Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications

4th Edition
Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala
McGraw-Hill, 2017

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION AND BASIC
CONCEPTS
 Objectives
• Understand the basic concepts of Fluid Mechanics.
• Recognize the various types of fluid flow problems
encountered in practice.
• Model engineering problems and solve them in a
systematic manner.
• Have a working knowledge of accuracy, precision,
and significant digits, and recognize the importance
of dimensional homogeneity in engineering
calculations.

2
 What Is Fluid Mechanics?
Fluid mechanics is the branch of physics that studies fluids and the forces
on them.

Fluid Mechanics

Fluid statics Fluid dynamics

(The study of (The study of the effect

fluid at rest) forces on fluid motion)

Basic ideas in fluid mechanics

 Conservation of mass
 Conservation of linear momentum
 Conservation of angular momentum
 Conservation of energy
 What is a Fluid?
Fluid: A substance that deforms continuously under the influence of a shear stress,
no matter how small.

Exists in liquid or gas phase.

A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming.

In solids:
stress is proportional to strain (ε = L- L0/ L0=L/ L0)

In fluids:
stress is proportional to strain rate (ε(t) = L(t)- L(t0)/ L(t0))

4
 Normal and Shear Stress
Mechanical stress is the average amount of force exerted per unit area.
Stress (σ) = Force/Area

10 kg

10 kg

10 kg

Rope holding A column Glue (at the wall)

up a weight holding up a holding up a
weight weight

Shear stress
Tensile stress Compressive stress
(parallel force applied
(applied directly (applied
against the perpendicular
to an object)
objective ) directions)
Deformation (Shear forces)
The deformation is caused by shearing forces which act
tangentially to a surface.

X X’ Y Y’
F

F U V

Shear stress,  = F/A

where, F is applied force and A is the cross sectional

area of the material with area parallel to the applied
force vector
• Solid
• permanently resist large shear force (provided the elastic limit not
exceeded)
• When subjected to shear force  move short distance
• Set up internal shear force, then stop moving

Initial Force applied Force removed

• Liquid and gas

• Lack the ability to resist deformation

• Deforms continuously under the action of shearing forces, no matter
how small.
• Keep on moving for as long as the force is applied
• If force is removed, fluid won’t be the same as initial state

 

Initial Force applied

Shear stress
• develops when fluid in motion
• i.e. particle move relative to each other
• that they have different velocities


ua
ub
uc

• If velocity of fluid is same at every point, ua

condition of no shear stress ua

(fluid at rest relative to each other) ua

• Fluid at rest – no shear stress

Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

Fluid dynamics is used extensively

in the design of artificial hearts.
Shown here is the Penn State
Electric Total Artificial Heart. 10
11
12
 THE NO-SLIP CONDITION
A fluid flowing over a stationary surface comes to a complete stop at the surface

A fluid flowing over a moving surface takes on the velocity of the surface

Fluid Flow over a stationary surface

Boundary layer: The flow region adjacent to the wall in which the viscous
effects (and thus the velocity gradients) are significant.
13
CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.
Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are regions
(typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous forces are
negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces.

The flow of an originally

uniform fluid stream
over a flat plate, and
the regions of viscous
flow (next to the plate
on both sides) and
inviscid flow (away from
the plate).
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Internal versus External Flow
External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such
as a plate, a wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is completely
bounded by solid surfaces.

• Water flow in a pipe is

internal flow, and
airflow over a ball is
external flow .
• The flow of liquids in a
duct is called open-
channel flow if the duct
is only partially filled
with the liquid and
there is a free surface.
External flow over a tennis ball, and the
turbulent wake region behind.
15
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
Incompressible flow: If the density
of flowing fluid remains nearly
constant throughout (e.g., liquid
flow).
Compressible flow: If the density of
fluid changes during flow (e.g.,
high-speed gas flow)
When analyzing rockets, spacecraft,
and other systems that involve high-
speed gas flows, the flow speed is
often expressed by Mach number

Schlieren image of the spherical shock

wave produced by a bursting ballon
Ma = 1 Sonic flow at the Penn State Gas Dynamics Lab.
Ma < 1 Subsonic flow Several secondary shocks are seen in
Ma > 1 Supersonic flow the air surrounding the ballon.
Ma >> 1 Hypersonic flow
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Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow: The highly
ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth
layers of fluid. The flow of
high-viscosity fluids such as
oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.
Turbulent flow: The highly
disordered fluid motion that
typically occurs at high
velocities and is
characterized by velocity
fluctuations. The flow of low-
viscosity fluids such as air at
high velocities is typically
turbulent.
Transitional flow: A flow that
alternates between being
laminar and turbulent. Laminar, transitional, and turbulent flows
over a flat plate. 17
Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow

Forced flow: A fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by

external means such as a pump or a fan.

Natural flow: Fluid motion is due to natural means such as the

buoyancy effect, which manifests itself as the rise of warmer (and thus
lighter) fluid and the fall of cooler (and thus denser) fluid.

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Steady versus Unsteady Flow
• The term steady implies no change
properties, V, T at a point with time.
• The opposite of steady is unsteady.
• The term uniform implies no change
with location over a specified region.
• Many devices such as turbines,
compressors, boilers, condensers,
and heat exchangers operate for long
periods of time under the same
conditions, and they are classified as
steady-flow devices.

19
One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
• A flow field is best characterized by its
velocity distribution.
• A flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-
dimensional if the flow velocity varies in
one, two, or three dimensions, respectively.
• However, the variation of velocity in certain Flow over a car antenna is
directions can be small relative to the approximately two-dimensional
variation in other directions and can be except near the top and bottom of
ignored. the antenna.

The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. V = V(r, z) and thus the
flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and becomes one-dimensional
downstream when the velocity profile fully develops and remains unchanged in
the flow direction, V = V(r). 20
21
 SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME
• System: A quantity of matter or a region in
space chosen for study.
• Surroundings: The mass or region outside the
system
• Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its surroundings.
• The boundary of a system can be fixed or
movable.
• Systems may be considered to be closed or
open.

• Closed system
(Control mass):
A fixed amount
of mass, and no
mass can cross
its boundary.

22
 • Open system (control volume): A properly selected
region in space.
• It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow
such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
• Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a
control volume.
• Control surface: The boundaries of a control
volume. It can be real or imaginary.

An open system (a
control volume) with one
inlet and one exit. 23
IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• Dimensions: Physical quantities.
• Units: The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called
• Primary or Fundamental Dimensions:
- SI System: Mass, Length, time, Temperature {MLtT}
- BG System: Force, Length, time, Temperature {FLtT}
• Secondary or Derived Dimensions:
- SI System: Force, velocity, work, power,…….
- BG System: Mass, velocity, work, power,……

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Some SI and English Units

Work = Force  Distance The SI unit prefixes are used in all

1 J = 1 N∙m branches of engineering.
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

The definition of the force units.

25
 W weight
m mass
g gravitational
acceleration

A body weighing
150 kgf on earth
will weigh only 25
lbf on the moon.

The relative magnitudes of the force

units newton (N), kilogram-force
(kgf), and pound-force (lbf).

The weight of a unit

mass at sea level. 26
Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.

Unity Conversion Ratios

All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be
formed by combinations of primary units.
Force units, for example, can be expressed as

They can also be expressed more conveniently

as unity conversion ratios as

To be dimensionally
homogeneous, all the
Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and terms in an equation
are unitless, and thus such ratios (or their inverses) must have the same unit.
can be inserted conveniently into any calculation to
properly convert units.
27
 Every unity conversion ratio (as well
as its inverse) is exactly equal to one.
Shown here are a few commonly used
unity conversion ratios.
Always check the units in your
calculations.

28
29
MATHEMATICAL MODELING
OF ENGINEERING PROBLEMS
Experimental vs. Analytical Analysis
An engineering device or process can be studied either experimentally
(testing and taking measurements) or analytically (by analysis or
calculations).
The experimental approach has the advantage that we deal with the
actual physical system, and the desired quantity is determined by
measurement, within the limits of experimental error. However, this
approach is expensive, time-consuming, and often impractical.
The analytical approach (including the numerical approach) has the
advantage that it is fast and inexpensive, but the results obtained are
subject to the accuracy of the assumptions, approximations, and
idealizations made in the analysis.

30
Modeling in Engineering
Why do we need differential equations?
The descriptions of most scientific
problems involve equations that relate
the changes in some key variables to
each other.
In the limiting case of infinitesimal or
differential changes in variables, we
obtain differential equations that provide
precise mathematical formulations for
the physical principles and laws by
representing the rates of change as
derivatives.
Therefore, differential equations are
used to investigate a wide variety of
problems in sciences and engineering.
Do we always need differential
equations? Many problems encountered
in practice can be solved without
resorting to differential equations and Mathematical modeling of
the complications associated with them.
physical problems.
31
 Complex model
(very accurate )
vs.
Simple model
(not-so-accurate)

Simplified models are often used

in fluid mechanics to obtain
approximate solutions to difficult
engineering problems.
Here, the helicopter's rotor is
modeled by a disk, across which is
imposed a sudden change in
pressure. The helicopter's body is
modeled by a simple ellipsoid. This
simplified model yields the
essential features of the overall air
flow field in the vicinity of the
ground.

The right choice is usually the

simplest model that yields
satisfactory results. 32
1–8 ■ PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE
• Step 1: Problem Statement
• Step 2: Schematic
• Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
• Step 4: Physical Laws
• Step 5: Properties
• Step 6: Calculations
• Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion

33
1–10 ■ ACCURACY, PRECISION,
AND SIGNIFICANT DIGITS
Accuracy error (inaccuracy): The value of one
reading minus the true value. In general,
accuracy of a set of measurements refers to the
closeness of the average reading to the true
value. Accuracy is generally associated with
repeatable, fixed errors.
Precision error: The value of one reading minus
the average of readings. In general, precision of
a set of measurements refers to the fineness of
the resolution and the repeatability of the
instrument. Precision is generally associated
with unrepeatable, random errors.
Significant digits: Digits that are relevant and
meaningful.
Illustration of accuracy versus precision. Shooter
A is more precise, but less accurate, while
shooter B is more accurate, but less precise. 34
A result with more significant digits
than that of given data falsely implies
more precision.

35
36
 Summary
• The No-Slip Condition
• A Brief History of Fluid Mechanics
• Classification of Fluid Flows
• Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
• Internal versus External Flow
• Compressible versus Incompressible Flow
• Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
• Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow
• Steady versus Unsteady Flow
• One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
• System and Control Volume
• Importance of Dimensions and Units
• Mathematical Modeling of Engineering Problems
• Problem Solving Technique
• Engineering Software Packages
• Accuracy, Precision and Significant Digits

37