Bioresource Technology 359 (2022) 127465

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Bioresource Technology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/biortech

Mitigation of NH3 and N2O emissions during food waste digestate

composting at C/N ratio 15 using zeolite amendment
Dongyi Li a, M.K. Manu a, Sunita Varjani b, Jonathan W.C. Wong a, c, *
a
Institute of Bioresource and Agriculture, Sino-Forest Applied Research Centre for Pearl River Delta Environment and Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist
University, Hong Kong, China
b
Gujarat Pollution Control Board, Gandhinagar 382010, Gujarat, India
c
School of Technology, Huzhou University, Huzhou 311800, China

H I G H L I G H T S

• Food waste digestate can be used as a resource to produce nutrient-rich compost.

• Addition of bulking agents can be reduced by composting at a low C/N ratio.
• Zeolite was found to be a low-cost effective amendment for digestate composting.
• 10% Zeolite was effective in mitigation of NH3 by 46% and N2O emission by 50%
• Compost maturity with SGI > 50% could be reached in 21 days with zeolite addition.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Composting of food waste digestate (FWD) is challenging as it requires more bulking agents, and the nitrogen loss
Food waste digestate is inevitable. To address these issues, FWD composting was conducted at a relatively lower C/N ratio of 15 with
Zeolite zeolite amendment in the dosage range of 5–15%. The impact of zeolite addition on nitrogen loss, NH3 and N2O
NH3 emission
emissions was assessed during FWD composting. The results showed that the addition of 10–15% zeolite could
N2O emission
Nitrogen conservation
significantly reduce the phytotoxic nature of FWD and the compost maturity level could be reached in 10–21
Compost maturity days. Furthermore, ~45% total nitrogen loss could be reduced by mitigating NH3 and N2O emissions upon 10
and 15% zeolite amendment. The outcome of the present study could be used as an effective strategy for
composting FWD in any part of the world as the FWD characteristics are similar irrespective of the type of food
waste.

1. Introduction 2021a).
The FWD could be used as a potential resource for producing soil
Anaerobic digestion (AD) technology for food waste treatment is amendment due to the presence of nutrients, especially the high nitro­
getting clean energy production, reduced environmental pollution, and gen content. However, the majority of nitrogen is in the form of
scarcity of landfills in most countries (Kaur et al., 2020). In Hong Kong, ammoniacal nitrogen (NH+ 4 -N) which is difficult to manage due to the
AD of ~ 200 TPD of food waste in the ‘Organic Resource Recovery inevitable emission of odorous NH3 emission and greenhouse gas (GHG),
Centre 1 (ORRC1)’ is reducing the burden on landfills along with the N2O emission during storage as well as on the applied land. Hence, the
bioenergy production thereby promoting the circular bio-economy adaptation of digestate regulations is becoming common in many
locally (Manu et al., 2021a). The global research interest in AD tech­ countries wherein the produced digestate must obey the compost/ soil
nology improvement is enormous, nonetheless, the by-product of the AD conditioner standards before its application to agricultural activities
process, i.e., dewatered food waste digestate (FWD) has received very (Logan and Visvanathan, 2019). Furthermore, recent studies have
limited attention causing the environmental and storage issues of the demonstrated that the adaptation of integrated biological waste treat­
large quantity of FWD (Song et al., 2021; Dutta et al., 2021; Manu et al., ment facilities such as AD of food waste followed by composting of FWD

* Corresponding author at: Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China.
E-mail address: [email protected] (J.W.C. Wong).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2022.127465
Received 30 April 2022; Received in revised form 8 June 2022; Accepted 10 June 2022
Available online 11 June 2022
0960-8524/© 2022 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
D. Li et al. Bioresource Technology 359 (2022) 127465

provides more environmental benefits by mitigating environmental 2. Materials and methods

pollution (Pera et al., 2022; Manu et al., 2021a).
Composting of FWD is challenging since it is characterized by ~ 2.1. Feedstock and process
8000 mg/kg dm of NH+ 4 -N and ~ 80% of moisture content. As a result,
aerobic decomposition leads to the production of unwanted NH3 and The feedstock materials required for the present study such as fresh
N2O emissions causing secondary environmental pollution along with a FWD and mature compost were obtained from a food waste treatment
reduction in fertilizer value (Lim et al., 2017; Manu et al., 2021a). The plant in Hong Kong whereas sawdust and zeolite were purchased locally.
available literature on FWD composting is limited and the global pro­ The moisture content and C/N ratio of the collected FWD were 78% and
duction of FWD in huge quantities demands for effective and innovative 8.05, respectively (Table 1). To reduce the moisture content to ~ 55%
strategies to produce nutrient-rich biofertilizer by composting FWD with and to increase the C/N ratio to 15, the FWD was mixed with sawdust
minimum environmental pollution. and mature compost in the ratio of 1:0.6:0.2 (fresh weight basis). The
To improve the physicochemical properties of FWD for an efficient addition of mature compost provides multiple benefits as it can help to
composting process, mixing with sawdust and mature compost to reduce reduce the moisture content of FWD thereby reducing the sawdust
the moisture content and increase the C/N ratio is necessary. However, a quantity, in addition, mature compost acts as a microbial inoculum to
large amount of bulking agent is required to obtain a higher C/N ratio initiate and enhance the biodegradation process during composting.
for composting (25–30) (Latifah et al., 2015; Song et al., 2021). This will Furthermore, the addition of sawdust and mature compost has improved
create an additional economic burden on the AD plant along with the the physical characteristics of FWD by increasing the porosity from 9%
low-quality compost production causing a reduction in fertilizer value. to 40%.
Hence, resource-efficient composting of FWD at a reasonably lower C/N Composting experiment was carried out in 20 L bench-scale com­
ratio (~15) which ensures the optimum physical characteristics of FWD posting systems connected with a feedback control system and contin­
could be a feasible option as several studies have demonstrated the uous temperature monitoring probe. The systems were well insulated to
effective composting of organic waste at a low C/N ratio (Gao et al., avoid heat loss and the continuous air ventilation of 0.25 L/kg/min was
2010; Wu et al., 2017). Composting FWD at a C/N ratio of 15 could provided from the bottom section of the systems (Manu et al., 2021b).
significantly reduce the large quantity of bulking agent addition as well The hyper thermophilic conditions (>65 ◦ C) were avoided by the
as improve the final product value. feedback control system through the secondary pump. Four treatments
The composting of ammonium rich FWD at a C/N ratio of 15 could were used wherein the first treatment ‘R1′ was used as a control con­
lead to nitrogen loss through gaseous NH3 and N2O emissions. Hence, taining 7 kg of FWD, sawdust, and mature compost mixture. In the
adapting the in-situ composting strategy using a physical additive could remaining three treatments R2, R3, and R4, the same composting
provide a beneficial impact on FWD composting along with the miti­ mixture was mixed with 5%, 10%, and 15% zeolite (dry weight),
gation of NH3 and N2O emissions. Previous studies have demonstrated respectively.
the usage of physical additives such as zeolite, biochar, etc. for effective
mitigation of NH3 and N2O emissions during organic waste composting 2.2. Sampling and analyses
(Zhao et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2022).
Zeolite is a natural adsorbent used widely in environmental reme­ The composting mixture from the each treatment was homoge­
diation applications. The unique molecular structure of zeolite charac­ neously mixed on days 0, 3, 7, 10, 14, 28, 35 and 42, before collecting
terized by high cation exchange and water holding capacity has shown the 300 g of representative samples for the analyses. The collected
superior performance in mitigating nitrogen loss during composting of samples were further used to determine the composting parameters (pH,
food waste, sewage sludge, animal manure, and agricultural waste EC, TOC, TKN, NH+ 4 -N) and maturity indicator, seed germination index
(Villasenor et al., 2011; Awasthi et al., 2016; Chan et al., 2016; Lim (SGI) using the standard methods (TMECC, 2003; Wang et al., 2016;
et al., 2017; Waqas et al., 2019). The dosage of physical additive is an Manu et al., 2021b). The gas samples were manually collected from the
important factor as it directly affects the composting process. The outflow ports of the composters and the gaseous emissions such as CO2,
mitigation of N emissions with zeolite amendments involves direct and NH3, and N2O were determined using a portable gas analyzer (KL400-Y5
indirect mechanisms. The direct mechanism includes adsorption and ion and KL400-ST-5, Guangzhou KunLian Technology Co., Ltd). From the
exchange capacity of zeolite with NH+ 4 and NH3 whereas the indirect daily gaseous emission data, the cumulative emissions were calculated
mechanism is by creating a favourable environment for microbial pro­ and the losses were considered for mass balance calculations.
liferation which increases the ammonia assimilation and reduces the
denitrification process. The literature on zeolite assisted composting 2.3. Kinetic analysis
process of different organic waste streams showed that 1–25% of zeolite
addition reduces NH3 and N2O emissions by 15–85% through adsorption The kinetic assessment of carbon mineralization was conducted
and ion exchange mechanisms (Latifah et al., 2015; Chan et al., 2016;
Lim et al., 2017; Soudejani et al., 2019; Waqas et al., 2019). Further­
Table 1
more, the presence of zeolite has been found to be favouring microbial
Physicochemical characteristics of raw materials.
proliferation thereby enhancing the decomposition process (Cui et al.,
2021). Moreover, the final compost with nitrogen adsorbed zeolite could Feedstock Digestate Compost Sawdust Mixture Zeolite

provide additional fertilizer value as a slow nutrient-releasing bio­ Moisture 78.00 ± 30.57 ± 13.29 ± 56.22 ± 3.70 ±
fertilizer to compete in the fertilizer market (Mardini et al., 2016; Sou­ content 0.11 0.05 0.07 0.34 0.04
(%)
dejani et al., 2019).
pH 8.39 ± 7.57 ± 5.44 ± 8.08 ± 5.50 ±
The objectives of the present study are to address the challenges 0.14 0.02 0.01 0.06 0.18
associated with FWD composting at a C/N ratio of 15 to develop a EC (mS/cm) 16.04 ± 10.44 ± 0.72 ± 10.15 ± –
resource-efficient FWD composting strategy. In addition, the effective­ 0.11 0.08 0.03 0.22
ness of zeolite amendment at different dosages (5–10%) as a physical TOM (%) 76.45 ± 69.43 ± 98.54 ± 80.26 ± –
0.07 0.13 0.00 0.58
additive for mitigating nitrogen loss by reducing NH3 and N2O emissions TOC (%) 40.95 ± 37.5 ± 58.95 ± 44.71 ± –
at a C/N ratio of 15 was performed for the first time. 0.59 0.15 0.53 0.32
TKN (%) 5.09 ± 3.59 ± – 3.08 ± –
0.47 0.34 0.04
C/N ratio 8.05 10.46 – 14.50 –

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D. Li et al. Bioresource Technology 359 (2022) 127465

using the first-first order model (Eqn. 1), Chen and Hashimoto model 3. Results and discussion
(Eqn. 2), and Levi-Minzi model (Eqn. 3) as reported in Song et al. (2021)
and Manu et al. (2021b) followed by statistical evaluation using chi- 3.1. Effect of low C/N ratio composting on temperature, pH, and EC
square (χ2), root means square error (RMSE), and model efficiency (EF).
Composting of FWD is an exothermic biological reaction, hence
C = Cr (1 − exp( − kr t) ) + Cs (1 − exp( − ks t))
monitoring the changes in composting temperature not only provides
( ) the extent of organic matter degradation but also the microbial prolif­
(1 − R)K
C = 100 − 100 × R + eration as well as destruction (Manu et al., 2021b). Composting at C/N
μm t − 1 + K
ratio of 15 significantly influenced the microbial activities and the
C = ktm different temperature profiles showed the impact of zeolite amendment
on the biodegradation of FWD (P < 0.05). Mixing of FWD with bulking
[C = CO2 emission (%) at the time ’t’; Cr = rapidly degrading agents increased the porosity and provided a suitable environment for
component (%); Cs = slowly degrading component (%); kr = degrada­ microbial activities which was evident from the temperature rise to the
tion rate of rapidly degrading component (day− 1); ks = degradation rate thermophilic phase (>55 ◦ C) within a day in all treatments (Fig. 1a). In
of slowly degrading component (day− 1); R = refractory coefficient; K = control treatment R1, the temperature started decreasing on day 6
Chen and Hashimoto dimensionless kinetic constant; µm = maximum (~50 ◦ C) followed by the increasing trend after the mixing of com­
specific growth rate of microorganisms (day− 1); k = units of the vari­ posting matrix on day 7. This pattern was observed throughout the
ables (mg/kg day) and m = shape of the curve]. process indicating the demand for regular oxygen supply for microbial
proliferation in the control treatment. In contrast, zeolite amended
2.4. Statistical analysis treatments R2-R4 showed a continuous thermophilic phase (>55 ◦ C)
wherein the temperature was reduced to below 50 ◦ C in treatments R2
The composting parameters were analyzed in triplicate and the dif­ and R3 with 5% and 10% zeolite addition, respectively on day 23.
ferences among the treatments were assessed by the ANOVA test (P < Further, the mixing of composting matrix on day 28 provided additional
0.05) using SPSS 24.0. Furthermore, the impact of zeolite on gaseous oxygen supply, as a result the temperature rose to thermophilic phase
emissions and nitrogen loss was evaluated by constructing structural again before reducing to mesophilic phase after 35 days. Interestingly,
equation models (SEM) using AMOS software. treatment R4 with 15% zeolite amendment showed a superior thermo­
philic phase up to day 40 indicating the addition of 15% zeolite main­
tains a prolonged thermophilic phase as reported in the literature for a
higher dosage of the physical amendments (Jain et al., 2018). The

80
(a)
70
Temperature (oC)

60

50

40 R1 - 0% ZL
R2 - 5% ZL
30 R3 - 10% ZL
R4 - 15% ZL
20
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time (days)
9 12
(b) (c)
10
8
8
EC (mS/cm)

7 6
pH

R1 - 0% ZL
4 R1 - 0% ZL
6 R2 - 5% ZL R2 - 5% ZL
R3 - 10% ZL 2 R3 - 10% ZL
R4 - 15% ZL R4 - 15% ZL
5 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time (days) Time (days)
Fig. 1. Changes in (a) Temperature; (b) pH and (c) EC during low C/N ratio composting of FWD (R1 = 0% zeolite; R2 = 5% zeolite; R3 = 10% zeolite; R4 =
15% zeolite).

3
D. Li et al. Bioresource Technology 359 (2022) 127465

zeolite addition altered the physical properties of the composting matrix degradation, daily CO2 emissions were monitored (Fig. 2b). The CO2
by increasing the porosity thereby enhancing the oxygen supply emission in all treatments was observed from day 1 which is in agree­
required for microbial activities (Margaritis et al., 2018; Waqas et al., ment with the elevated temperature profile and the control treatment R1
2019). produced ~ 47 g/day of CO2 emission (Chan et al., 2016). The addition
Amending 5% and 10% zeolite in treatments R2 and R3 could of 5% zeolite in treatment R2 could not create an immediate impact on
complete the active decomposition of FWD on days 37 and 40, respec­ CO2 emission whereas the addition of 10% zeolite in treatment R3
tively, whereas the treatments R1 without zeolite and R4 with 15% significantly increased CO2 emission to ~ 141 g/day which could be
zeolite required a longer composting duration to reach maturation level. attributed to the enhanced microbial activities by reduced NH+ 4 -N in­
Wu et al. (2017) reported a similar temperature profile during the pig hibition upon zeolite addition. On the other hand, an increase in zeolite
manure composting at a C/N ratio of 15 whereas zeolite amendment in dosage to 15% in treatment R4 slightly reduced CO2 emission to ~ 92 g/
the dosage range 1–15% showed an elongated thermophilic phase dur­ day. As the composting process progressed, the daily CO2 emission in
ing pig manure and food waste composting (Venglovsky et al., 2005; control treatment R1 was found to be lower throughout compared to
Mao et al., 2019; Waqas et al., 2019). Besides, the thermophilic phase in zeolite amended treatments. In treatment R2 with 5% zeolite, the CO2
all treatments ensured the destruction of pathogens as per the United emission was found to be higher after a week of the composting process
States Environment Protection Agency (USEPA) guidelines (Manu et al., which could be attributed to the slower reduction of NH+ 4 -N and emis­
2017; 2019). sion of NH3 gas that reduced the toxic effect on microbial activities. In
The FWD is characterized by alkaline pH (~8) and mixing with contrast, 10% zeolite amended treatment R3 showed higher daily CO2
bulking agents did not alter the initial pH significantly (Fig. 1b). During emission from the beginning compared to other treatments due to the
AD of food waste, the microorganisms had already consumed the easily optimized conditions provided for microbial activities. The treatment
available volatile solids, hence FWD was not expected to undergo sig­ with 15% zeolite (R4) showed lesser daily CO2 emission similar to
nificant changes in pH during composting. Monitoring of pH is impor­ control R1 indicating the possible inhibition of microbial activities by
tant as it is related to NH3 volatilization caused by higher NH+4 -N in FWD the excess addition of zeolite. At the end of the composting process, the
(Wong et al., 2018). The unchanged pH of initial feedstock upon zeolite CO2 emission was ≤ 2 g C/kg VS/day indicating the stability of final
addition in treatments R2-R4 indicates its strong buffering capacity as product as per HKORC standards (HKORC, 2021).
reported in the literature (Lim et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2017). The pH in Cumulative CO2 emission showed a clear trend in the impact of
all treatments was reduced till day 3 due to the bio-oxidative trans­ zeolite on carbon mineralization (Fig. 2c). The cumulative CO2 emission
formation of FWD into acids. The pH reduction was continued in control in control treatment R1 was 511 g whereas the zeolite amended treat­
treatment R1 without zeolite amendment up to day 14 whereas zeolite ments R2, R3 and R4 produced CO2 emissions of 834 g, 878 g, and 586 g,
addition in treatments R2-R4 seized the pH reduction from day 7. This respectively. This indicates that the decomposition of FWD could be
could be attributed to the production of humic substances by enhanced improved by 39% and 42% by adding 5% and 10% zeolite, respectively.
microbial activities in the presence of zeolite which further increased the However, the addition of 15% zeolite could enhance cumulative CO2
buffering capacity (Villasenor et al., 2011; Manu et al., 2021b). The pH emission only by 13% indicating the inhibitory effect of higher zeolite
stabilization was stronger towards the later phase of composting as there dosage.
were no significant changes observed in all treatments and obeyed the The rate of degradation is an important factor in composting as it
HKORC standards (5.5–8.5) (HKORC, 2021). indicates the duration of composting as well as the process efficiency. In
The electrical conductivity (EC) was high in FWD resulting in higher this study, unlike the routine way of calculating degradation rate using
EC values in the feedstock mixture in all treatments. In control treatment total organic matter, cumulative CO2 emission was used to represent the
R1, the EC value was ~ 10 mS/cm at the beginning, the zeolite actual degradation rate to assess the impact of zeolite addition on FWD
amendment in treatments R2-R4 slightly reduced the EC value to composting at a CN ratio of 15 (Manu et al., 2021b). The kinetic models
8.5–9.8 mS/cm. Only a slight reduction in EC was observed in all such as first-first order, Chen and Hashimoto, and Levi-Minzi model
treatments with the time of composting (P < 0.05). This could be caused were used to fit fast and slow degrading components of FWD (Fig. 2d-2
by the formation of the humic substance in the system along with the g).
possible stoichiometric ionic exchange caused by the presence of zeolite The first-first order kinetic model is a combination of two first-order
particles which needs to be further investigated (Zorpas, 2014). models each representing the rapidly and slowly degradable organic
matter. In this study, amending zeolite significantly increased the CO2
3.2. Changes in carbon during FWD composting at a low C/N ratio of 15 emission indicating the enhanced degradation rate. From the first-first
order kinetic model, it was confirmed that the addition of zeolite
Aerobic degradation of FWD is characterized by the conversion of increased the rate of degradation of rapidly degradable organic matter
organic carbon into CO2 by the microbial activities. In this study, all four (kr) from 0.2383 day− 1 in control R1 to 0.4754 day− 1, 0.5543 day− 1 and
treatments showed elevated temperature profiles as shown in Fig. 1a 0.3284 day− 1, in R2-R4 with 5–15% zeolite, respectively. Among the
indicating higher microbial activities, hence, to assess the degree of zeolite amended treatments only R4 with 15% zeolite showed a slight
decomposition, TOC of periodically collected samples and daily CO2 increase in the degradation rate of slowly decomposable organic matter
emissions were determined (Fig. 2). The initial feedstock mixture in the (ks) (0.1189 day− 1) compared to control treatment R1 (0.1025 day− 1)
control treatment R1 had a TOC of 45% whereas the addition of 5%-15% which could be due to the delayed carbon mineralization. The model
zeolite slightly reduced the initial TOC to 41–43% in the treatments R2- efficiency EF was found to be better for zeolite amended treatments as
R4. With the time of composting, a reduction in TOC was observed in all the RMSE and χ2 values were lower than the control treatment (Table 2).
treatments (Fig. 2a), nonetheless, unlike food waste composting, higher The constants from the second model i.e., R and K displayed closer
TOC reduction was not expected in FWD composting owing to partially values for CO2 emission in all the treatments indicating the good fit of
degraded organic matter in FWD (Liu et al., 2020). Besides, the bulking the model. The increment in µm values for the zeolite amended treat­
agent sawdust and mature compost were mostly considered biologically ments indicates the progressive impact of zeolite on microbial prolifer­
stable due to their persistent nature (Song et al., 2021). The decompo­ ation during FWD composting. Among the zeolite amended treatments,
sition of FWD showed a TOC reduction of 5.1% in control treatment R1, R3 with 10% zeolite showed a higher µm value (12.2 day− 1). The sta­
whereas zeolite addition in treatments R2-R4 displayed TOC reduction tistical analyses suggested higher model efficiency and the model was
in the range 6.5–9.3% indicating the progressive impact of zeolite suitable to fit the CO2 emission from all four treatments. Since the CO2
amendment on FWD decomposition. evolution was divided into fast and slow degradation phases, the Levi-
To further assess the conversion of organic matter and rate of Minzi model was fitting well for the fast degradation phase at the

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D. Li et al. Bioresource Technology 359 (2022) 127465

50
(a)
45

40

TOC (%)
35

30
R1 - 0% ZL
R2 - 5% ZL
25 R3 - 10% ZL
R4 - 15% ZL
20
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time (days)
150 1000
(b) R1 - 0% ZL R1 - 0% ZL (c)
R2 - 5% ZL R2 - 5% ZL
120 R3 - 10% ZL 800 R3 - 10% ZL

CO2 emission (g)

R4 - 15% ZL R4 - 15% ZL
CO2 emission

Cumulative
90 600
(g/day)

60 400

30 200

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time (days) Time (days)
100 100
(d) CO2 exp (e) CO2 exp
First-first order First-first order
Cumulative CO2 (%)

Cumulative CO2 (%)

80 Chen and Hashimoto 80 Chen and Hashimoto

Levi-Minzi Levi-Minzi

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time (days) Time (days)
100 100
(f) CO2 exp
First-first order
(g) CO2 exp
First-first order
Cumulative CO2 (%)
Cumulative CO2 (%)

80 Chen and Hashimoto

Levi-Minzi
80 Chen and Hashimoto
Levi-Minzi

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time (days) Time (days)
Fig. 2. Changes in (a) TOC; (b) Daily CO2 emission; (c) Cumulative CO2 emission; and (d)-(g) Kinetic fitting in treatments R1-R4 (R1 = 0% zeolite; R2 = 5% zeolite;
R3 = 10% zeolite; R4 = 15% zeolite).

5
D. Li et al. Bioresource Technology 359 (2022) 127465

Table 2 additional curing is required to further reduce the NH+ 4 -N in compost

Model kinetic parameters determined from three kinetic models. from all treatments. Nonetheless, the seed germination index (SGI) test
R1 ¡ 0% R2 ¡ 5% R3 ¡ 10% R4 ¡ 15% was also conducted to examine the phytotoxic nature of the final
ZL ZL ZL ZL products. Villasenor et al. (2011) reported 30–38% of NH+ 4 -N loss during

Cumulative CO2-Cexp 31.03 47.23 51.78 39.58 sewage sludge composting with 10–40% zeolite amendment.
(%) One of the bottlenecks of composting FWD at a low C/N ratio is the
First-first-order model probability of nitrogen loss through NH3 and N2O emissions. Zeolite has
Cumulative CO2- 30.61 47.23 51.78 39.51 proved to be one of the best available natural adsorbents for reducing
Cpred (%)
Cr (%) 60.87 71.16 73.02 61.98
these gaseous emissions during composting (Soudejani et al., 2019). The
Cs (%) 39.13 28.84 26.98 38.02 alkaline pH of FWD, high NH+ 4 -N, and low C/N ratio of initial substrates
kr (day¡1) 0.2383 0.4754 0.5543 0.3284 favor the NH3 emission. As expected, higher NH3 emissions were
ks (day¡1)
2
0.1025 0.103 0.1053 0.1189 observed at the initial stages of composting in all treatments which are
8.84 4.03 4.42 4.19
χ
in agreement with previous studies (Lim et al., 2017). Daily NH3 emis­
RMSE 2.03 0.699 0.88 0.78
EF 0.96 0.99 0.99 0.98 sion profile (Fig. 3c) showed that the emission was higher in the first
Chen and Hashimoto model week of composting wherein the control treatment R1 showed
Cumulative CO2- 28.74 49.25 53.84 36.51 maximum emission of ~ 6.4 g/kg dm whereas treatment R2 with 5%
Cpred (%) zeolite displayed much higher NH3 emission of 7 g/kg dm. The addition
R 0.43 0.31 0.31 0.36
K 76.2 80.5 83.9 74.4
of 5% zeolite might have improved the better environment for the
µm (day¡1) 7.4 9.5 12.2 8.6 thermophiles in the mixture however it was not sufficient enough to sorb
χ2 0.89 4.19 5.38 6.03 the NH3 emitted. With the increase in zeolite dosage to 10% and 15%,
RMSE 0.82 1.77 1.23 1.41 NH3 emission could be further reduced. The cumulative emission
EF 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98
showed that control treatment R1 had total emission of 25 g/kg dm
Levi-Minzi model
Cumulative CO2- 32.16 60.04 60.84 40.71 whereas R2 with 5% zeolite had 30 g/kg dm (Fig. 3d). In contrast, the
Cpred (%) addition of 10% and 15% zeolite reduced NH3 emission to 22 g/kg dm
k (mg/kg day) 4.85 4.35 9.49 6.68 and 19 g/kg dm. Overall, the addition of 5% zeolite increased the NH3
M 0.51 0.71 0.49 0.48 emission by 16.7% whereas 10% and 15% zeolite mitigated NH3 emis­
χ2 0.71 38.12 21.08 4.91
sion by 12% and 24%, respectively⋅NH3 loss of 35–55% during sewage
RMSE 0.73 5.35 3.97 1.07
EF 0.99 0.96 0.98 0.99 sludge composting has been reported with 10–40% of zeolite amend­
ment (Villasenor et al., 2011) whereas 5% zeolite addition mitigated
41–44% of NH3 emission during food waste and poultry manure (Al-Jabi
beginning of composting as indicated by k values. Due to the high RMSE et al., 2008; Wu et al. 2020).
and χ2 values, this model was not suggested for predicting the CO2 Another important gaseous emission during FWD composting is
emission in zeolite amended treatments. greenhouse gas, N2O emission via two pathways, namely denitrification
and hydroxylamine oxidation (Manu et al., 2021a). In this study, the
3.3. Nitrogen transformation affected by zeolite amendment on FWD N2O emission profile suggested that the majority of N2O emission was
composting observed within 2 weeks of composting wherein the thermophilic phase
was observed (Fig. 3e). It is well reported that the higher temperature in
The FWD is characterized by high nitrogen content mostly in the the composting pile does not favour nitrification (Wong et al., 2018).
form of NH+ 4 -N, hence, the nitrogen loss from FWD composting at C/N Hence, it is speculated that N2O emission in this study could be due to
ratio 15 was expected (Manu et al., 2021b; Song et al., 2021). The the oxidation of an intermediate product, hydroxylamine (NH2OH) ob­
elevated temperature in all treatments caused nitrogen loss and the tained by the oxidation of NH+ 4 -N by ammonia monooxygenase (AMO)
decreasing trend of TKN was seen in the first 2 weeks of composting enzyme (Manu et al., 2021a). The addition of zeolite reduced the N2O
(Fig. 3a). As the composting process progressed, due to the carbon emission which was in correspondence with the dosage. Control treat­
mineralization and the reduction in composting mass, a slight increase ment R1 produced N2O emission of 2.44 g/kg dm, the addition of 5%,
in total nitrogen towards the end of composting was observed. The NH+ 4- 10%, and 15% zeolite mitigated N2O emission by 9%, 19%, and 24%,
N of initial feedstock in control treatment R1 was 4574 mg/kg dm respectively (Fig. 3f).
whereas the addition of 5%, 10%, and 15% zeolite reduced the NH+ 4 -N to
4235 mg/kg dm, 3814 mg/kg dm, and 3382 mg/kg dm, respectively on 3.4. Carbon and nitrogen balance
day 0 due to the effective adsorption capacity of NH+ 4 -N by zeolite
(Fig. 3b) (Latifah et al., 2015; Lim et al., 2017). As the composting The carbon loss in the control treatment R1 was 22.7% whereas 5%
process progressed, zeolite could reduce the ammonia metabolite and 10% zeolite amendment increased the carbon loss percentage to
repression caused by the presence of high NH+ 4 -N (Venglovsky et al., 38.2% and 43.1%, respectively (Fig. 4a). Further increase in zeolite
2005) that resulted in NH3 emission via volatilization or the bio- dosage to 15% reduced the carbon loss to 35.6%. Hence, the results
oxidation of NH+ 4 -N to NO2-N via nitrification. The NH4 -N was contin­
– +
suggested that the addition of 5–15% zeolite increased the carbon loss
uously reduced and the highest reduction was seen in treatment R4 with by 36–48% compared to the control treatment due to the enhanced
15% zeolite which could be attributed to the higher NH+ 4 -N adsorption microbial decomposition thereby achieving a higher degradation rate at
or ion exchange due to the presence of more zeolite particles. The low C/N ratio FWD composting. Villasenor et al. (2011) reported ~ 45%
control treatment R1 without zeolite amendment also showed a signif­ of carbon loss by 25% zeolite addition during sewage sludge
icant decline in NH+ 4 -N because of high NH3 volatilization. The treat­ composting.
ments R2 and R3 with 5% and 10% zeolite showed a similar trend of The nitrogen loss during FWD composting at a low C/N ratio was
NH+ 4 -N reduction. At the end of the composting process, the control inevitable due to the emission of NH3 and N2O gases (Fig. 4b). The ni­
treatment R1 and 15% zeolite amended treatment R4 had NH+ 4 -N of 719 trogen balance showed that the total nitrogen loss was 10.5% in control
mg/kg dm and 646 mg/kg dm, respectively. In R2 and R3 with 5% and treatment R1 majority of which was due to NH3 loss (8.17%). Although
10% zeolite, NH+ 4 -N declined to 1131 mg/kg dm and 905 mg/kg dm, N2O loss was only 0.79%, its higher potential for global warming makes
respectively. As per the HKORC standards, the NH+ 4 -N in final compost it a serious environmental hazard. The other nitrogen loss of 1.54%
should be < 500 mg/kg dm to consider it a mature compost, hence, could be due to N2 and NOx emissions caused by the

6
D. Li et al. Bioresource Technology 359 (2022) 127465

4 5000
R1 - 0% ZL R1 - 0% ZL
(a) R2 - 5% ZL
(b) R2 - 5% ZL
R3 - 10% ZL R3 - 10% ZL
4000

(mg/kg of dry matter)

R4 - 15% ZL R4 - 15% ZL
3

3000

4-N
TKN (%)

NH+
2000

1
1000

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time (days) Time (days)
10 40
(c) R1 - 0% ZL R1 - 0% ZL (d)
35
Cumulative NH3 emission
R2 - 5% ZL R2 - 5% ZL
R3 - 10% ZL R3 - 10% ZL
8
(g/kg of dry matter)
(g/kg of dry matter)

R4 - 15% ZL R4 - 15% ZL
30
NH3 emission

6 25
20
4 15
10
2
5
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time (days) Time (days)
1.0 3.0 R1 - 0% ZL
(e) R1 - 0% ZL
R2 - 5% ZL
(f)
Cumulative N2O emission

R2 - 5% ZL

0.8
R3 - 10% ZL 2.5 R3 - 10% ZL
(g/kg of dry matter)

(g/kg of dry matter)

R4 - 15% ZL R4 - 15% ZL
N2O emission

2.0
0.6
1.5
0.4
1.0
0.2 0.5

0.0 0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time (days) Time (days)
Fig. 3. Changes in (a) TKN; (b) NH+
4 -N; (c) Daily NH3 emission; (d) Cumulative NH3 emission; (e) Daily N2O emission; (f) Cumulative N2O emission (R1 = 0% zeolite;
R2 = 5% zeolite; R3 = 10% zeolite; R4 = 15% zeolite).

7
D. Li et al. Bioresource Technology 359 (2022) 127465

3.5. Compost maturity evaluation

60
(a)
The seed germination index (SGI) is one of the commonly used bio­
50 logical indicator for compost maturity (Wong et al., 2018; Manu et al.,

43.1
2021b). On day 0, SGI was nearly 0 due to the phytotoxicity displayed by
Carbon loss (%)

38.2

35.6
40 high NH+ 4 -N in FWD (Fig. 5). The SGI values continuously increased with
the time of composting due to the reduction in NH+ 4 -N contents and the
formation of humic substances by microbial degradation of FWD. The
30
22.7

HKORC standards (HKORC, 2021) state that compost with an SGI value
of > 50% (dry weight) is considered mature. Based on the SGI results,
20 the addition of 15% zeolite in treatment R4 could reach the maturity
level within 10 days of composting duration whereas 10% zeolite in
10 treatment R3 took 21 days. The control treatment R1 and 5% zeolite
treatment R2 took a longer duration (35 days) to reach the maturity
level indicating the slow decomposition of FWD without enough zeolite
0 dosages. These results suggested that the addition of 10–15% zeolite
R1 R2 R3 R4 could significantly reduce the time taken for compost maturity even
(0% ZL) (5% ZL) (10% ZL) (15% ZL) though the initial FWD feedstock mixture had a relatively lower C/N
ratio of 15. In addition, the presence of nitrogen-rich zeolite in the final
15 compost makes it competitive in the fertilizer market for agricultural
(b) TN applications. In the future, further assessment of humification and
NH3 compost stability should be conducted in the soil to understand the
N2O zeolite impact on compost maturity and stability.
10.5
Nitrogen loss (%)

Others
10
8.17

3.6. Relationship between the composting duration and nitrogen dynamics

7.81

during zeolite assisted FWD composting

6.43

5.89
5.68

The presence of zeolite considerably changed the physicochemical

4.65
4.36

5 and biological properties during the FWD composting process causing

nitrogen transformations and gaseous emissions. To determine the
relationship between the zeolite amendment and the nitrogen dynamics,
1.54

0.93
0.79

0.71
0.53

the experimentally obtained data were subjected to structural equation

0.48
0.9

0.39

modeling (SEM) which was assessed based on the chi-square test (p >
0 0.05), GFI > 0.90 and RMSEA < 0.05 (Zhao et al., 2018; Manu et al.,
R1 R2 R3 R4 2021b). The SEMs were built considering the composting parameters
(0% ZL) (5% ZL) (10% ZL) (15% ZL) such as duration, temperature, total nitrogen, NH+
4 -N, and gaseous NH3
and N2O emissions (Fig. 6). The results showed the positive impact of
Fig. 4. (a) Carbon loss; (b) Nitrogen loss during low C/N ratio FWD composting
(R1 = 0% zeolite; R2 = 5% zeolite; R3 = 10% zeolite; R4 = 15% zeolite).
composting time and temperature on NH3 and N2O emissions in all
treatments. The similar correlation between the parameters in both
control and zeolite amended treatments revealed the similarity of ni­
nitrification–denitrification processes (Manu et al., 2021a). Zeolite as a
trogen dynamics in each treatment. Furthermore, a strong relationship
physical additive displayed a significant impact on reducing the nitro­
between the reduction in NH3 and N2O emission and temperature has
gen loss during FWD composting by the combined mechanisms of
been found in zeolite amended treatments. In addition, temperature and
adsorption, ion-exchange as well as enhanced microbial activities.
composting time were negatively correlated with each other wherein
Zeolite dosages of 5%, 10%, and 15% could reduce the total nitrogen
loss to 7.81%, 5.68%, and 5.89%, respectively. The reduction pattern of
NH3 and N2O losses were in correspondence with total nitrogen loss and 200
zeolite dosage. The higher zeolite dosages of 10% and 15% showed R1 - 0% ZL
similar results wherein the total nitrogen loss was mitigated by ~ 45% R2 - 5% ZL
compared to the control treatment. Overall, the addition of 10% zeolite
could be suggested as the optimum dosage for FWD composting at a low 150 R3 - 10% ZL
R4 - 15% ZL
C/N ratio considering the carbon mineralization and reduced nitrogen
SGI (%)

losses. Similar results were observed during sewage sludge composting

along with wheat straw wherein 10% zeolite was the optimum dosage 100
which resulted in nitrogen loss of 28% (Wang et al., 2017). In another
study by Turan (2008), the addition of 5% and 10% zeolite showed a
total nitrogen loss of 11% and 9%, respectively during poultry litter
composting. Nonetheless, to overcome the limitations of laboratory 50
studies in independent experiments and to determine the impact of
zeolite on nitrogen conservation, mitigation of NH3 and N2O emissions
during FWD composting, pilot or large-scale studies should be con­
0
ducted to obtain the industrial level benefits. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time (days)
Fig. 5. Compost maturity evaluation by seed germination index (SGI) test.

8
D. Li et al. Bioresource Technology 359 (2022) 127465

Fig. 6. SEMs showing the correlation between the composting duration, nitrogen contents and gaseous NH3 and N2O emissions (a) R1; (b) R2; (c) R3 and (d) R4 (R1
= 0% zeolite; R2 = 5% zeolite; R3 = 10% zeolite; R4 = 15% zeolite).

10% zeolite amended treatment R3 showed less correlation compared to Supervision, Project administration, Funding acquisition.
other treatments. Furthermore, TN and NH+ 4 -N were negatively corre­
lated with composting duration and temperature. Overall, composting Declaration of Competing Interest
of FWD at a low C/N ratio showed similar nitrogen dynamics, however,
a strong correlation was observed between the nitrogen and gaseous The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
NH3 and N2O emissions in zeolite amendment treatments. interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
4. Conclusions
Data availability
Zeolite amendment during low C/N ratio food waste digestate
composting was found to be an effective strategy that provided multiple No data was used for the research described in the article.
beneficial aspects such as nitrogen conservation, minimum resource
utilization, reduction in composting duration along with the production Acknowledgment
of high-quality nutrient-rich compost. 10% zeolite addition was deter­
mined as the optimum dosage for food waste digestate composting Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department (HKEPD) and
considering enhanced degradation rate by 57% along with the carbon Oscar Bioenergy Limited, Hong Kong are greatly acknowledged for
loss of 43.1% and reduced nitrogen loss of 5.68%. Furthermore, miti­ providing the raw materials.
gation of NH3 and N2O emissions by ~ 45% showed the climate-friendly
production of biofertilizer within 21 days of composting. References

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