

executions, detention etc in the cases of Parkistan, Croatia and Bosnia and Phillipines

(Physicians for Human Rights, 2015; Summerfield, 2019).

Martin-Baro (2019) posit that instill terror, forced militarization and social polarization of

daily life can result in significant changes in the social lifestyle of civilian population. This

creates a difficulty in measuring and attributing significance with respect to life expectancy

or burenness of illness and resulting mobidity.

26
According to UNICEF (2016), some adolescent girl were raped post the 2014 genocided in

Rwanda. Commercial sex and rape spread across refugee camps with result of unsafe

abortion and the spread of sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDS. Young (2015)

posits that people exposed to conflicts tend to suffer from psychiatric symptoms known as

"war neuroses". Lots of this cases are labelled as clinical syndromes based on symptoms as

psychoses, anxiety or conversion states, somatic regressions etc which require therapy for

treatment such as drug-induced sleep, psychotherapy, shock therapy etc.

Alderman (2016), posits that ethnic conflicts do have an increasing impact on health of

women and children and concludes that the intensity of ethnic conflict worsens child health

during and post conflict. According to Swee (2013), immense research in the area on micro-

level consequences of conflicts indicates that children and young adults are mostly vulnerable

to shocks during and after conflicts.

Ethnic Conflict on Education

"Give me the money that has been spent in conflicts and I will cloth every man, woman and

child in an attire of which kings and queens will be proud. I will build schools in every valley

over the whole earth. I will crown every hillside with a place of worship consecrated to

peace" -(Anderson & Sumner, 2016).

According to Anderson & Sumner's (2016), it is critical to study ethnic conflicts with the

associated benefits that are obtained when ethnic conflict is prevented particularly protracted

ethnic conflict in our society. Harber (2015) argues that ethnic conflict has impacts on

educational systems for every country. He further indicates education as a major institution is

often seen as a target by hostile parties in countries impacted by ethnic conflicts. A total

educational and state failure demoralizes children's self confidence, susceptibility to

criminality, illegal drugs, unsafe sex and prostitution resulting to HIV/AIDS. Further,
27
educational system is gravely impacted due to the displacement of children and families as a

result of ethnic conflict also distrupting schooling and enrolment of children in educational

institutions. Easterly (2019) posits that a number of countries in African region including

Sierra Leone, Chad etc have witness low level of shcool enrolment, poor academic

performance and low retention at all levels of education due to ethnic conflict.

Buckland (2015) explains that ethnic conflicts represents a key impediment of Education for

All (EFA) and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) now Sustainable Development

Goals (SDGs), particularly universal attainment of basic education and gender eqaulity in

both primary and secondary education. UNESCO (2015) elaborates that more than half of the

the world's primary-aged children are out of schoool due to ethnic conflict.

This supports UNESCO (2017) report, stating that over 50% of children particulary girl child

drop out of school in Asia and Africa to support in farm works for their parents and other

business ventures to generate capital for their survival as a result of harsh economic situation

caused by the ethnic conflict. Alhassan & Karim (2017) posits that lots of money and huge

farms were lost as a result of the ethnic conflict, subsequently parents were unable to provide

equal education for all children. Pape (2018) added that an increase incidence of poverty and

child care responsibilities during ethnic conflict periods often impacts existing gender

disparities in educational system.

According to Swee (2019), ethnic conflict can impact on the attendance of children in school,

attainment on their educational level, increase dropout rate as well decrease educational

survival rate as a result of economic challenges, displacement of family, long term closure of

educational institutions and inaccessbility of educational materials from book shops.

UNESCO (2015) posits that conflict affected countries witness increase number of children

of school going age dropping out of school compare to conflict-free countries. UNESCO
28
(2015) further adds that statistics on scholarship indicates that the increase in school drop out

children as a result of ethnic conflict often impact the number of children who gain access to

education attainment in those countries. Subsequently, future life prospects of children are

impacted by ethnic conflict including earnings, labour market access and health outcomes in

adulthood (Justino, 2016).

Ethnic Conflict on Employment

Collier (2020) established economic growth rate as the single most influential variable in

determining the likelihood of a country returning to war within few years of peace settlement

and viewed unemployment as the most likely channel through which could influence the

conflict. He further explain that ethnic conflict was a source of umemployment vice versa

unemployment can be a source of conflict. Lindgren (2015) describes a calculated reduction

in gross domestic product (GDP) associated with conflict however varies considerably

accross locations of conflict and timeframe. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) appreciates with

public expenditure on official military expenditure as an intervention mechanism relative to

non conflict environments. The suggestions are that an adverse effect on gross domestic

product (GDP) and investment will impact grately on formal and informal sector

employment. In such conflict situations, fair unemployment might become an even less

possible option. According to Cramer (2015), Warfare pitches many people into a desperate

search for wage-employment. Accorging to Chingo (2017), a massive expansion of the

informal sector was witness in Maputo (Mozambique) with respect to conflict and non-

confict related activities from urban expansion. According to Keen (2015) & Duffield (2014),

many positive employment opportunities where impacted by conflicts resulting in negative

opportunities as smuggling, arms and drugs trade in markets.

29
The poor are the victims with the hardest hit when ethnic conflict occurs. Key areas of target

are rural infrastructure destruction in conflicted territory, social welfare depletion as goods

and services are diverted to conflict area and security and justice accessibility withdraw into

urban areas and elite enclave. Ethnic conflict is detrimental to development and constant

ethnic conflict causes compound poverty.

Mercier et al. (2016) posits that the first impact of ethnic conflict is depletion in labor and

human capital, then destructution of financial and assets capital and finally dilapidation of

social capital of trust and cooperation upon which strong political and economic systems

depend.

Ethnic Conflict on Environment and Quality of Life

The ethnic conflict in Rwanda between the Hutsu and Tutsi over the years has had immense

impact on the environment and quality of life of the populace. Rwandan Environmental

Management Authority (2019) explains that the demands of high population densities and

increased land shortages have resulted in large-scale conversion of natural habitats

agriculture, mining and human activities. The scarcity of natural resouces coupled with the

poaching of endangered species as mountain gorilla, elephant and buck for trade and

consumption is on the increase. Rwandan Environmental Management Authority (2019)

further explains that key biological geographical locations in the country are stressed as a

result of large numbers of refugees and returnees in the post genocide conflict leading to

demand and competition for and reliance on natural resources for basic survival. This has

resulted in destruction of the environment and for that matter environmental degradation.

30
Niyongabo (2014) argues that forestry has been on the declined since the genocide in 1995

from a forest cover of 607,000 to 221,000 due to deforestation.

2.1.9 Conflict Mediating Methods

According to Gaudens (2014), the processes of conflict resolution are described by three

unique dimensions which includes nature of conflicts, conflict resolution mechanisms and

results of such mechanisms. Further, Reimann, (2017) posits in conflict management that

there are three unique but related approach to conflict management in his analysis of

theoritical perspective of conflict transformation: conflict settlement, conflict resolution and

conflict transformation. He explains that for a good appreciation of these three approaches, it

is important to understand they not be viewed as unique, single and comprehensive theoritical

system. He doubt the capability of isolated systems of this nature can be attainable taken into

consideration the multidisplinary and heterogenous underpinning of all three approaches.

2.2 Review of Empirical Literature

David and Ojo, 2019 examined the specific impacts of land disputes on the development of

communities in Inyimagu district Ikwo local government area of Ebonyi state Nigeria. In

achieving this, three hundred and seventeen (317) questionnaires were retrieved from the

residents of the various villages that make up Inyimagu community in Ikwo local government

area, a community that has been ravaged by communal clashes using a self-structured

questionnaire. Data collected were presented and analyzed using simple descriptive statistics

while the stated hypotheses were tested using regression analysis. Finding showed that village

claim of long-time settlements, long-term enmity amongst families among other factors are

the major reasons for the incessant land disputes in these communities. The study

recommended that understanding the major factors responsible for land disputes in rural

31
communities and the effects of such disputes to the socioeconomic growth and development

is necessary so as to initiate settlement of the affected communities.

In another study, Umar, Doho, and Sule, 2018 investigated the effects of political thuggery on

sustainable development in Kaduna State, utilizing Elite theory and qualitative data analysis.

Data were collected from a population of 112 selected communities and analyzed using

descriptive statistical tools such as percentages and tables. The test of hypothesis was done

using f-statistics at 5% level of significance. The findings revealed that thuggery instilled

fears among candidates which impeded political participation of the electorate.

In a related study, Mbaya, 2018 analyzed the implication of political thuggery on socio-

economic and political Development in Borno State. The study employed both primary and

secondary data and the findings indicated that poverty, high rate of unemployment, high rate

of illiteracy among youth, and families having so many children they cannot carter for by

their income are the root cause of the high rate of thuggery in the state. Similarly, Adeleke,

2016 examined political thuggery and voter turnout in the fourth Republic general elections

in Southwestern Nigeria. Utilizing the Social exchange theory and descriptive statistics the

study revealed that thugs were hired to engage in all forms of electoral malpractices and the

fear of being killed and psychological trauma has given rise to voters' apathy.

In another study Oluwagbohunmi, 2017 investigated curbing political thuggery and violence

among Nigerian youths, using qualitative data the findings revealed that political thuggery

and violence constitute political problems that climax into political instability and endanger

democracy. Similarly, Umar, 2019 investigated the causes and effects of political thuggery in

Nigeria. The study critically examined the reason for the rising spate of political thuggery in

Nigeria especially during political campaigns for elective offices. Employing secondary data,

32
findings revealed that poverty, unemployment, financial attractiveness of elective positions,

and ineffective security agency account for the incidence of political thuggery in Nigeria.

In another study, Ozoigbo, 2019 analyzed insecurity in Nigeria: Genesis, consequences, and

panacea. Using qualitative data, the study revealed that, unemployment, poor leadership,

porous borders, and arms proliferation non-obedient to the rule of law are the causes of

insecurity. Gamel, 2018 conducted the study on the effects of chieftaincy conflicts on local

development, in Bawku East Municipality of Nigeria. The study employed primary data

which was sourced through the use of well-structured questionnaire. Data collected were

analyzed using regression analysis and the findings revealed that conflict negatively affected

the livelihood and socio-economic development dimensions in the society. The finding with

respect to the general effects of the chieftaincy conflict in all aspects of individual and

communal livelihoods have been negatively affected; the conflict has led to the militarization

of the youth, indiscipline, political chaos and insecurity; the violence and insecurity has in

turn retarded the socio-economic development of the Municipality. With regard to the

municipal economy the research found that: production in agriculture, commerce and industry

have been adversely affected; disputes over farmlands, disruption in transportation networks,

and the inability of many farmers to cultivate their farms during periods of violence outbreaks

has negatively affected agricultural production; the general insecurity has made the

Municipality unattractive to business people. Thus, many businesses have relocated to

relatively peaceful parts of the country; the violence discourages heavy investment in all three

economic sectors due to loss of assets. Renneboog, 2022 investigated the effect of religious

belief on economic performance among households in South Africa. The selected households

of 230 constituted the study population. Primary data was used to elicit information from the

respondents and the data were analyzed using simple descriptive and inferential statistics. The

33
result found that religious belief has positive relationship for economic performance. This

study proves that the intensity of religious beliefs and household income indicates a positive

relation hence religious household is more likely to save.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

This study is anchored on the economic theory of conflict propounded by Dube and Vargas,

2013. The school of thought explains the link between economic deprivation and conflict

which exist between communities especially those with common boundaries. They contend

that because many people compete for scarce and limited economic resources as well as other

interests, there is bound to be conflict when a group is threatened with lack or scarcity of

livelihood (Bazzi and Blattman, 2013). They further argued that the perceived threat of

deprivation of farmlands, grazing lands and political power are often the causes of conflict in

agrarian societies. This theory is significant to this study because it suggests that because

many people compete for scarce and limited economic resources as well as other interests,

there is bound to be conflict when a group is threatened with lack or scarcity of livelihood.

This is exactly what is applicable to the Shitile and Ukum communities as their communal

conflicts is based on the perceived threat of deprivation of farmlands, grazing lands and

political power.

34
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter focused on the methodologies of the study. It is presented under the following

sub-headings: Research design, area of the study, the population of the study, sample and

sampling, instrumentation, validation of the instrument, reliability of the instrument,

administration, and method of data analysis.

3.1 Research Design

35
This study used a descriptive research design utilizing quantitative approaches. This research

design is seen to be the most appropriate because the study sought to describe the current

situation in Jalingo metropolis and their economics situation. Surveys are well-known

instruments that can be used to gather a lot of information in a short period of time. Given the

time constraints and the financial resources available, the researchers decided to use the

descriptive research design.

3.2 Population of Study

A population is any group of individuals that has one or more characteristics in common and

that is the interest of the researcher (Best & Kahn, 2006).

Otukpo local government area with its headquarters in Otukpo town is centrally located in

Idoma Land. Otukpo is the oldest and most developed local government area in Idoma land.

Otukpo local government area has four of the 22 Idoma districts; Otukpo, Akpa, Adoka and

Ugboju districts. Otukpo local government area had a population of 266,411 and was

projected to be 359,600 according to 2006 population census.

The local government area is bordered to the north by Apa local government area; to the

south by Obi, Ado and Okpokwu local government areas; to the east by Gwer West and Gwer

East local government areas and to the west by Ohimini local government area and Ankpa

local government area of Kogi State.

Otukpo local government area is known for rice, yam, cassava, guinea corn and maize

production. The local government area also has rich forest reserves hence the presence of

many saw mills in the area.

36
The local government area has large reserves of kaolin with the potential for commercial

exploration in addition to the large deposit of clay soil which has given risen to clay brick

cottage industries in the area.

The people of the Otukpo local government area predominantly speak a dialect of Idoma

language except for the Akpa people (found around Otobi – Allan axis) who speak Akweya

language.

3.3 Sample Size and Sampling Technique

To determine the size for the study, the Taro Yamane formula for sample size determination

was applied and (0.05) percent was chosen as the level of significance or margin of error

allowable. Therefore, the sample size of (400) was chosen for the study. Thus is illustrated

below;

N
n= -----------------
1 + N (e)2
n = Expected Sample Size
N= Total Population
e = Significant Level
1 = Constant
Hence;
266,411
n= -----------------
1 + 266,411 (0.05)2

266,411
n= ------------------------
1 + 266,411 (0.0025)

266,411
n= -----------------
1 + 666.0275

266,411
n= -----------------
667.0275

37
n= 399

In choosing the sample for the study, simple random and proportionate sampling techniques

were applied in this study. The simple random sampling technique was used to select four

communities from Otukpo local government area while the proportionate sampling technique

was used to assign the number of respondents to be drawn from the towns since the towns do

not have equal number of population.

3.4 Sources of Data Collection

The researcher made use of two data sourcing via primary and secondary data sources.

Primary Source of Data Collection

Primary data are obtained through the formulation, structuring and administration of

questionnaire within the sample location. This exercise provided the opportunity for easy

gathering of information.

Secondary Source of Data Collection

These are data collected from review, from available documents. In other words, secondary

data constitute information relating to the study, which have been in existence before. These

includes; Textbooks, Journals, Newspaper, Magazines and Internet.

3.5 Instrument of Data Collection

38
The major instrument for collecting data from the respondents will be a structured

questionnaire. The questionnaire will be structure in a close-ended type of question were the

respondents specifically get to tick their response. The close ended questions is easier to

administer because each item will be followed by an alternative answers and is economical to

use in terms of durations. The instrument rating will be based on a four – point modified

Likert scale of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD).

3.6 Method of Data Analysis

In this study, simple percentages and tables will be used to present the data obtained from the

field. The simple percentages will be used to present the response rate of the questions asked

and to convert information collected from the field into a more statistical construction so as to

produce a concise report.

3.7 Instrument of Data Analysis

The data will be analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25.

Results will be presented in appropriate simple percentages and tables.

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Data Presentation

Out of three hundred and ninety-nine (399) copies of questionnaire distributed, three hundred

and seventy (370) were completed and returned. This analysis of data is based on the returned

copies of questionnaire.

39
Presentation of Personal Characteristics of Respondents

Table 4.1 Distribution of Respondents by Gender

Gender Respondents Percentage (%)

Male 267 72.2%

Female 103 27.8%

Total 370 100%

Source: Field Survey, 2024.

The table above goes to show that out of the 370 respondents, 267 were male while 103 were

female, which constituted 72.2% and 27.8% respectively. This shows that the data was

slightly biased in favour of males, which was coincidental due to the accidental or

convenience method used in distribution of questionnaire.

Table 4.2 Distribution of Respondents by Age

Age Respondents Percentage (%)

15-25 98 26.5%

26-35 107 28.9%

36-45 126 34.1%

46-59 39 10.5%

60 and above 0 0%

Total 370 100%

Source: Field Survey, 2024.

The table above shows the distribution of respondents by age. It indicates that, out of 370

respondents, 26.4% were those between ages of 15-25, 28.9% were those within the ages 26-

35, 34.05% were those within the ages of 36-45, while 10.5% were those within the age of

46-59 and none of the respondents indicate being between age 60 and above. From table 4.2,
40
it infers that the highest number of number of respondents were youths between 26-35 and

36-45years of age.

Tables 4.3: Distribution of Respondents by Marital Status

Marital status No of Respondents Percentage of Respondents

Single 165 44.59 %

Married 138 37.30%

Widow 0 0%

Separated/Divorced 87 23.51%

Total 370 100%

Source: Field Survey, 2024.

The table above shows the distribution of respondents by marital status. It indicates that out

of 370 respondents, 33.78% are single, 37.30% are married, 0% are widow while 23.51% are

separated/divorced. From table 4.3, it infers that the highest number of respondents are those

who are single.

Table 4.4 Distribution of Respondents by Occupation

Occupation Respondents Percentage (%)

Student 85 23%

Civil Servant 80 21.6%

Farmer 110 29.7%

Fishing 95 25.7%

Total 370 100%

41
 Source: Field Survey, 2021.

The table above shows the distribution of respondents by occupation. It indicates that out of

370 respondents 23% are students, 21.6% are civil servants, 29.7% are farmers while 25.7%

are fishermen. From table 4.4, it infers that the highest number of respondents were farmers.

Tables 4.5: Distribution of Respondents by Ethnic Group

Ethnic Group No of Respondents Percentage of Respondents

Idoma 165 44.59 %

Akweya 138 37.30%

Tiv 87 23.51%

Total 370 100%

Source: Field Survey, 2024.

The table above shows the distribution of respondents by marital status. It indicates that out

of 370 respondents, 44.59% are Idoma, 37.30% are Akweya while 23.51% are Tiv. From

table 4.5, it infers that the highest number of respondents are Idoma.

Section B: Ethnic – Conflict and Socio – Economic Development

Table 4.6: Causes of ethnic conflict as perceived by the indigenous people in Otukpo
Local Government Area of Benue State
S/N ITEMS SA A D SD TOTAL

1. Struggle for political positions 129 104 40 97 370

(34.86) (28.11) (10.81) (26.22) (100)

2. Struggle for land 198 80 25 67 370

42
 (53.51) (21.62) (6.76) (18.11) (100)

3. Struggle for Chieftaincy positions 190 102 56 22 370

(51.35) (27.57) (15.14) (5.95) (100)

4. Others-witch craft, greed 129 104 40 97 370

establishment of markets
(34.86) (28.11) (10.81) (26.22) (100)

Source: Field Survey, 2024.

Table 4.6 shows the distribution of respondents on causes of ethnic conflict as perceived by

the indigenous people in Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State. On item 1, out of

370 respondents, (34.86%) strongly agreed that struggle for political positions is a cause of

ethnic conflict among the indigenous people in Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue

State, (28.11%) agreed, (10.81%) disagreed while (26.22%) strongly disagreed. On item 2,

out of 370 respondents, (53.51%) strongly agreed to the struggle for land, (21.62%), (6.76%)

disagreed, while (18.11%) strongly disagreed. On item 3 out of 370 respondents (51.35%)

strongly agreed that Struggle for Chieftaincy positions causes ethnic conflict, (27.58%)

agreed, (15.14%) disagreed while (5.95 %) strongly disagreed. On item 4, out of 370

respondents, (34.86%) strongly agreed to others-witch craft, greed establishment of markets

as causes of conflict as perceived by the indigenous people in Otukpo Local Government

Area of Benue State, (28.11%) agreed, (10.81%) disagreed while (26.22%) strongly

disagreed. From table 4.6 above, it can be seen that the respondents responded greatly to the

number of causes of ethnic conflict as perceived by the indigenous people in Otukpo Local

Government Area of Benue State.

Table 4.7: Impact of the ethnic conflict on socio-economic development in Otukpo Local

Government Area of Benue State

S/N ITEMS SA A D SD TOTAL

5. Loss of properties 156 98 20 96 370

43
 (42.16) (26.49) (5.41) (25.95) (100)
6. Disruption of economic activities 121 178 19 52 370
(44.81) (48.11) (5.14) (14.05) (100)
7. Displacement from farm/loss of farm 100 180 20 70 370
(27.03) (48.65) (5.41) (24.32) (100)
8. Loss of job 20 98 156 96 370
(5.41) (26.49) (42.2) (25.95) (100)
9. Loss of lives 156 98 20 96 370
(42.16) (26.49) (5.41) (25.95) (100)
10. Retardation of community 121 178 19 52 370
development (44.81) (48.11) (5.14) (14.05) (100)
11. Relocation of business associate 100 180 20 70 370
(27.03) (48.65) (5.41) (24.32) (100)
12. Loss of shops and goods 20 98 156 96 370
(5.41) (26.49) (42.2) (25.95) (100)
13. Delay in execution of development 156 98 20 96 370
projects (42.16) (26.49) (5.41) (25.95) (100)
14. Separation of family members 121 178 19 52 370
(44.81) (48.11) (5.14) (14.05) (100)
15. Destruction of government properties 100 180 20 70 370
(27.03) (48.65) (5.41) (24.32) (100)
Source: Field Survey, 2024.

Table 4.7 shows the distribution of respondents on the impact of the ethnic conflict on socio-

economic development in Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State. On item 5, out of

370 respondents, (42.16%) strongly agreed that ethnic conflict led to loss of properties,

(26.49%) agreed, (5.41%) disagreed while (25.95%) strongly disagreed. On item 6, out of

370 respondents, (44.81%) strongly agreed to disruption of economic activities, (48.11%)

agreed, (5.14%) disagreed while (14.05%) strongly disagreed. On item 7, out of 370

respondents (27.03%) strongly agreed to displacement from farm/loss of farm, (48.65%)

agreed, (5.41%) disagreed while (24.32%) strongly disagreed. On item 8, out of 370

respondents, (5.41%) strongly agreed on loss of jobs, (26.49%) agreed, (42.16%) disagreed

while (25.95%) strongly disagreed. On item 9, out of 370 respondents, (42.16%) strongly

agreed to loss of lives, (26.49%) agreed, (5.41%) disagreed while (25.95%) strongly

44
 disagreed. On item 10, out of 370 respondents, (44.81%) strongly agreed to retardation of

community development, (48.11%) agreed, (5.14%) disagreed while (14.05%) strongly

disagreed. On item 11, out of 370 respondents (27.03%) strongly agreed to relocation of

business associate, (48.65%) agreed, (5.41%) disagreed while (24.32%) strongly disagreed.

On item 12, out of 370 respondents, (5.41%) strongly agreed on loss of shops and goods,

(26.49%) agreed, (42.16%) disagreed while (25.95%) strongly disagreed. On item 13, out of

370 respondents, (42.16%) strongly agreed that ethnic conflict led to delay in execution of

development projects, (26.49%) agreed, (5.41%) disagreed while (25.95%) strongly

disagreed. On item 14, out of 370 respondents, (44.81%) strongly agreed to separation of

family members, (48.11%) agreed, (5.14%) disagreed while (14.05%) strongly disagreed. On

item 15, out of 370 respondents (27.03%) strongly agreed to destruction of government

properties, (48.65%) agreed, (5.41%) disagreed while (24.32%) strongly disagreed. From

table 4.7 above, it can be seen that the respondents responded greatly to the impact of the

ethnic conflict on socio-economic development in Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue

State.

Table 4.8: Mediating methods in managing and resolving the conflict in Otukpo
Local Government Area of Benue State as perceived by the indigenous local people

S/N ITEMS SA A D SD TOTAL

16. Local mediation by elders or 123 110 67 90 370

community leaders (third party)
(33.24) (29.73) (18.11) (24.32) (100)

45
17. Tolerance (conflicting parties accept 119 151 28 62 370
each other views)
(40.27) (40.81) (7.57) (16.76) (100)

18. Peaceful negotiation (identifying and 101 168 31 60 370

correcting source of conflicts)
(27.30) (45.41) 8.38 (24.32) (100)

19. Compromise (settling conflict based 123 110 67 90 370

on give and take principles)
(33.24) (29.73) (18.11) (24.32) (100)

20. Use of truce (conflicting parties agree 123 110 67 90 370

to suspend the conflict)
(33.24) (29.73) (18.11) (24.32) (100)

21. Segregation (placing conflicting 119 151 28 62 370

parties far away apart from each
other) (40.27) (40.81) (7.57) (16.76) (100)

22. Confrontation (use of court or police 101 168 31 60 370

to settle conflict)
(27.30) (45.41) 8.38 (24.32) (100)

Source: Field Survey, 2024.

Table 4.8 shows the distribution of respondents on the mediating methods in managing and

resolving the conflict in Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State as perceived by the

indigenous local people. On item 16, out of 370 respondents, (33.24%) strongly agreed to

local mediation by elders or community leaders (third party), (29.73%) agreed, (18.11%)

disagreed while (24.32%) strongly disagreed. On item 17, out of 370 respondents, (40.27%)

strongly agreed to tolerance (conflicting parties accept each other views), (40.81%) agreed,

(7.57%) agreed while (16.76%) strongly disagreed. On item 18, out of 370 respondents

(27.30%) strongly agreed to peaceful negotiation (identifying and correcting source of

conflicts), (27.30%) agreed, (45.41%) disagreed while (8.38%) strongly disagreed. On item

19, out of 370 respondents, (33.24%) strongly agreed to compromise (settling conflict based

on give and take principles), (29.73%) agreed, (18.11%) disagreed while (24.32%) strongly

disagreed. On item 20, out of 370 respondents, (33.24%) strongly agreed to use of truce
46
(conflicting parties agree to suspend the conflict), (29.73%) agreed, (18.11%) disagreed while

(24.32%) strongly disagreed. On item 21, out of 370 respondents, (40.27%) strongly agreed

to segregation (placing conflicting parties far away apart from each other), (40.81%) agreed,

(7.57%) agreed while (16.76%) strongly disagreed. On item 22, out of 370 respondents

(27.30%) strongly agreed to confrontation (use of court or police to settle conflict), (27.30%)

agreed, (45.41%) disagreed while (8.38%) strongly disagreed. From table 4.8 above, it can be

seen that the respondents responded greatly on the mediating methods in managing and

resolving the conflict in Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State as perceived by the

indigenous local people.

4.2 Test of Hypothesis

4.2.1 Hypothesis One

Ho: There is no significant relationship between ethnicity and conflict as percieved by the

indigenous local people in Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State

Hi: There is a significant relationship between ethnicity and conflict as percieved by the

indigenous local people in Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State.

Table 4.9 Result of Hypothesis One Testing

Variable T-stat Significant (p-value) Decision

47
 Ethnicity and Conflict -1.124 0.295 Accept

Decision Rule: At 0.05 level of significance, the result of the hypothesis test as indicated in

the table above reveals that p-value is 0.295 with a T-stat of -1.124. Since the calculated p-

value 0.295 with a T-stat of -1.124 is greater than 0.05, we therefore accept the alternative

hypothesis which states that there is a significant relationship between ethnicity and conflict

as percieved by the indigenous local people in Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue

State.

4.2.2 Hypothesis Two

Ho: There is no significant relationship between ethnic conflict and socio-economic

development of Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State.

Hi: There is a significant relationship between ethnic conflict and socio-economic

development of Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State.

Table 4.10 Result of Hypothesis Two Testing

Variable T-stat Significant (p-value) Decision

Ethnic Conflict and Socio- -1.124 0.295 Accept

Economic Development

Decision Rule: At 0.05 level of significance, the result of the hypothesis test as indicated in

the table above reveals that p-value is 0.295 with a T-stat of -1.124. Since the calculated p-

value 0.295 with a T-stat of -1.124 is greater than 0.05, we therefore accept the alternative

48
hypothesis which states that there is a significant relationship between ethnic conflict and

socio-economic development of Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State.

4.2.3 Hypothesis Three

Ho: There is no significant relationship between mediating methods in managing and

resolving the conflict in Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State as perceived

by the indigenous local people.

Hi: There is a significant relationship between mediating methods in managing and

resolving the conflict in Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State as perceived

by the indigenous local people

Table 4.11 Result of Hypothesis Three Testing

Variable T-stat Significant (p-value) Decision

Mediating Methods in -1.124 0.295 Accept

Managing and Resolving

Conflict

Decision Rule: At 0.05 level of significance, the result of the hypothesis test as indicated in

the table above reveals that p-value is 0.295 with a T-stat of -1.124. Since the calculated p-

value 0.295 with a T-stat of -1.124 is greater than 0.05, we therefore accept the hypothesis

which states that there is a significant relationship between mediating methods in managing

and resolving the conflict in Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State as perceived by

the indigenous local people

4.3 Discussion of Findings

49
The study's examination of the findings that emerged as a consequence of the research is the

focus of this section. The conversation is organised in accordance with the study's three

research goals.

In objective one of the study, the task of the researcher was to examine the causes of ethnic

conflict as percieved by the indigenous local people in Otukpo Local Government Area of

Benue State. Findings from the study revealed that the struggle for political positions,

struggle for land, struggle for Chieftaincy positions and others-witch craft, greed

establishment of markets are the causes of ethnic conflict as perceived by the indigenous

people in Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State. This resonance with the study of

Cordell and Wolff (2019) who argued that inter-ethnic conflicts are mostly caused by feelings

of superiority by one ethnic group (mostly the indigenes) over others. For example, the

underlying interest is either over land ownership, chieftaincy succession, competition over

land usage or location of institutions and services. Ethnicity has been a major source of

violent ethnic conflict despite the existence of peaceful and cooperative ethnic groups in

Africa (Horowitz, 2015).

In objective two of the study, the task of the researcher was to determine the impact of ethnic

conflict on socio-economic development of Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State.

Findings from the study revealed that loss of properties, disruption of economic activities,

displacement from farm/loss of farm, loss of job, loss of lives, retardation of community

development, relocation of business associate, loss of shops and goods, delay in execution of

development projects, separation of family members and the destruction of government

properties are all the impact of the ethnic conflict on socio-economic development in Otukpo

Local Government Area of Benue State.

50
This is in line with the study of Akpenpuum (2019) who found out that communal conflicts

have generally resulted to high mortality rates, and huge damage to citizens’ property.

Similarly, Babangida (2016) submitted that: “communal conflicts have resulted to

incalculable loss of human and material resources as well as grossly affecting the productive

capacity of the nation. Communal conflicts have also resulted to the death of many of the

combatants and civilians through direct military action, famine and starvation. Others have

also lost their lives due to improper medical attention. Some survivors of violent conflicts in

most cases have been permanently deformed as some others suffer other forms of physical

and psychological scares.

In objective three of the study, the task of the researcher was to examine the mediating

methods of government and that perceived by the indigenous local people in managing and

resolving the conflict in Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State. Findings from the

study revealed that local mediation by elders or community leaders (third party), tolerance

(conflicting parties accept each other views), peaceful negotiation (identifying and correcting

source of conflicts), compromise (settling conflict based on give and take principles), use of

truce (conflicting parties agree to suspend the conflict), segregation (placing conflicting

parties far away apart from each other) and confrontation (use of court or police to settle

conflict) are mediating methods of government and that perceived by the indigenous local

people in managing and resolving the conflict in Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue

State.

This findings is in line with United Nations (2016) study stating that governments typically

employ formal mediation approaches in resolving conflicts with indigenous peoples. This

involves the use of legislation, bureaucracy, and negotiations between legally recognized

51
representatives. However, indigenous groups often perceive such top-down methods as

prioritizing state interests over community autonomy (Jull, 2017).

Similiarly, in another study by Anaya (2016), traditional indigenous mediation is largely

informal and community-based. It aims to address underlying issues through consensus-

building, restoration of social harmony, and respect for customary law. Mechanisms include

councils of elders, storytelling, and rituals - perceived as more reconciliatory than litigation.

52
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary

This study invetigate ethnic conflict and socio-economic development Otukpo Local

Government Area of Benue State, the study examined the background of the study, thereby

bringing to the light the nature of the intendent study, the researcher analyzed followed by the

statement of the problem, and the objectives the researcher intended to achieve in the course

of this study which was viewed in different dimensions. The significant of study which

entails the importance of the study and also the definition of terms in order that their

meanings are understood in the context in which they are being used in the study was also

explored by the researcher.

The study dealt with literature review and theoretical framework. The study utilized some

secondary data by reviewing the ideas of various scholars on the subject matter. It looked at

the causes of ethnic conflict, the impacts as well as mediating methods of government and

that perceived by the indigenous local people in managing and resolving the conflict in

Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State. The study also encapsulates the

methodology used in co-ordination of the entire study. This entails the research design which

is the survey research design, area of the study, population of the study, sample size and

sample technique. In order to collect data from the field the study made use of primary

sources of data collection, a self-structured questionnaire. Data collected from the field were

53
presented using frequency distributions tables and simple percentage, while T-test was used

to test the hypothesis formulate in the study.

Also, the study encapsulates the presentation, analysis and interpretation of the results in the

course of carrying out this study. Finally, the study was summarized, conclusion drawn and

possible recommendations made which if adopted would be of tremendous help to the

indigenous local people in managing and resolving ethnic-conflict in Otukpo Local

Government Area of Benue State.

5.2 Conclusion

This study sought to investigate the relationship between ethnic conflicts and socio-economic

development in Otukpo LGA of Benue State. Primary and secondary data were collected

through surveys and documentation review. The findings revealed that recurrent ethnic and

communal clashes have significantly undermined development outcomes in the local

government over the years. Conflicts often erupt due to land disputes, political differences

and disagreements over resource sharing. They disrupt agricultural production, discourage

investments and businesses, strain public service delivery and lead to loss of lives and

properties. This translates to lower productivity, income levels, education standards and

access to basic amenities for residents.

The socio-economic costs of conflict far outweigh any benefits of the issues that spark the

clashes. There is need for multi-stakeholder dialogue and reconciliation processes to address

root causes, as well as confidence building measures to mend ethnic relations. Government

and security agencies must rise up to their responsibility of protecting lives and maintaining

public order. Overall, entrenching peace is fundamental to making sustained progress on the

developmental agenda in Otukpo LGA.

54
In conclusion, this study establishes that ethnic conflicts have significantly undermined socio-

economic progress in the area. Concerted efforts are required to manage diversity, resolve

disputes and foster development through a peaceful coexistence.

5.3 Recommendations

In line with the problems identified, the objectives and the findings of the study, the

following recommendations were made:

i. Strengthen Inter-Ethnic Dialogue and Reconciliation: Encourage and facilitate sustai-

ned dialogue among different ethnic groups in Otukpo to foster understanding, trust,

and peaceful coexistence. Establish platforms for open communication, conflict reso-

lution, and mediation to address grievances and bridge ethnic divides.

ii. Promote Inclusive Governance and Participation: Ensure equal representation and

meaningful participation of all ethnic groups in decision-making processes and local

governance structures. This can be achieved by creating opportunities for diverse

voices to be heard, promoting inclusive policies, and implementing affirmative ac-

tions that address historical marginalization and inequalities.

iii. Strengthen Security and Law Enforcement: Improve security measures to ensure the

safety and protection of all residents in Otukpo. Enhance the capacity of law enforce-

ment agencies to effectively respond to and prevent ethnic conflicts, while ensuring

impartiality and fairness in the enforcement of laws and regulations.

iv. Encourage Cultural Integration and Diversity: Promote cultural integration and appre-

ciation by organizing events and activities that celebrate the diversity and heritage of

different ethnic groups in Otukpo. Encourage inter-cultural exchanges, cultural festi-

vals, and initiatives that foster social cohesion and a sense of shared identity.

55
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59
 APPEENDIX I
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRTION
FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCE,
TARABA STATE UNIVERSITY, JALINGO.

ETHNIC – CONFLICT AND SOCIO – ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT (CASE

STUDY OF OTUKPO LOCAL GOVERNMENT) BENUE STATE

Dear respondent,
I am a final year student of the above-mentioned institution and department carrying
out research on above mentioned topic. The research is conducted in partial fulfilment for the
award of Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.). I therefore solicit for your honest response to the items
in the questionnaire and I would like to assure you that all the information you provide will
be treated with utmost confidentiality and used strictly for academic purpose only.

Thanks for your anticipated cooperation.

Yours Faithfully,

___________________
Esther Sunday Ochekwu
Email: [email protected]
Phone Number: 08120160011

60
 APPENDIX II
QUESTIONNNAIRE
PART A: BIO DATA/DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
Please tick (√) as appropriate on the spaces provided:

1. Gender: (a) Male ( ) (b) Female ( )

2. Age Group: (a) 15-25 ( ) (b) 26-35 ( ) (c) 36-45 ( ) (d) 46 -59 ( ) (e) 60 and
above ( )
3. Marital Status: Single ( ) Married ( ) Divorced ( ) Widowed ( )
4. Occupation: (a) Student ( ) (b) Civil Servant ( ) (c) Farmer ( ) (d) Fishing ( )
Others: ……………………………………………………………………………
5. Ethnic Group: …………………………………………………………………….

PART B: Instruction: Kindly tick (√) the appropriate responses of your choice
Section 1: What are the causes of ethnic conflict as perceived by the indigenous people in
Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State?
S/N ITEM SA A D SD
1. Struggle for political positions
2. Struggle for land
3. Struggle for Chieftaincy positions
4. Others-witch craft, greed establishment of markets
Section 2: What is the impact of the ethnic conflict on socio-economic development in
Otukpo Local Government Area of Benue State?
S/N ITEMS SA A SD D
5. Loss of properties
6. Disruption of economic activities
7. Displacement from farm/loss of farm
8. Loss of job
9. Loss of lives
10. Retardation of community development
11. Relocation of business associate
12. Loss of shops and goods
13. Delay in execution of development projects
14. Separation of family members
15. Destruction of government properties
Section 3: What are the mediating methods in managing and resolving the conflict in Otukpo
Local Government Area of Benue State as perceived by the indigenous local people?
S/ ITEMS S A S D
N A D
61
16. Local mediation by elders or community leaders (third party)
17. Tolerance (conflicting parties accept each other views)
18. Peaceful negotiation (identifying and correcting source of conflicts)
19. Compromise (settling conflict based on give and take principles)
20. Use of truce (conflicting parties agree to suspend the conflict)
21. Segregation (placing conflicting parties far away apart from each
other)
22. Confrontation (use of court or police to settle conflict)

62